UNIT II

ILLUMINATION
TWO MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
1) Define luminous flux.
It is defined as the total quantity of light energy emitted per second from a luminous body. It is
represented by symbol F and is measured in lumens. The conception of luminous flux helps us to specify the
output and efficiency of a given light source.
2) What is meant by candle power?
It is defined as the number of lumens given out by the source in a unit solid angle in a given direction n. It
is denoted by CP.
CP= lumens

3) Define MHCP. [May/June 2012]

The mean of candle power in all directions in the horizontal plane containing the source of light is termed
as Mean Horizontal Candle Power.
4) Define utilization factor.
It is defined as the ratio of total lumens reaching the working plane to total lumens given out by the lamp.
Utilization factor= Total lumens reaching the working plane
Total lumens given out by the lamp
5) What is meant by luminance?
It is defined as the luminous intensity per unit projected area of either a surface source of light or a reflecting
surface and is denoted by L.
6) What are the laws of illumination? [April/May 0810]
Law of Inverse Squares:
Illumination at appoint is inversely proportional to square of its distance from the point source and
directly proportional to the luminous intensity (CP) of the source of light in that direction.
If a source of light emits light equally in all directions be placed at the centre of a hollow sphere, the light
will fall uniformly on the inner surface of the sphere. If the sphere be replaced by one of the larger radius, the
same total amount of light is spread over a larger area proportional to the square of the radius.
Lamberts cosine law:
The illumination at a point on a surface is proportional to cosine of the angle which ray makes with the
normal to the surface at that point.
7) Define space-height ratio.
It is defined as the ratio of horizontal distance between adjacent lamps and height of their mountings.
Space-height ratio= Horizontal distance between two adjacent lamps
Mounting height of lamps above working plane
8) What is polar curve?
In most lamps or sources of light the luminous intensity is not the same in all directions. If the luminous
intensity, i.e. the candle power is measured in a horizontal plane about a vertical axis and a curve is plotted
between candle power and the angular position, a curve is obtained is called as horizontal polar curve.
The luminous intensity in all the directions can be represented by polar curves. If the luminous intensity in a
vertical plane is plotted against the angular position, a curve known as vertical polar Curve is obtained.

9) Name the various photometer heads.

1. Bunsen Head (or) Grease spot photometer
2. Lummer-Brodhun photometer head
There are two types of Lummer Brodhun heads
a) Equality of Brightness type photometer head
b) Contrast type photometer head
10) What are all the sources of light?
According to principle of operation the light sources may be grouped as follows.
1. Arc lamps
2. High temperature lamps
3. Gaseous discharge lamps
4. Fluorescent type lamps
11) What is stroboscopic effect of fluorescent tubes?
With a.c. supply frequency of 50 cycles per second, discharge through the lamp becomes zero, 100 times
in a second. Due to the persistence of vision, our eyes do not notice this. If this light falls on moving parts, they
may appear to be either running slow or in the reverse direction or even may appear stationary. This effect is
called stroboscopic effect.
12) Define beam factor.
The ratio of lumens in the beam of a projector to the lumens given out by lamps is called the beam factor. This
factor takes into account the absorption of light by reflector and front glass of the projector lamp. Its values vary
from 0.3 to 0.6.
13) Mention the types of lighting schemes.[May/June 2007,13]
The distribution of the light emitted by lamps is usually controlled to some extent by means of reflectors and
translucent diffusing screens or even lenses. The interior lighting schemes may be classified as
1. Direct lighting
2. Semi-direct lighting
3. Indirect lighting
4. Semi-indirect lighting
5. General lighting
14) What are the drawbacks of discharge lamps?
Drawbacks of discharge lamps:
1. Take time to attain full brightness.
2. High initial cost and poor power factor.
3. Starting requires trigger-starter.
4. Light output fluctuates at twice the supply frequency.
5. The flicker causes stroboscopic effect.
6. These lamps can be used only in particular position.
15) What are the requirements of good lighting system? [May/June 2012]
The following factors are required to be considered while designing the lighting scheme.
1. Illumination level
7. Spacing of luminaries
2. Uniformity of illumination
8. Colour of surrounding walls.
3. Colour of light
4. Shadows
5. Glare
6. Mounting height

16) Specify any four energy efficient lamps[Nov/Dec 13]

1. Light emitting diode lamp
2. Light emitting electrochemical cell
3. Electromagnetic induction bulbs
4. Fluorescent lamps
17) Why tungsten is selected as the filament material? [Nov/Dec 13]
The efficiency, when worked at

in an evacuated bulb is 18 lumens per watt. Tungsten metal is

most widely used for the purpose.

18) Define luminous efficacy. [Nov/dec 12]
The amount of lumens output radiated from a lamp for per watts of power consumption also taking care
of losses in ballast/control gears is termed as luminous efficacy
19) What is the importance of street lighting system? [Nov/Dec 12]
a. To make the traffic and obstruction on the road clearly visible in order to promote safety and
convenience.
b. To enhance the community value of the street.
c. To make the street more attractive.
20) Define the term MSCP and lamp efficiency [May/June 12]
MSCP The mean of candle power in all direction and in all planes from the source of light is termed as
mean spherical candle power
Lamp efficiency: It is defined as the ratio of the luminous flux to the power input.
21) What are the requirements of good lightning? [May/June 12]
The requirements of lightning are
1. Sufficiency
2. Distribution
3. Absence of glare
4. Absence of sharp shadows
5. Steadiness
6. Colour of light
7. Surrounding,
8. Angle of light

PART B (16 MARKS)

1. Briefly explain about the importance and Properties of good lighting scheme.
Importance of lighting:
Humans depend on Light for all activities. Light is a natural phenomenon, very vital for existence,
which is taken for granted. In fact, Life involves day night cycles beginning with sunrise and ending with sunset.
Pre-historic man had activities limited only to day time. Artificial light enables extended activity period
employing in a planned optimized manner, minimizing the resources.
Vision is the most important sense accounting for 80% information acquisition for humans.
Information may be acquired through sun/moon light (direct/ reflected) or by using artificial light (closest to
natural light). Before we go any further, it is worth looking at Teichmullers definition for lighting. We say the
lighting is good, when our eyes can clearly and pleasantly perceive the things around us. Therefore Artificial
light should be Functional and pleasant both physiologically and psychologically. This is often achieved
employing multiple sources. It must be borne in mind that the sources should be economic and energy efficient.
As all of us are aware, all sources today employ electrical energy.

