Electrostatics

Electrostatics is the study of electric charges at rest and so it is also called static electricity.
Electric Charge
Electric charge, like mass, is one of the fundamental attributes of the particle of which the matter
is made. Charge is the physical property of certain fundamental particles (like electron, proton)
by virtue of which they interact with the other similar fundamental particles.
To distinguish the nature of interaction charges are divided into two parts (i) positive (ii)
negative. Like charges repel and unlike charges attract. SI unit of charge is coulomb and CGS
unit is esu.
1C = 3 x 109esu.
Magnitude of the smallest known charge is e = 1.6 x 10-19C (charge of one electron or proton).
Note : True test of electrification is repulsion and not attraction as attraction may also take
place between a charged and an uncharged body and also between two oppositely charged
bodies.
Charging of the body
Basically charging can be done by two methods; by
(i) Conduction
(ii) Induction
Ordinarily, matter contains equal number of protons and electrons. A body can be charged by the
transfer of electrons or redistribution of electrons.
The process of charging from an already charged body can happen either by conduction or
induction.Conduction from a charged body, involves transfer of like charges. A positively
charged body can create more bodies, which are positively charged, but the sum of the total
charge on all positively charged bodies will be the same as the earlier sum.
Induction is a process by which a charged body accomplishes the creation of other charged
bodies, without touching them or losing its own charge. An uncharged conductor gets charged by
induction due to redistribution of its own charge.
Properties of Charge
(i) Quantization of charge
Charge exists in discrete packets rather than in continuous amount.
i.e. charge on any body is the integral multiple of the charge on an electron
=> Q = ne, where n = 0, 1, 2, ..

(ii) Conservation of charge

Charge is conserved, i.e. total charge on an isolated system is constant. By isolated system, we
mean here a system through the boundary of which no charge is allowed to escape or enter. This
does not require that the amount of positive and negative charges separately conserved; only
their algebraic sum is conserved.
(iii) Charges on a conductor
Static charges reside on the surface of the conductor.
(iv) Distribution of charges
The concentration of the charges is maximum on a surface with greater curvature.
Exercise : When a piece of polythene is rubbed with wool, a charge of 2 107 C is developed
on polythene. What is the amount of mass, which is transferred to polythene ?
(a) 5.69 1019 kg

(b) 6.25 1019 kg

(c) 9.63 1019 kg

(d) 11.38 1019 kg

Couloms Law

Coulombs Law Force between two point electric charges:

The electrostatic force of interaction (attraction or repulsion) between two point electric charges
is directly proportional to the product of the charges , inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between them and acts along the line joining the two charges.
The force acting between two point charges (q1 and q2) separated by a distance r is given as
F q1q2
F 1 /r2
F q1q2 /r2
F = k q1q2 /r2
The constant k is written as 1/4o where o is the electrical permittivity of free space in which
the two charges are kept.
Also = or = Absolute Permittivity of the medium.
Where o = 8.85 x 10-12 C2N-1m-2 is the permittivity of the free space
and r = relative permittivity of the medium.

For vacuum (free space) r = 1 and

k = 9 x 109 Nm2 C-2.
Coulombs Law is basically the force (F ) exerted by one electric charge on the other
independent of the presence or absence of a dielectric medium containing the charge.
The net force on a charge is the superposition of Coulombs force and the force produced by the
polarized dielectric medium.
The net force is
F = (1/4)q1q2/r2
= (1/4or)q1q2/r2
Relative Permittivity or Dielectric Constant or Specific Inductive Capacity or Dielectric
Coefficient:
The dielectric constant or relative permittivity or specific inductive capacity or dielectric
coefficient is given by the ratio of the absolute permittivity of the medium to the permittivity of
free space.
K = r = /o
The dielectric constant or relative permittivity or specific inductive capacity or dielectric
coefficient can also be defined as the ratio of the electrostatic force between two charges
separated by a certain distance in vacuum to the electrostatic force between the same two charges
separated by the same distance in that medium.
K = r = Fo / Fm
Dielectric constant has no unit.
Similarity with Newtons Law of Gravitational Attraction:

1. Both obey inverse square law.

2. Both follow principle of superposition.
3. The forces are central force, i.e. they act along the line joining the particles.
Dissimilarity with Newtons Law of Gravitational Attraction:

1. The net force on an electric charge is dependent on the medium , whereas the Newtons force
of gravitational attraction is independent of the medium.
2. Coulombic force may be attractive or repulsive but Newtons Gravitational force is always
attractive.
Example 1 : Two particles A and B having charges 8 x 10-6C and 2 x10-6C respectively are held
fixed with a separation of 20 cm. Where should a third charged particle C be placed so that it
does not experience a net electric force ?
Solution : As the net electric force on C should be equal to zero, the force due to A and B must
be opposite in direction. Hence, the particle should be placed on the line AB.
As A and B have charges of opposite signs, C cannot be between A and B Also A has larger
magnitude of charge than B. Hence, C should be placed closer to B than A.
Suppose BC = x and the charge on C is Q

FCA= 1/4o(8 x 10-6)Qi^/(0.2 + x)2 and

FCB= -1/4o(2 x 10-6)Qi^/x2

But Fc = 0
Hence

Which gives x = 0.2 m

Exercise: Two point charges repel each other with a force of 100 N. One of the charges is
increased by 10 % and other is reduced by 10 %. The new force of repulsion at the same distance
would be
(a) 100 N

(b) 121 N

(c) 99 N

(d) none of these

Exercise: The distance between two point charges is increased by 10 %. The force of interaction
(a) increases by 10 %

(b) decreases by 10 %

(c) decreases by 17 %

(d) decreases by 21 %

Exercise: Dimensions of 0 are

(a) M1 L3 T4 A2
(b) M0 L3 T3 A3
(c) M1 L3 T3 A
(d) M1 L3 T A2
Principle of superpostion

This principle tells us that if charge Q is acted upon by several charges q1 , q2 . qn , then the net
force on Q can be found out by calculating separately the forces F1 , F2 Fn , exerted by q1 , q2 ,
. qn respectively on Q and then adding these forces vectorially.
Their resultant F is the total force on q due to the collection of charges.
Thus the net force on a charge Q is the vector sum of forces on Q due to all the remaining
charges.
F = F1 + F2 + F3 + F4 + +Fn
Example 2: It is required to hold equal charges, q in equilibrium at the corners of a square. What
charge when placed at the centre of the square will do this ?
Solution: Let ABCD be a square of side a , and Q be the charge placed at the centre.

r = a2/2 =a/2
FBA= k q2i^/a2
F->BC= -k q2j^/a2
F->BD= k q2/(a2)2[cos45o i^ sin45o j^]
F->BQ= k Qq/(a2)2[cos45o i^ sin45o j^]
Net force on the charge at B is

= Fxi^ + Fy j^
For charge, q to be in equilibrium at B, the net force on it must be zero.
Fxi^=0 & Fy j^ =0

Similarly ,

Electric field

Electric Field:
Electric field is a region of space around a charge or a system of charges within which other
charged particles experience electrostatic forces.
Theoretically, electric field extends upto infinity but practically it is limited to a certain distance.
Mathematically , E = F /q ,
where the test charge is always positive.
The test charge is considered to be vanishingly small because its presence should not alter the
configuration of the charge(s) and thus the electric field which is intended to be measured.
Electric intensity at a distance r from a point charge Q is given as
| E | = k Q / r2

In vector form, electric field at B due to charge q at A

Note:
1. Since q is taken positive, the direction of electric field ( E ) is along the direction of
electrostatic force ( F ).
2. Electrostatic force on a negatively charged particle will be opposite to the direction of electric
field.
3. Electric field is a vector quantity whose magnitude and direction are uniquely determined at
every point in the field.
4. SI unit of electric field is newton / coulomb ( N C-1 ).
Example 3: Find the electric field on the axis of a charged disc.
Solution:

Consider a disc of uniform surface charge density .

