Sensation

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Basic concept
Characteristics of sensory systems
The visual system
The process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent

stimulus energies from our environment. (from textbook)

In other words : the process of converting physical stimuli (light, sound, heat,
pressure, etc.) into the language of the brain (action potentials and neurotransmitter

release).
Also known as transduction
Strongly associated with bottom processing : analysis strongly shaped by sensory
receptors

Important thresholds

How to measure sensation : present stimuli sometimes and test it on people, the first
time show it, the second time do not. You can used this on different concepts, like

eyes, nose, etc.

Absolute threshold : the smallest possible amount of a stimulus that can be detected
half (50%) of the time. Human with average vision can see the 20 miles of candle
when it lit. If you put 50%, you can still hear or see it, but if they put it under 50%, it
goes so fast, you dont realize it since it came so quickly, but our brain still reacts to it

when it shows even though its so fast.

Difference threshold : the smallest possible difference between two stimuli that can
be detected half (50%) of the time. Doesnt ask whats the smallest amount, it asks
about the shift in between. For example, when people talking smaller to louder, so in
between the changes, it calls difference threshold.
20dB volume of whisper
25 dB whisper got louder
Human can detect dB between 20 to 25, which is 5 dB
But if its too loud like rock concert
140 dB and 145 dB
It also changes 5 dB but human usually doesnt hear it since its too loud. And the
loud sound can damage part of your ear neurons.

WEBERS LAW

The principle that to be perceived as different two stimuli must differ by a constant
minimum (rather than a constant minimum amount). Human can usually detect 2% or

1/50 of changes.
For example before we put 100 lb it can changes to 102 by 2 (changes) per 100 (how

much the lB it started with)

Another example, putting on earbuds and put it down little by little, and you can still
hear it until the sound is gone. Its because of difference threshold.

Sensory Adaption if the stimulus detect the constant it doesnt change. The neuron that
respond suddenly became boring and they respond less than the first time.
For example : you get into a hot tub. Its too hot, so you ask your friend to turn the water off.
5 minutes later, you are in the hot tub and didnt feel to hot eventhough the temperature is still
the same. Its because the neuron in your brain still responding but less, because it gets tired.
2. Characteristics of sensory systems
Sensory system are selectives
Human see 4, birds 3, dogs 2.
Often highly adaptive they can adjust. Example : eye vision in the theater.
3. Visual System

Basic components of the eye

Iris, Pupil, Lens, Retina
Iris has a donut shape muscle inside which is a pupil. A pupil is where light get
through inside your eyes. Pupil can changes, will shrink if we see something to
bright. Sclera white part of your eyes. Eyes came from the pushing through from
the brain.
Lens Light structure sitting right behind of your iris, that hid the lens and
will focus it on the back of your eyes.
Retina Inside back of your eye ball. Where lights are projected.
Photoreceptors rensponse to light, there are 2 kinds which are cones
(pointy on the end and fewer) and rods (crop on the top). Light comes it
strikes the cell in the back and changes the voltage, it changes the
neurotransmitter in both of the cells, it called Bipolar Cells (cells have 2

arms). Change Ganglion cells, travels to the bundle, and goes to the eyes.
Cones Seeing in details
Color vision
Human has 3 different kinds of cones, which are blue, green, and red.
People are color blind because of this.
Rods they response to neon, yellow, green.
Usefull when it is dim light or the lighting is poor, but they dont care much about
color.
Two theories of Color Vision
Trichromatic Theory
Blue Green, and red sensors.

Combine this three responses gets read by our brain on a particular color. Blue light
hits blue con, has a great responses, if green, kind responses it, red do not response at

all.
After image
Opponent Process Theory
Blue-yellow, red-green, and black-white sensors. Ganglia cells do this.
Optic nerve sending information to the brain
Blind spot
Synesthesia : the perceptual experience of one sense that is evoked by another sense
Sect way of perception
PERCEPTION
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Review
Important Points about Perception
Object Perception
Depth and Distance Perception
Illusions

I. Review
Sensation: The process of converting physical
stimuli into the language of the brain.
Example: converting photons of light into
nerve impulses
Perception: The process of integrating,
organizing, and interpreting sensory
information.
Example: recognizing the pattern of light that
corresponds to the face of a friend

Perception : making
sense what you send.
More mental. Like
meaning,
understanding.

Bottom up versus Top-Down

Observations about visual processing from

Surgeon & Author Dr. Atul Gawande
If visual sensations were primarily received
rather than constructed by the brain, youd
expect that most of the fibers going to the
brains primary visual cortex would come from
the retina.
Instead, scientists have found that only twenty
per cent do; eighty per cent come downward
from regions of the brain governing functions
like memory.