Electrical energy is supplied as a.c. (alternating current) or d.c. (direct current). Usually electric
power supply is a.c. in nature, either single phase or three phases. It must be borne that close circuit is a must for
current flow. As it is well known losses exist in all electrical circuits or lines.
Properties of good lighting scheme:
1. Incandence:
Thermo luminence is by definition radiation at high temperature. The sources employing this process
are Incandent Lamp, Gas Lamp, (flames and in oil Lamps and wax candles). They lead to a continuous spectrum
of radiation.

2. Luminance:
Luminance Electro luminance by definition Chemical or Electrical Action on gases or vapour
radiation. Here color of radiation depends on the material employed. Usually this process leads to Line or Band
Spectrum.
3. Fluorence:
Fluorence is a process in which radiation is absorbed at one wavelength and radiated at another
wavelength eg: UV impinging on Uranium Fluorent oils. This re radiation makes the light radiated visible.
4. Phosphorence:
Phosphorence is a process when energy is absorbed at some time and radiated later as glow. Examples
of this process are luminous paints that contain calcium sulfide that lead to Phosphorence. They produce light
Radiation after exposure to light.In practice good efficient lighting is obtained by combining Luminance and
Fluorence. Fluorent lamp is Luminent source of low luminous value activating Fluorent surfaces which lead to
visible radiation. Here intensity depends on gas or vapor involved and phosphor material. However, the
temperatures o f t h e m a t e r i a l p l a y a role in radiation.
2. State and prove laws of illumination
Laws of illumination
There are two laws of illumination
1. Law of inverse squares
2. Lamberts cosine law
Law of inverse squares:
Illumination at a point is inversely proportional to square of its distance from the point source and directly
proportional to the luminous intensity (CP) of the source of light in that direction.
If a source of light which emits light equally in all directions be placed at the centre of a hollow sphere, the light
will fall uniformly on the inner surface of the sphere. If the sphere be replaced by one of the larger radius, the
same total amount of light is spread over a larger area proportional to the square of the radius.
Let w be the solid angle considered.

Total light flux in

Area of surface at radius
Area of surface at radius
Illumination at surface of radius
Illumination at surface of radius

Hence from the equation (3), the illumination of surface is inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between the surface and the light source provided that the distance between the surface and the source is
sufficiently large so that the source can be regarded as a point source.
Lamberts Cosine Law:
Law: The illumination at a point on a surface is proportional to cosine of the angle which ray makes with the
normal to the surface at that point.
The figure very often the illuminated surface is not normal to the direction of light as AC in figure, but is inclined
as AB. The area over which the light is spread is then increased in the ratio.

And the illumination decreases in the ratio

The expression for the illumination then becomes,

According to this law, the illumination at any point on a surface is proportional to the cosine of the angle between
the normal at that point and the direction of luminous flux.
Cosine Cube Law:
As per Lamberts law,

Let P be the point source at height h from the plane containing the surface CD. Let D be the centre point of the
surface CD which subtends solid angle w at the source of light.

From the figure

Equation (v) is very useful in solving problems for finding out illumination in street lighting due to various lamps
hung at same height above ground.

3. Explain the various factors to be considered, while designing a lighting system (Nov/Dec 2012, 13)
(May/June 2013)
Factors Affecting the Design of Lighting System:
The following factors are required to be considered while designing the lighting scheme.
1. Illumination level
2. Uniformly of illumination
3. Colour of light
4. Shadows
5. Glare
6. Mounting height
7. Spacing of luminaries
8. Colour of surrounding walls
1. Illumination level
For each type of work there is a range of brightness most favourable to output i.e., which causes minimum
fatigue and gives maximum output in terms of quality and quantity. Degree of illumination, to give
necessary brightness to the objects depend upon
i. The size of the object to be seen and its distance from the observer.
ii. Contrast between the object and background.
The moving objects require more illumination than those for stationary objects.
The illumination level required in various parts of a building is given in the table as per ISI.
Table of Building Illumination Level:
Location
Illumination Level (Lux)
Entrance

100

Living room

300

Dining room

150

Bed room

300

Dressing table

200

Recreation room

100

Kitchen

200

Laundry

200

Bathroom

100

Study room

300

Stairs

100

The illumination level required as per ISI, for various of traffic routes is given in the table.

Traffic Route Illumination Level

Classification
Type of Road

Average illumination
level (Lux)
30

Group

Important traffic routes carrying fast traffic

Group

Other main roads arrying mixed traffic like main 15

city street, arterial roads, through ways, etc.
Secondary roads with considerable traffic like 8
principal local traffic routes, shopping streets, etc.
Secondary roads with light traffic
4

Group
Group

2. Uniformity of illumination
The human eye adjusts itself automatically to the brightness within the field of vision. If there is a lack of
uniformity, pupil or iris of the eye has to adjust more frequently and thus fatigue is caused to the eye. Therefore
uniformity of illumination is necessary.
3. Colour of light
The appearance of the body colour entirely depends upon the colour of the incident light. The composition
of the light should be such that the colour appears natural i.e., the appearance by artificial light is not
appreciably different form that by day light. Now a days day light fluorescent tubes make it possible to
illuminate economically even large spaces with artificial day light giving good colour rendering and at
sufficiently high level.
4. Shadows
In lighting installations, formation of long and hard shadows causes fatigue of eyes. Hard and long shadows
can be avoided by using large number of small luminaries mounted at height not less than 2.5m and by using
wide surface sources of light using globes over filament lamps or by using indirect lighting system.
5. Glare:
i. Direct glare may come directly from the light source.
ii. Reflected glare is glare which comes to the eyes as glint or reflection of the light source in some polished
surface.
Toleration of bright light sources in the intermediate vicinity is made possible by locating them at such a
height as to place them above the ordinary range of vision. Metal reflectors for industrial lighting are
ordinarily provided with a skirt around the rim of the reflector.
6. Mounting height:
The mounting height will largely be governed by the type of the building and type of lighting scheme
employed. In case of direct lighting, in rooms of large floor area, the luminaries should be mounted as close
to the ceiling as possible. In the case of indirect and semi-indirect lighting, it would of course be desirable to

suspend the luminaries for enough down from the ceiling in order to give reasonably uniform illumination
on the ceiling.
7. Spacing of luminaries:
Correct spacing is of great importance to provide uniform illumination over the whole area and thus do away
with comparatively dark areas which are so often found when the luminaries are badly spaced.
8. Colour of surrounding walls:
The illumination in the room depends upon the light reflected from the walls and ceilings. While walls and
ceiling reflect more light as compared to colored ones.