Let us calculate the electric field due to a ring of charge situated at a distance r , from the centre
and having a width , dr .
Here we are using the expression for electric field intensity for a charged ring of radius r at a
point on the axis at a distance x from the centre ,
E = kxq /( x2 + r2 )3/2 directed along the axis outwards from the centre.

, directed along the line OP.

Now, the area of the ring, dS = 2r. dr
dq = 2rdr ,
Thus,

Also, as R-> ,
E = ( /2o ) , which is the electric field in front of an infinite plane sheet of charge.
Example 4 : Find the electric field intensity at a point P which is at a distance R (point lying on
the perpendicular drawn to the wire at one of its end) from a semi-infinite uniformly charged
wire. ( Linear charge density = )
Solution :

Field at point P is due to an elemental charge dq ( = dl )

dE = k dq /(R2 + l2)
The component along x-axis
dEx = kdqcos/(R2 + l2)

=> = 45o
Exercise 1: What is the electric field intensity at any point on the axis of a charged rod of length
L and linear charge density ? The point is separated from the nearer end by a .
Electric Potential Energy

Whenever a charge is moved in an electrostatic field, work is done by electrostatic forces. An

electrostatic field is a conservative force field. Therefore, any work done against the field is
stored as potential energy.
U = We, where We is the work done by electrostatic forces.

Consider two charges Q and q separated by a distance r1.

If the charge q is moved along the line joining the charge and the final separation becomes r2 .

Then the work done by the electric force during the process is
We = r1r2kQq/r2

We =
Hence , The change in potential energy
U2 U1 = We

The potential energy of a two-charge system is taken to be zero, when the distance between the
charges is infinity.
i.e. U = 0 if r =
Now, the potential energy of a two charge system when their separation is r, is
U(r) 0 = kQq[1/r 1/]
U(r) = kQq1/r
= (1/4o) Qq/r
For like charges U is +ve & for unlike charges U is ve. In gravitation, potential energy U is
always ve.
The above equation gives the potential energy of a pair of charges.
In case of three charges (say q1, q2 and q3) there are three pairs (q1 , q2), (q2 , q3) and (q3 , q1).
Thus the total potential energy of the system will have three terms.

Electric Lines of force

Electric Lines of force :

The line of force in an electric field is a curve such that the tangent at any point on it gives
the direction of the resultant electric field strength at that point.
These imaginary lines give us a method of representing any electric field on a diagram.

Properties of Electric Lines of Force or Field Lines:

1. The electric lines of force are imaginary lines.
2. A unit positive charge placed in the electric field tends to follow a pathalong the field line if it
is free to do so.
3.The electric lines of force emanate from a positive charge and terminate on a negative charge.
4.The tangent to an electric field line at any point gives the direction of the electric field at that
point.
5. Two electric lines of force can never cross
each other. If they do, then at the point of intersection, there will be two tangents. It means there
are two values of the electric field at that point, which is not possible.
Further, electric field being a vector quantity, there can be only one resultant field at the given
point, represented by one tangent at the given point for the given line of force.
6. Electric lines of force are closer(crowded) where the electric field is stronger and the lines
spread out where the electric field is weaker.
7. Electric lines of force are perpendicular to the surface of a positively or negatively charged
body.
8. Electric lines of force contract lengthwise to represent attraction between two unlike charges.
9. Electric lines of force exert lateral (sideways) pressure to represent repulsion between two like
charges.
10.The number of lines per unit cross sectional area perpendicular to the field lines (i.e. density
of lines of force) is directly proportional to the magnitude of the intensity of electric field in that
region.
11. Electric lines of force do not pass through a conductor. Hence, the interior of the conductor is
free from the influence of the electric field.
12. Electric lines of force can pass through an insulator.
Note: When a conductor has a net charge that is at rest, the charge reside entirely on the
conductors surface and the electric field is zero everywhere within the material of the conductor.
Electric Potential