Perception as Inference
The account of perception thats starting to emerge is what
we might call the brains best guess theory of perception:
perception is the brains best guess about what is happening
in the outside world. The mind integrates scattered, weak,
rudimentary signals from a variety of sensory channels,
information from past experiences, and hard-wired processes,
and produces a sensory experience full of brain-provided
color, sound, texture, and meaning. We see a friendly yellow
Labrador bounding behind a picket fence not because that is
the transmission we receive but because this is the perception
our weaver-brain assembles as its best hypothesis of what is
out there from the slivers of information we get. Perception is
inference.
-Atul Gawande in his article The Itch

Bottom Up Processing : Information processing that is strongly shaped by adding up

the inputs of sensory receptors (sensations)
Top Down Processing : Information processing that is strongly shaped by higher level
mental processes (such as expectations or beliefs) perception
2. Important Points about Perception
Perceptual System often misperceive the world
Perceptions are strongly influenced by context from touch
Perceptions are strongly influenced by beliefs and expectations
3. Object Perception
Object tends to pop out when we focused on it
It turns back if we see the objects as a background

Gestalt Laws of
Perceptual Grouping
We perceive as belonging together objects
that..
are close to each other (proximity).
are similar to each other (similarity).
are physically touching each other
(connectedness).
form continuous lines, curves, or patterns
(continuity/good continuation)

Depth Cues
Monocular depth cues only
require one eye
Binocular depth cues require
two eyes

We also tend to perceive objects as more

complete than they really are (closure).
Monocular Depth Cues
Overlap/ Interp
Relative Clarity stuff that is far look less clear
Texture Gradient when things close to class we can see the details

 Relative height In many situation the further up the image, the farther away
the stuff from you.
Relative motion if youre taking a bus, you see houses that you past move
farther away, but the buildings are as if travelling with you
Linear Perspective converge in the distance
Light and shadow colors (dan bayangan)
Binocular Depth Cues
Convergence eyes have to turn in to keep looking at things that youre
seeing.
Retinal/ Binocular Disparity same things looking different at each eyes.
How brain create a depth.
Illusions
States of Consciousness
1. Introduction
2. Circadian Rhythms rhythms that last about a day. Run long in a certain
circumstances. Zaitgebers (free running), artificial light can stretch your clock
longer. Exposure yourself to the sun light. Set your meal, like youre getting
up to get that meal. This clock run long, they hate when it got shortened like

jet lag.
What regulates this rhythms SCN (long name : Suprachiasmatic Nucleus)
(small cluster neuron inside that moves like a clock). How do we know SCN
that is important? If you put it inside the SCN it will blew up, they will wake
up and sleep, so theyll wake up and sleep all day. So if this region of brain

went down, human will not function properly.

Jet lag
Why people hate Monday Grumpy Monday social jet lag. People tends to
be obese if they did this regularly.

3. Sleep
How to measure sleep sleep deprive how quickly you fall asleep,
how tired you are. Its called MSLT. If you fall asleep 5 minutes later,
its called deep sleep. Need 10 hours sleep a day to not fall asleep in

that 20 minutes sleep test.

Sleep debt If your body owes so much sleep, it takes all your
waking hour. 10 hours for young adult, for older people 8 hours a day.
Sleep Myths (or at least half-truths)
We sleep to rest our brain
We sleep to rest our bodies

 Sleep is a unitary state (all sleep is the same)

Sleep is primarily a function of the environment (sleepy/boring
places put you to sleep)
Light, deep, REM sleep
Sleep altered ways of consciousness
Sleep depth and circadian clock
Measuring Sleep

EEG & brain waves

In REM sleep
we cant
sleepwalking,
eventhough
there are some
part that is
paralyze.
There is an
example where
peoples jump
off the window
because of
that. Sleepwalking happened in Stage 3&4 sleep

REM Rebound Effect

eliminate a lot of REM. If you
try to decrease people REM
sleep, people will try to catch up
the REM sleep that theyre lost.

Why do we sleep?

Protection
Restoration myths and half truth
Growth human growth happened at night
Memory Enhancement

DREAMS

Dream Theories
Freudian Dream Theory : dreams allow unconscious symbolic wish
fulfillment
some things can represent sex but its not in your dream, so your
dream is kind of protecting your mind.
This Freud theory has never been proven and lack of evidence
Activation Synthesis Theory : dreams represent the higher brains (celebral;
cortexs) attempt to interpret random signals from the lower brain.
Lower part of brain turn on and kind shower on the higher part of the
brain to make sense of it all.

Undiagnosed sleep disorder

LEARNING
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ii.

Introduction
Classical Conditioning
Ivan Pavlov from Rusia
Collected dogs saliva
Dogs really want to
eat when there is food,
it also really want to
eat when they guy
who usually gave the
dogs food showed up
stimulus
and
responses.
Unconditioned

you dont have to

teach it, its already
there, because the nervous system already take care of it. Its inheritance.
Conditioned you must teach it or it wont be there otherwise. Whats the
conditioned stimulus? Teach the responses is salivates again.
Applications Little Albert, Lupus
Drug immunity suppressing (the rest on the notes)
Limitations : the unconditioned response is usually stronger than the conditioned response
Classical extinction
Bacteria (US) nausea (UR)

Food nausea

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Operant Conditioning
Basic Concepts
Thorndike do studies with cat. Put the cat in the box, and the cat have to get out of
the box to get some food. At first the cat didnt know whats going on. But then after

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time, the cat know how to because it knows the sequences

THE LAW OF EFFECT
Behaviors followed by good consequences are more likely to happen in the future
Behaviors followed by bad consequences are less likely to happen
B.F. Skinner consequences, how consequences affect our voluntary behaviors
There are 2 consequences :
Reinforces (more likely)
*positive reinforcement giving you cash
*negative reinforcement avoid the cash
Punishments (less likely)
*response cost (punish by taking something that you like)
*aversive (introduce something that you didnt like)
Cognition and Learning
Observational Learning