4. With neat diagram explain the construction and working of sodium lamp. [May/June 12]
Sodium vapor discharge lamp consists of a bulb containing a small amount of metallic sodium, neon gas
and two sets of electrodes connected to a pin type base. The presence of neon gas is to start the discharge and to
develop enough heat to vaporize the sodium. The u shape arrangement is used for discharge.

The sodium vapor lamp is suitable only for AC supply and therefore requires choke control. This
requirement is met by operating the lamp from a stray field, step up, tapped auto transformer with an open
circuit secondary voltage of 470 to 480 volts. The uncorrected power factor is 0.3, capacitor improve the power
factor to about 0.8.
When the lamp is not in operation, the sodium is in the form of solid deposited on the side walls of the tube,
hence at first when it is connected across the supply mains the discharge takes place in the neon gas and gives red
orange glow.
The metallic sodium gradually vaporizes and then ionizes producing yellow light to make the objects appears
as grey for rated light within 15 minutes with efficiency of 40 50 lumens/watt.
5. Discuss the energy saving opportunities in lighting systems. (Nov/Dec 2013)
Types of lighting
The type of lighting system is as follows:
Direct lighting
Semi direct
Indirect
Semi indirect
Direct lighting
In the direct lighting system the luminaries direct the 90 to 100% of the light output of the lamp towards
downward. The distribution may differ from low to high concentration, depending on the reflector material,

finish and contour. The lamp surface is visible. Reflected glare and shadow may occur with direct lighting. Also
the illumination is not uniform.
Semi direct lighting
In semi direct lighting the luminaries direct the light output of the lamp predominantly (60 to 100%)
downward, but with a small upward component illuminate the ceiling and upper walls. The l amp will be used
along with louvers. Louvers distribute light. The characteristics are essentially similar to the direct lighting
except that the upward component will tend to soften shadows and room brightness. Utilization of lamp output
can be equal to that of well shielded direct lighting system.

Indirect lighting
In indirect lighting system, all the light output from the lamp is directed upward to the ceiling and upper
side of the walls and reflected back to the working plane (Area). The entire ceiling becomes the primary source
of illumination. The indirect lighting is uniform and glare free. This type of lighting is highly expensive and has
zero eyestrain. Tis is the ideal lighting system for computer center and software industry, where eyestrain is
more.
Semi indirect lighting system
In semi indirect lighting the luminaries direct the light output of the l amp partially (10 to 30%)
downward, but with a major portion of light output (70 to 90%) upward component illuminate the ceiling and
upper walls. The characteristics are essentially similar to the indirect lighting except that the downward
component will tend to brighten the spot and room brightness. Utilization of lamp output can be better than the
indirect lighting system.
Design of Lighting System:
The lighting system should be such that it may.
i. Provide adequate illumination
ii. Provide light of suitable colour
iii. Provide light distribution all over the working plane as uniform as possible.
iv. Avoid glare and hard shadows as far as possible.
The following steps are involved in design of lighting system:
Calculate area to be illuminated

Decide the level of illumination

Total illumination = Area Illumination level
Select utilization factor and depreciation factor
Divide total illumination by utilization factor and depreciation factor
If depreciation factor is greater that 1, then to find gross Lumen, it is
multiplied with total lumen instead of division.
Select lamp and luminaries
Calculate number of lamps
Decide arrangements of lamps for uniform distribution considering space
to height ratio.
A model calculation for the design of lighting system for a small residential
room of size 3m 5m is given here:
Room area
=3
Required Lux level
= 400 Lux
Utilization factor
= 0.6
Depreciation factor
= 1.2
40W fluorescent lamp
= 2400 Lumens
Lumens required
= 15
Actual required lumens

Number of fittings required=

6. Explain the operation of fluorescent lamp in details. [May/June 13]

The fluorescent lamp consists of a glass tube of length varying 2 to 4 feet and is filled with a low pressure
argon gas and a drop of mercury. The lamp is connected with a choke and starter.
Choke:
A choke is connected in series with fluorescent tube and used to provide a voltage impulse so as to initiate the
electron movement. It is an iron cored coil having high inductance.
Starters:
The lamp circuit is made such that the starter should conduct when the ciruict is ON. Commonly used starter
circuit for fluorescent tubes are
Thermal type starter
Glow type starter
Instant starters
Working:
Initially the starter is in closed position. When supply is switched ON the current heats the filaments and
initiates emission of electrons.

After one or two seconds the starter switch gets opened, making the choke to induce a momentary high voltage
surge across the two filaments. Due to this, ionization takes place through argon gas.
The mercury vapor are provides a conducting path between the electrodes. The starter used may be of thermal
or glow type whose function is to complete the circuit initially for preheating the filaments and then to open the
circuit for inducing voltage across choke for initiating ionization.
7. Describe the construction and principle of operation of mercury vapor lamp. [Nov/Dec 12]
Mercury vapor lamp is an electric discharge lamp, in which light is produced by gaseous conduction. The two
main electrodes are placed inside a glass tube filled with Argon gas and small quantity of mercury.

An auxiliary electrode is also placed close the electrode connected to the ballast for starting at the initial
conduction. The glass tube is covered with another glass cover. The electrodes are made up of Tungsten coils,
coated with barium oxide.
The arc is confined to a small inner hard glass or quartly tube, which surrounds the larger glass bulb. The space
between the inner and outer tube is completely evacuated to prevent heat losses.

When the switch is closed, an initial discharge is between the auxiliary electrode and the main electrode
connected to one of the ballast through the Argon gas.
The heat produced by the argon gas conduction will be helpful to vaporize the mercury inside the inner glass tube
and increase the mercury vapor pressure. Then the discharge starts between the main electrodes with greenish
blue light.
8. Describe the construction and principle of operation of Gaseous discharge lamps.
Gaseous discharge lamps:
Gas-discharge lamps are a family of artificial light sources that generate light by sending an electrical discharge
through an ionized gas, i.e. a plasma. The character of the gas discharge critically depends on the frequency or
modulation of the current: see the entry on a frequency classification of plasmas.
Typically, such lamps use a noble gas (argon, neon, krypton and xenon) or a mixture of these gases. Most lamps
are filled with additional materials, like mercury, sodium and/or metal halides.
In operation the gas is ionized and free electrons, accelerated by the electrical field in the tube, collide with gas
and metal atoms. Some electrons in the atomic orbitals of these atoms are excited by these collisions to a higher
energy state.
When the excited atom falls back to a lower energy state, it emits a photon of a characteristic energy, resulting in
infrared, visible light, or ultraviolet radiation.
Some lamps convert the ultraviolet radiation to visible light with a fluorent coating on the inside of the lamp's
glass surface. The fluorent lamp is perhaps the best known gas-discharge lamp.