Electric Potential at a point in the electric field is defined as the work done in moving (without
any acceleration) a unit positive charge from infinity to that point against the electrostatic force
irrespective of the path followed.
Electric potential difference between any two points (B and A) in an electric field is the negative
of work done by electrical force per unit charge in moving a charge from A to B.
VB VA = We/q
= UB UA /q (Since We = U)
In other words
VB VA = ABE.dr
and V = U/q = P.E. per unit charge.
For the electric field due to a point charge Q
VB VA = kQ[1/rB 1/rA]
Potential of a point at infinity is taken to be zero.
i.e. if rB = , VB = 0.
Now the potential of any point A is given as.
VA = kQ/rA
Potential is a scalar quantity.
Thus, the potential at a point due to more than one charge can be found simply by adding the
potentials due each charge separately.
Electric potential due to a positive charge is taken to be positive and that due to a negative charge
is taken to be negative.
Potential due to a uniformly charged disc
(i)Potential due to a uniformly charged disc

The elemental rings area = 2xdx

Potential due to a uniformly charged spherical shell

If the charge on the shell = q

(i) for r > R

E = kq/r2

(ii) for r = R ,
V= kq/R
(iii) for r < R

E = kq/r2 , (R < r < )

E = 0 , (r < R )

=> V = kq/R
Ques: An annular disc of inner radius a and outer radius 2a is uniformly charged with uniform
surface charge density .
Find the potential at a distance a from the centre at a point P lying on the axis.

Exercise : Calculate the potential due to a thin charged rod of length L at the points along and
perpendicular to the length. Charge per unit length on the rod is .

Equipotential surface

A locus of points in space that all have the same potential is called an equipotential surface.
A surface at every point of which the potential due to charge distribution is the same is called
equipotential surface.
Properties of Equipotential Surfaces:

1. No work is done in moving a test charge from one point to another on an equipotential surface.
2. The electric field is always perpendicular to the element dl of the equipotential surface.
3. Equipotential surfaces indicate regions of strong or weak electric fields.
Electric field is defined as the negative potential gradient.
E = dV/dr
Or , dr = dV / E
Since dV is constant on equipotential surface, so
dr 1 / E
If E is strong (large), dr will be small, i.e. the separation of equipotential surfaces will be smaller
(i.e. equipotential surfaces are crowded) and vice versa.
4. Two equipotential surfaces can not intersect.
If two equipotential surfaces intersect, then at the points of intersection, there will be two values
of the electric potential which is not possible. (Refer to properties of electric lines of force)
Note:
Electric potential is a scalar quantity whereas potential gradient is a vector quantity.
The negative sign of potential gradient shows that the rate of change of potential with distance is
always against the electric field intensity.
Example: Find the electric field and potential at the centre of a square of side d = 10 cm. Four
identical charges of q = 2 uC each are kept at the four corners of a square.
Solution: Electric field at the centre is zero from symmetry.

Potential at the centre = 4 kq2/d

After putting the values

Potential at the centre = 106 V

Relation between Electric Field and Potential

The three components of electric field can be found using the following equations.
Ex = -V/x
Ey = -V/y
Ez = -V/z
Here V/x represent partial derivative of V with respect to x, keeping y and z constant.
In one dimensional case, we can simply say E = dV/dx
Note: Electric field E is directed along the direction of decreasing potential (V).
Example: Potential in the x-y plane is given as V = 5(x2 + xy) volts. Find the electric field at the
point (1, 2).
Solution:
Ex = V/x
= (10x + 5y)
= 10+10 = 0
Ey = V/y
= 5x
= 5 V/m
E = (5j^) V/m
Example: The adjoining figure shows the lines of constant potential in a region in which an
electric field is present. The value of potentials are shown. At which of the points A, B and C is
the magnitude of the electric field the greatest?

Solution: E = dV/dr n^
The potential difference between any two connective line
dV = V1 V2
= 10v = constant and hence E will be maximum where the distance between the lines minimum.
i.e. at B where the lines are closest.
Exercise : Electric field in a region is given by E = (2i^ + 3j^-4k^) V/m. Find the potential
difference between points (0, 0, 0) and (1,2,3) in this region .
Electric field & Potential due to dipole
Electric Dipole :

