CHAPTER

Interfacing Methods and Circuits

11

The nervous system

The nervous system in the body is a network of neurons and is responsible for the transmission of signals between the various sensors and the brain and from the brain to the
various parts of the body to affect actuation through muscles. The system is made of a
number of components and divided into two main parts. One is the central nervous system,
consisting of the brain and the spinal cord (the retina is also considered part of the central
nervous system). In general, the central nervous system is associated with processing sensory as well as other signals. The second is the peripheral nervous system, made of sensory
neurons and glial cells that interconnect the neurons in rather complex patterns. Some
neurons are clustered in ganglia (the largest ganglion in the body is located in the spinal cord
and is responsible for many motor functions of the body). The neurons are specialized cells
than can take specific functions such as sensing, neurotransmission, or connectivity and
communicate with other neurons or with specific parts in the body. Most signals are communicated between neurons as electrical impulses over axons, elongated structures that
connect between neurons. Neurons connect to cells through membrane junctions called
synapses that allow transmission of electrical or chemical signals. Some signals are broadcast through release of hormones. Bundles of axons are called nerves.
Within the peripheral nervous system the nerves have three major functions. The first is
sensory, conducting sensory signals from various receptors in the body and on the skin to
the central nervous system (most receptors are on the skin, but also in sensing organs
including the ears, nose, tongue, and eyes). The second function is the motor function,
transmitting signals to muscles and organs to affect the motor functions of the body. A third
function is to control autonomous actions of the body such as breathing and the heart, as
well as involuntary reactions such as closing of the eyelids, flight from danger, and the
conservation of body energy when needed.
From a sensing and actuation point of view, the nervous system provides a means of
connecting the sensory and actuation functions in the body with the central nervous system
(the brain) and transfers feedback to control body action and perception of its environment.

11.1

INTRODUCTION

A sensor or an actuator can rarely operate on its own. Exceptions exist, such as bimetal
sensors, which can both sense and directly actuate a switch or a dial. However, in the
majority of cases an electric circuit of some sort is involved. The circuit can be as simple
as adding a power source or a transformer, but more often it involves amplification,
impedance matching, signal conditioning, and other such functions. In other cases,
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