Gas-discharge lamps offer long life and high efficiency, but are more complicated to manufacture, and they
require auxiliary electronic equipment such as ballasts to control current flow through the gas.
Due to their greater efficiency, gas-discharge lamps are replacing incandescent lights in
many lighting
applications.
9. Briefly explain about the energy saving lamps.
Energy saving lamps:
Energy saving lamps are sources of artificial light that employ advanced technology to reduce the amount
of electricity used to generate light, relative to traditional filament-burning light bulbs.
Examples of energy saving lamps include:
Fluorescent lamps; i.e. regular and compact
a Light-emitting diode bulb

a Light-emitting Electrochemical Cell

Magnetic induction lamps
Light-emitting electrochemical cell:
A light-emitting electrochemical cell (LEC or LEEC) is a solid-state device that generates light from an electric
current (electroluminescence).
LEC's are usually composed of two metal electrodes connected by (e.g. sandwiching) an organic
semiconductor containing mobile ions.
Aside from the mobile ions, their structure is very similar to that of anorganic light-emitting diode (OLED).
LECs have most of the advantages of OLEDs, as well as additional ones:
The device is less dependent on the difference in work function of the electrodes. Consequently, the electrodes
can be made of the same material (e.g., gold). Similarly, the device can still be operated at low voltages.
Recently developed materials such as grapheme or a blend of carbon nano tubes and polymers have been used as
electrodes, eliminating the need for using indium tin oxide for a transparent electrode.
The thickness of the active electroluminescent layer is not critical for the device to operate.
In a planar device configuration, internal device operation can be observed directly.
There are two distinct types of LEECs, those based on inorganic transition metal complexes (iTMC) or light
emitting polymers.
iTMC devices are often more efficient than their LEP based counterparts due to the emission mechanism being
phosphorescent rather than fluorescent.
Since then, numerous research groups and a few companies have worked on improving and commercializing the
devices.
In 2012 the first inherently stretchable LEEC using an elastomeric emissive material (at room temperature) was
reported.

Dispersing an ionic transition metal complex into an elastomeric matrix enables the fabrication of intrinsically
stretchable light-emitting devices that possess large emission areas and tolerate linear strains up to 27% and
repetitive cycles of 15% strain.
This work demonstrates the suitability of this approach to new applications in conformable lighting that require
uniform, diffuse light emission over large areas.
Light-emitting diode
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a two-lead semiconductor light source. It is a pn junction diode, which emits
light when activated.
When a suitable voltage is applied to the leads, electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within the
device, releasing energy in the form of photons.

This effect is called electroluminescence, and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is
determined by the energy band gap of the semiconductor.
An LED is often small in area (less than 1 mm2) and integrated optical components may be used to shape
its radiation pattern.

The earliest LEDs emitted low-intensity infrared light. Infrared LEDs are still frequently used as transmitting
elements in remote-control circuits, such as those in remote controls for a wide variety of consumer electronics.
The first visible-light LEDs were also of low intensity, and limited to red. Modern LEDs are available across
the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness.
Early LEDs were often used as indicator lamps for electronic devices, replacing small incandescent bulbs. They
were soon packaged into numeric readouts in the form of seven-segment displays, and were commonly seen in
digital clocks.
Recent developments in LEDs permit them to be used in environmental and task lighting. LEDs have many
advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved
physical robustness, smaller size, and faster switching.
Light-emitting diodes are now used in applications as diverse as aviation lighting, automotive headlamps,
advertising, general lighting, traffic signals, camera flashes and lighted wallpaper.

As of 2016, LEDs powerful enough for room lighting remain somewhat more expensive, and require more
precise current and heat management, than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output.
They are, however, significantly more energy efficient and, arguably, have less environmental concerns linked to
their disposal.
The governments of some countries are promoting the domestic use of LED-based lighting, and in some cases
providing LED-based lighting solutions to the public at subsidized rates.
LEDs have allowed new displays and sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates are also used in
advanced communications technology.
Blue LED:

The first high-brightness blue LED was demonstrated by Shuji Nakamura of Nichia Corporation in 1994 and was
based on InGaN.
In parallel, Isamu Akasaki and Hiroshi Amano in Nagoya were working on developing the
important GaN nucleation on sapphire substrates and the demonstration of p-type doping of GaN.
Nakamura, Akasaki and Amano were awarded the 2014 Nobel prize in physics for their work. In 1995, Alberto
Barbieri at the Cardiff University Laboratory (GB) investigated the efficiency and reliability of high-brightness
LEDs and demonstrated a "transparent contact" LED using indium tin oxide (ITO) on (AlGaInP/GaAs).
In 2001and 2002, processes for growing gallium nitride (GaN) LEDs on silicon were successfully demonstrated.
In January 2012, Osram demonstrated high-power InGaN LEDs grown on silicon substrates commercially.
White LEDs and the Illumination breakthrough:
The attainment of high efficiency in blue LEDs was quickly followed by the development of the first white LED.
In this device phosphor coating on the emitter absorbs some of the blue emission and produces yellow light
through fluorescence.
The combination of that yellow with remaining blue light appears white to the eye. However, using
different phosphors (fluorescent materials) it also became possible to instead produce green and red light through
fluorescence.
The resulting mixture of red, green and blue is not only perceived by humans as white light but is superior for
illumination in terms of color rendering, whereas one cannot appreciate the color of red or green objects
illuminated only by the yellow (and remaining blue) wavelengths from the YAG phosphor.
The first white LEDs were expensive and inefficient. However, the light output of LEDs has
increased exponentially, with a doubling occurring approximately every 36 months since the 1960s (similar
to Moore's law).
The light output and efficiency of blue and near-ultraviolet LEDs rose as the cost of reliable devices fell: this led
to the use of (relatively) high-power white-light LEDs for the purpose of illumination which are replacing
incandescent and fluorescent lighting.
White LEDs can now produce over 300 lumens per watt of electricity while lasting up to 100,000 hours.
Compared to incandescent bulbs, this is not only a huge increase in electrical efficiency, but over time a
similar or lower cost per bulb.