A combination of equal and opposite charges kept close to each other is called an electric Dipole.
It is characterised by dipole moment vector . The following results can be established for a
dipole.
(i) Dipole Moment : Dipole moment is a vector quantity whose magnitude is equal to the
product of the magnitude of charges forming the dipole and their separation.
Dipole moment vector is directed from the negative to the positive charge.
In the diagram the dipole moment
p = |q| (2a)

(ii) Electric field due to the dipole at point P is given by

; where r >> a
The direction of unit vector r^ is same as of r whereas the unit vector ^ is perpendicular to r in
the direction of increasing .
Along the dipole axis, = 0. Thus

Along the perpendicular bisector, thus

(iii) Potential due to a dipole at any point P(r , ) is given by

(iv) When a dipole is kept in an electric field, in general a torque and a force act on it.
But, if the field is uniform the net force becomes zero and the torque is given by
= p x E
(v) Potential energy of dipole in a uniform electric field is given as
U = p . E
Example: Two tiny spheres, each of of mass M , and charges +q and -q respectively , are
connected by a massless rod of length , L . They are placed in a uniform electric field at an angle
with the E ( 0o). Calculate the minimum time in which the dipole axis becomes parallel to
the field line.
Solution:

 = p E sin , (as 0,sin )

= p E (If we assume angular displacement to be anti-clockwise, torque is clockwise)
= ( p E / I) = 2
As torque is proportional to and oppositely directed, the motion will be an angular S.H.M.
Here, p = q.L and moment of inertia ,
I = M (L/2)2 + M (L/2)2
I = ML2/2
As , Time period T = 2( I /p E)
Exercise : A dipole of dipole moment p is kept along an electric field E such that p and E
are in the same direction. Find the work done in rotating the dipole by an angle
Gauss Law

The net electric flux emerging out of a closed surface is equal to the net charge enclosed by it
divided by o

This law is true for any closed surface, but is useful only in case of symmetry, because in other
cases the integral on the left hand side becomes very difficult to evaluate.
Applications of Gausss Law

(A) Electric field due to a uniformly charged spherical shell:

From symmetry the electric field at any point on the Gaussian surface is same and is directed
radially outward. So,

From Gausss law

E(4 r2) = Q/o
If (r > R)

or E (4 r2) = 0 ( if r < R )
=> E = 0
Thus, electric field inside the shell is zero and outside it is similar to that of a point charge. The
same result is true for a charged solid conducting sphere because the charge given to a conductor
resides on its outer surface.
Similarly for a uniformly charged solid dielectric sphere carrying a charge Q and having radius R
it can be shown that

(B) For an infinite line charge using a cylindrical Gaussian surface, it can be shown that

where is the charge per unit length and r is the distance of the point from the line charge
(C) Electric field close to an infinite plane sheet having uniform surface charge density (charge
per unit area) is

which is directed perpendicular to the plane sheet.

Note: that this value is independent of the distance of the point from the sheet. Thus it is a
uniform electric field.
(D) Electric field close to an infinite plane-conducting surface of charge density is given as

Properties of conductor

Due to abundance of free electrons, conductors have following properties.

(i) Any charge given to a conductor resides on its surface.
(ii) As a result of (i) from Gausss law the Electric field at any point inside a conductor is zero.
(iii) Potential gradient will also be zero. Thus the potential inside a conductor and on its surface
has a constant value.
(iv) Electric lines of force are absent inside a conductor as electric field is zero here. Out side the
conductor these lines are normal to the surface of conductor as the charged conducting surface is
equipotential.
Note: These properties are valid only under electrostatic conditions (The charges are stationary).
Application of Gausss Law and Zero electric field inside conductor can be understood with the
following example

qA and qB are the charges given to plates (Let qA > qB).

And suppose you are interested in finding the charge distribution i.e. charges on the four faces.
Let the charges be q1, q2, q3 and q4.
(i) Applying Gausss Law to the Gaussian Surface shown
q2 + q3 = 0 => q2 = q3 = q (let)
Charge appearing on the four surfaces as shown in the figure

(ii) Einside A = Einside B = 0 due to different charges

Charge on face 2

Charge on face 3

Charge on face 4

Thus, the facing surfaces of two plates have equal and opposite charges, while the remaining two
surfaces have equal charges.