Working principle:

Fig. The inner workings of an LED, showing circuit (top) and band diagram (bottom)
A P-N junction can convert absorbed light energy into a proportional electric current. The same process is
reversed here (i.e. the P-N junction emits light when electrical energy is applied to it). This phenomenon is
generally called electroluminescence, which can be defined as the emission of light from a semi-conductor under
the influence of an electric field.
The charge carriers recombine in a forward-biased P-N junction as the electrons cross from the N-region and
recombine with the holes existing in the P-region. Free electrons are in the conduction band of energy levels,
while holes are in the valence energy band.
Thus the energy level of the holes will be lesser than the energy levels of the electrons. Some portion of the
energy must be dissipated in order to recombine the electrons and the holes. This energy is emitted in the form of
heat and light.
The electrons dissipate energy in the form of heat for silicon and germanium diodes but in gallium arsenide
phosphide(GaAsP) and gallium phosphide (GaP) semiconductors, the electrons dissipate energy by
emitting photons.
If the semiconductor is translucent, the junction becomes the source of light as it is emitted, thus becoming a
light-emitting diode, but when the junction is reverse biased no light will be produced by the LED and, on the
contrary, the device may also be damaged.

I-V diagram for a diode. An LED will begin to emit light when more than 2 or 3 volts is applied to it. The reverse
bias region uses a different vertical scale from the forward bias region, in order to show that the leakage current is
nearly constant with voltage until breakdown occurs. In forward bias, the current is small but increases
exponentially with voltage.
Magnetic induction lamps:

Fig. External Closed Core Induction Lamp with Two Turn Primary

Fig. A Philips QL induction lighting system, where (A)Discharge vessel, (B) Tube with power coupler and
(C)Electronic ballast.
Method of coupling energy into the mercury vapor, these lamps are very similar to conventional fluorescent
lamps.
Mercury vapor in the discharge vessel is electrically excited to produce short-wave ultraviolet light, which then
excites internal phosphors to produce visible light.
Unlike an incandescent lamp or conventional fluorescent lamps, there is no electrical connection going inside the
glass bulb; the energy is transferred through the glass envelope solely by electromagnetic induction.

Fig. Cross section through internal inductor lamp

There are two main types of magnetic induction lamps: external core lamps and internal core lamps. The first
commercially available and still widely used form of induction lamp is the internal core type. The external core
type, which was commercialized later, has a wider range of applications and is available in round, rectangular
and "olive" shaped form factors.
External core lamps are basically fluorescent lamps with magnetic cores wrapped around a part of the discharge
tube. The core is usually made of ferrite, a ceramic material containing iron oxide and other metals.
In external core lamps, high frequency energy from a special power supply called an electronic ballast is sent
through wires that are wrapped in a coil around a toroidal ferrite core placed around the outside of a portion of
the glass tube, creating a high frequency magnetic field within the ferrite core.
Since the magnetic permeability of the ferrite is hundreds or thousands of times higher than that of the
surrounding air or glass, and the ferrite core provides a closed path for the magnetic field, virtually all of the
magnetic field is contained inside the ferrite core.
The discharge tube forms one such closed path around the ferrite core, and in that manner the time varying
magnetic field in the core generates a time varying electric field in the discharge tube, There is no need for the
magnetic field to penetrate the discharge tube.
The electric field generated by the time varying magnetic field drives the mercury-rare gas discharge in the same
way the discharge is driven by the electric field in a conventional fluorescent lamp.
The primary winding on the ferrite core, the core, and the discharge form a transformer, with the discharge being
a one-turn secondary on that transformer. The discharge tube contains a low pressure of a rare gas such
as argon and mercury vapor.
The mercury atoms are provided by a drop of liquid mercury or by a semi solid amalgam of mercury and other
metals such as bismuth, lead or tin.
Some of the liquid mercury or the mercury in the amalgam vaporizes to provide the mercury vapor. The electric
field ionizes some of the mercury atoms to produce free electrons, and then accelerates those free electrons.
When the free electrons collide with mercury atoms, some of those atoms absorb energy from the electrons and
are excited to higher energy levels.
After a short delay, the excited mercury atoms spontaneously relax to their original lower energy state and emit a
UV photon with the excess energy. As in a conventional fluorescent tube, the UV photon diffuses through the gas
to the inside of the outer bulb, and is absorbed by the phosphor coating that surface, transferring its energy to the
phosphor.
When the phosphor then relaxes to its original, lower energy state, it emits visible light. In this way the UV
photon is down-converted to visible light by the phosphor coating on the inside of the tube.
In the internal core form (see diagram), a glass tube (B) protrudes bulb-wards from the bottom of the discharge
vessel (A), forming a re-entrant cavity.
This tube contains an antenna called a power coupler, which consists of a coil wound over a
cylindrical ferrite core. The coil and ferrite forms the inductor which couples the energy into the lamp interior
The antenna coils receive electric power from the electronic ballast (C) that generates a high frequency. The
exact frequency varies with lamp design, but popular examples include 13.6 MHz, 2.65 MHz and 250 kHz.

A special resonant circuit in the ballast produces an initial high voltage on the coil to start a gas discharge;
thereafter the voltage is reduced to normal running level.
The system can be seen as a type of transformer, with the power coupler (inductor) forming the primary coil and
the gas discharge arc in the bulb forming the one-turn secondary coil and the load of the transformer.
The ballast is connected to mains electricity, and is generally designed to operate on voltages between 100 and
277 VAC at a frequency of 50 or 60 Hz, or on a voltage between 100 and 400 VDC for battery fed emergency
light systems. Many ballasts are available in low voltage models so can also be connected to DC voltage
sources like batteries for emergency lighting purposes or for use with renewable energy (solar & wind) powered
systems.
Advantages:
Long lifespan due to the lack of electrodes Strictly speaking almost indefinite on the lamp itself but between
25,000 and 100,000 hours depending on lamp model and quality of electronics used, comparable to low quality
LEDs of the 1970s.
Very high energy conversion efficiency of between 62 and 90 Lumens/Watt [higher power lamps are more
energy efficient].
High power factor due to the low loss of the high frequency electronic ballasts which are typically between 95%
and 98% efficient.
Minimal Lumen depreciation (declining light output with age) compared to other lamp types as filament
evaporation and depletion is absent.
"Instant-on" and hot re-strike, unlike most HID lamps used in commercial-industrial lighting applications (such
as mercury-vapor lamp, sodium-vapor lamp and metal halide lamp).
Environmentally friendly as induction lamps use less energy, and use less mercury per hour of operation than
conventional lighting due to their long lifespan. The mercury is in a solid form and can be easily recovered if the
lamp is broken, or for recycling at end-of-life.
Disadvantages:
Some models of internal inductor lamps that use high frequency ballasts can produce radio frequency
interference (RFI) which interferes with radio communications in the area. Newer, external inductor type lamps
use low frequency ballasts that usually have FCC or other certification, thus suggesting compliance with RFI
regulations. Some types of inductor lamps contain mercury, which is highly toxic if released to the environment.
Compact fluorescent lamp:

A compact fluorescent lamp (CFL), also called compact fluorescent light, energy-saving light, and compact
fluorescent tube, is a fluorescent lamp designed to replace an incandescent lamp.
Some types fit into light fixtures normally used for incandescent lamps. The lamps use a tube which is curved or
folded to fit into the space of an incandescent bulb, and a compact electronic ballast in the base of the lamp.
Compared to general-service incandescent lamps giving the same amount of visible light, CFLs use one-fifth to
one-third the electric power, and last eight to fifteen times longer.
A CFL has a higher purchase price than an incandescent lamp, but can save over five times its purchase price in
electricity costs over the lamp's lifetime.
Like all fluorescent lamps, CFLs contain toxic mercury which complicates their disposal. In many countries,
governments have banned the disposal of CFLs together with regular garbage.
The principle of operation in a CFL bulb remains the same as in other fluorescent lighting: electrons that are
bound to mercury atoms are excited to states where they will radiate ultraviolet light as they return to a lower
energy level.
This emitted ultraviolet light is converted into visible light as it strikes the fluorescent coating on the bulb (as
well as into heat when absorbed by other materials such as glass).
CFLs radiate a spectral power distribution that is different from that of incandescent lamps.
Improved phosphor formulations have improved the perceived color of the light emitted by CFLs, such that some
sources rate the best "soft white" CFLs as subjectively similar in color to standard incandescent lamps.
White LED lamps now compete with CFLs for high-efficiency house lighting.[4]
There are two types of CFLs: integrated and non-integrated lamps. Integrated lamps combine the tube and ballast
in a single unit. These lamps allow consumers to replace incandescent lamps easily with CFLs.
Integrated CFLs work well in many standard incandescent light fixtures, reducing the cost of converting to
fluorescent. 3-way lamp bulbs and dimmable models with standard bases are available.
Non-integrated CFLs have the ballast permanently installed in the luminaries, and only the lamp bulb is usually
changed at its end of life. Since the ballasts are placed in the light fixture, they are larger and last longer
compared to the integrated ones, and they don't need to be replaced when the bulb reaches its end-of-life.
Non-integrated CFL housings can be both more expensive and sophisticated. They have two types of tubes: a bipin tube designed for conventional ballast, and a quad-pin tube designed for electronic ballast or conventional
ballast with an external starter.
A bi-pin tube contains an integrated starter, which obviates the need for external heating pins but causes
incompatibility with electronic ballasts.

Non-integrated CFLs can also be installed to a conventional light fixture using an adapter containing a built-in
magnetic ballast. The adapter consists of a regular bulb screw, the ballast itself and a clip for the lamp's
connector.
CFLs have two main components: magnetic or electronic ballast and a gas-filled tube (also called bulb or burner).
Replacement of magnetic ballasts with electronic ballasts has removed most of the flickering and slow starting
traditionally associated with fluorescent lighting, and has allowed the development of smaller lamps directly
interchangeable with more sizes of incandescent bulb.
Electronic ballasts contain a small circuit board with a bridge rectifier, a filter capacitor and usually two
switching transistors.
The incoming AC current is first rectified to DC, and then converted to high frequency AC by the transistors,
connected as a resonant series DC to AC inverter.
The resulting high frequency is applied to the lamp tube. Since the resonant converter tends to stabilize lamp
current (and light produced) over a range of input voltages, standard CFLs do not respond well in dimming
applications and will experience a shorter lifespan and sometimes catastrophic failure. Special electronic ballasts
(integrated or separate) are required for dimming service.
CFL light output is roughly proportional to phosphor surface area, and high output CFLs are often larger than
their incandescent equivalents. This means that the CFL may not fit well in existing light fixtures.
To fit enough phosphor coated area within the approximate overall dimensions of an incandescent lamp, standard
shapes of CFL tube are a helix with one or more turns, multiple parallel tubes, circular arc, or a butterfly.
Some CFLs are labeled not to be run base up, since heat will shorten the ballast's life. Such CFLs are unsuitable
for use in pendant lamps and especially unsuitable for recessed light fixtures.
CFLs designed for use in such fixtures are available. Current recommendations for fully enclosed, unventilated
light fixtures (such as those recessed into insulated ceilings), are either to use "reflector CFLs" (R-CFL), coldcathode CFLs or to replace such fixtures with those designed for CFLs. A CFL will thrive in areas that have good
airflow, such as in a table lamp.
CFLs emit light from a mix of phosphors inside the bulb, each emitting one band of color with some bands still in
the ultraviolet range as can be seen on the light spectrum. This is the reason why additional UV filtering, for
example double-envelope, is required to reduce damage to the retina.
Modern phosphor designs balance the emitted light color, energy efficiency, and cost. Every extra phosphor
added to the coating mix improves color rendering but decreases efficiency and increases cost.
Good quality consumer CFLs use three or four phosphors to achieve a "white" light with a color rendering
index (CRI) of about 80, where the maximum 100 represents the appearance of colors under daylight or other
sources of black-body radiation such as an incandescent light bulb (depending on the correlated color
temperature).

Color temperature can be indicated in Kelvins or mired (1 million divided by the color temperature in Kelvins).
The color temperature of a light source is the temperature of a black body that has the same chromaticity (i.e.
color) of the light source.
A notional temperature, the correlated color temperature, the temperature of a black body which emits light of a
hue which to human color perception most closely matches the light from the lamp, is assigned.
A true color temperature is characteristic of black-body radiation; a fluorescent lamp may approximate the
radiation of a black body at a given temperature, but will not have an identical spectrum.
In particular, narrow bands of shorter-wavelength radiation are usually present even for lamps of low color
temperature ("warm" light).
As color temperature increases, the shading of the white light changes from red to yellow to white to blue. Color
names used for modern CFLs and other tri-phosphor lamps vary between manufacturers, unlike the standardized
names used with older halo phosphate fluorescent lamps.
Lifespan:
CFLs typically have a rated service life of 6,00015,000 hours, whereas standard incandescent lamps have a
service life of 750 or 1,000 hours.
However, the actual lifetime of any lamp depends on many factors, including operating voltage, manufacturing
defects, exposure to voltage spikes, mechanical shock, frequency of cycling on and off, lamp orientation, and
ambient operating temperature, among other factors.
The life of a CFL is significantly shorter if it is turned on and off frequently. In the case of a 5-minute on/off
cycle the lifespan of some CFLs may be reduced to that of incandescent light bulbs.
Energy efficiency:
The luminous efficacy of lamps is the number of lumens produced for each watt of electrical power used. The
luminous efficacy of a typical CFL is 5070 lumens per watt (lm/W) and that of a typical incandescent lamp
is 1017 lm/W.
Compared to a theoretical 100%-efficient lamp (680 lm/W), CFL lamps have lighting efficiency ranges of 7
10%,versus 1.52.5% for incandescent.
Cost:
While the purchase price of a CFL is typically 310 times greater than that of an equivalent incandescent lamp, a
CFL lasts 815 times longer and uses two-thirds to three-quarters less energy.
CFLs are extremely cost-effective in commercial buildings when used to replace incandescent lamps.

Failure:
In addition to the wear-out failure modes common to all fluorescent lamps, the electronic ballast may fail, since it
has a number of component parts.
Ballast failures are usually due to overheating and may be accompanied by discoloration or distortion of the
ballast enclosure, odors, or smoke.
Dimming:
Only some compact fluorescent lamps are labeled for dimming control. Using a dimmer with a standard CFL is
ineffective and can shorten bulb life and void the warranty.
Power factor:
The input stage of a CFL is a rectifier, which presents a non-linear load to the power supply and
introduces harmonic distortion on the current drawn from the supply.
The use of CFLs in homes has no appreciable effect on power quality, but significant quantities of them in a large
facility can have an impact.
The power factor of CFLs does not significantly affect their energy-saving benefits for individual consumers, but
their use in large numberssuch as in commercial applications or across millions of homes in a distribution
systemcould require infrastructure upgrades.
CFLs with low (below 30 percent) total harmonic distortion (THD) and power factors greater than 0.9 should be
selected.
Infrared signals:
Electronic devices operated by infrared remote control can interpret the infrared light emitted by CFLs as a
signal; this may limit the use of CFLs near televisions, radios, remote controls, or mobile phones.
Energy Star certified CFLs must meet FCC standards, and so are required to list all known incompatibilities on
the package.
Starting time:
Incandescent reach full brightness a fraction of a second after being switched on. As of 2009, CFLs turn on
within a second, but many still take time to achieve full brightness.
The light color may be slightly different immediately after being turned on. Some CFLs are marketed as "instant
on" and have no noticeable warm-up period, but others can take up to a minute to reach full brightness, or longer
in very cold temperatures. Some that use a mercury amalgam can take up to three minutes to reach full output.

Flashing when off:

Some CFLs will flash every few seconds even when the room light switch is off. This caused by a small amount
of current bypassing the switch either through a switch pilot light or through the capacitance of the two conductor
cable connected between the switch and the CFL or the capacitance between this cable and other mains wiring.
A few tens of micro amps of current is enough to charge the storage in the CFL power supply up to a voltage
sufficient for the CFL to light briefly, discharging the storage and starting the process again.
10. Briefly explain about the Indoor lighting schemes.
Indoor lighting:
Forms of lighting include alcove lighting, which like most other up lighting is indirect. This is often done
with fluorescent lighting or rope light, occasionally with neon lighting, and recently with LED strip lighting. It is
a form of backlighting.
Soffit or close to wall lighting can be general or a decorative wall-wash, sometimes used to bring out texture
(like stucco or plaster) on a wall, though this may also show its defects as well. The effect depends heavily on the
exact type of lighting source used.
Recessed lighting (often called "pot lights" in Canada, "can lights" or 'high hats" in the US) is popular, with
fixtures mounted into the ceiling structure so as to appear flush with it. These down lights can use narrow beam
spotlights, or wider-angle floodlights, both of which are bulbs having their own reflectors.
There are also down lights with internal reflectors designed to accept common 'A' lamps (light bulbs) which are
generally less costly than reflector lamps. Down lights can be incandescent, fluorescent, HID (high intensity
discharge) or LED.
Track lighting, invented by Lightolier, was popular at one period of time because it was much easier to install
than recessed lighting, and individual fixtures are decorative and can be easily aimed at a wall.
It has regained some popularity recently in low-voltage tracks, which often look nothing like their predecessors
because they do not have the safety issues that line-voltage systems have, and are therefore less bulky and more
ornamental in them.
A master transformer feeds all of the fixtures on the track or rod with 12 or 24 volts, instead of each light fixture
having its own line-to-low voltage transformer. There are traditional spots and floods, as well as other small
hanging fixtures.
A modified version of this is cable lighting, where lights are hung from or clipped to
bare metal cables under tension.
A sconce is a wall-mounted fixture, particularly one that shines up and sometimes down as well. A touchier is an
up light intended for ambient lighting. It is typically a floor lamp but may be wall-mounted like a sconce.
The portable or table lamp is probably the most common fixture, found in many homes and offices. The standard
lamp and shade that sits on a table is general lighting, while the desk lamp is considered task
lighting. Magnifier lamps are also task lighting.
The illuminated ceiling was once popular in the 1960s and 1970s but fell out of favor after the 1980s. This
uses diffuser panels hung like a suspended below fluorescent lights, and is considered general lighting.

Other forms include neon, which is not usually intended to illuminate anything else, but to actually be an artwork
in itself. This would probably fall under accent lighting, though in a dark nightclub it could be considered general
lighting.
In a movie theater, steps in the aisles are usually marked with a row of small lights for convenience and safety,
when the film has started and the other lights are off.
Traditionally made up of small low wattage, low voltage lamps in a track or translucent tube, these are rapidly
being replaced with LED based versions.
11. Briefly explain about the Outdoor lighting schemes.
Outdoor lighting:
Street Lights are used to light roadways and walkways at night. Some manufacturers are designing LED and
photovoltaic luminaries to provide an energy-efficient alternative to traditional street light fixtures.
Floodlights are used to illuminate outdoor playing fields or work zones during nighttime. Floodlights can be used
to illuminate outdoor playing fields or work zones during nighttime hours. The most common type of floodlights
are metal halide and high pressure sodium lights.
Beacon lights are positioned at the intersection of two roads to aid in navigation. Sometimes security lighting can
be used along roadways in urban areas, or behind homes or commercial facilities. These are extremely bright
lights used to deter crime. Security lights may include floodlights.
Entry lights can be used outside to illuminate and signal the entrance to a property. These lights are installed for
safety, security, and for decoration. Underwater accent lighting is also used for koi ponds, fountains, swimming
pools and the like.
12. Briefly explain about the Lighting Calculations.
Lighting Calculations:
Inverse-square law:
The skilled application of computerized point lighting calculations can optimize lighting levels in both the task
and ambient domains in order to minimize energy consumption.
The lighting professional should consider the use of point lighting calculations, both to design more energyefficient spaces, and to create spaces with more drama and visual interest.
Point calculations are an exceptionally accurate way to compare general lighting systems. While the easier lumen
method allows the comparison of average luminance, point calculations permit the comparison of uniformity of
light on the work plane, the patterns of light produced on ceilings and walls, and task contrast rendering. More
specifically, point calculations allow consideration of the effects listed below.
Effect on Room Surfaces. By evaluating the patterns of light on a wall caused by a row of compact fluorent down
lights, an aesthetic evaluation can be made.
Artwork locations may be selected or lighting may be designed to highlight artwork. It may also be possible to
determine whether the pattern created on a wall will produce luminance extremes that will cause glare or
reflections in VDT screens.
Indirect Lighting Effects on Ceiling. When they are too close to the ceiling, indirect lighting systems may create
definite stripes or pools of light on the ceiling that are distracting and that may image in VDT screens. Careful
ceiling luminance calculations can help identify the problem, and allow comparison of lighting products with

various optical distributions and suspension lengths to reduce the effect. Gray-scale printouts or shaded VDT
screen output of luminance make visual assessments possible.
Interior Task-Ambient Lighting. Point calculations should be used for any type of lighting design where the task
locations and types are well known and are unlikely to move without a lighting redesign. They may also be used
for lighting designs where tasks that move end up in predefined locations.
Cautions for Point Calculations. In the case where a task light is used, or where an indirect fixture is mounted
within 12 inches of the ceiling, point calculations are not always appropriate. In general, if the luminaries are
close to the surface where lighting patterns are to be evaluated, a near field situation exists.
A shortcoming of the mathematics used in point calculations is that these near field calculations are
comparatively inaccurate unless near field photometric data is available from the luminaries manufacturer, or the
computer program is capable of adjusting the characteristics of the luminaries to improve the accuracy of the
results. Otherwise, it may be more accurate to evaluate the light patterns from the task light or indirect fixture
empirically.
The most common methods used for lighting calculations are:
(1) Watts per Square Meter Method. This is principally a rule of thumb method very handy for rough
calculations or checking. It consists of making an allowance of watts/m2 of area to be illuminated according
to the illumination desired on the assumption of an average figure of overall efficiency of the system.
(2) Lumen or Light Flux Method. This method is applicable to those cases where the sources of light are such as
to produce an approximate uniform illumination over the working plane or where an average value is required.
Lumens received on the working plane may be determined from the relation.
Lumens received on the working plane = Number of lamps X wattage of each lamp X lamp efficiency
(lumens/watt) X coefficient of utilization/depreciation factor.
(3) Point-To-Point or Inverse Square Law Method. This method is applicable where the illumination at a point
due to one or more sources of light is required, the candle power of sources in the particular direction under
consideration being known. This method is not much used because of its complicated and cumbersome
applications.
13. Briefly explain about the Flood Lights schemes.
Flood Lights:
Rain Proof Lamp holder with wide / narrow beam Reflectors are used for flood light. They are usually High
wattage Incandescent Lamps, Halogen Lamps, High Pressure Mercury Vapor Lamp or Low / high Pressure
Sodium Lamp.
Spot lights / down lights are usually used with Screens, Reflectors, Filters, Colored envelope and Closed
Lamps. Down lights are Spot lights when suspended.
As already brought out the components of an Illumination system are Lamp, the Radiation Source, Luminaire
that directs and controls the light flux. Control Gear is the accessory that helps in controlling the requisite
amount of flux on the work plane.
Now we take a look at the accessories involved. First of these is Ballast. In a discharge lamp a series impedance
to limit the current is required. If the current is allowed to increase there can be explosion of the lamp.
This takes the form in a.c. as Inductance-w/o undue loss of power. This is called Ballast. It should have high
power factor for economic use of the supply and should generate minimum harmonics. It should offer high
impedance to audio frequencies.

It should suppress-Electromagnetic interference (Radio interference-TV interference). It is essentially, a reactor

of a wound coil on a magnetic core often called Choke and is in series with the lamp.
Typical power factor is 0.5 Lag. Power factor is improved by having a capacitor connected across input lines.

Fig 1 shows the connection for a discharge lamp employing ballast formed by a reactor commonly known as
choke. Fig 2 shows how the capacitor may be connected to improve the power factor. As may be seen the
capacitor is placed in shunt. At times a lead circuit may result by placing a capacitor in series as shown in Fig 3
However, when a illumination system employing two lamps is used power factor may be improved by having
one with a lead circuit and other with a lag circuit as shown in Fig. 4. Next important accessory is a starter that
initiates the discharge in a discharge lamp.
Starter is marked as S in the Figs.1 to 4. Starter less circuit are shown in Fig 5. They employ pre-heated
filament electrodes. The preheating obtained through a small portion of voltage tapped from the input source.

When discharge lamps are used on dc the ballast takes the form of a resistor together with associated
power loss. These days they take the form of electronic ballast which converts dc to high frequency ac
of around 20 kHZ.
Except high pressure mercury lamp where V > VS (starting) all lamps need a starting device. At
times, it is integral part of a lamp. Switch start employs bimetallic strip that opens upon heating.
Starterless, rapid start or instant starts are useful for outdoor applications. Other forms of starters
employed are three electrode devices called igniters.
Glare Evaluation:
Visual comfort system is most common evaluation in the USA/Canada. This is expressed as
percentage of people considering an installation comfortable as viewed from one end. Glare tables list
various proportions and layout of room for glare free lighting.
If VCP 70% then the system is said to be glare free. British method employs Zone of luminaire with
a classification for quality of light expressed as Glare index. Luminance limit system is adopted in
Australia.
Standard code for Luminaire base lamp. dep. on room dimensions, mounting height and a Empirical
shielding angle Luminance curve system is employed in Europe.
Luminance limits for luminaires critical angles, are 45 < < 85. Quality class is expressed from A
to E type is based on Luminaire orientation.
Type 1. Luminous sides when Luminous side plane> 30 mm

General light is predominantly light coming downwards. Typically reflectance of 0.5 for walls /ceiling
and 0.25 for furniture. How is Glare evaluated?
1.
2.
3.
4.

Determine luminance of the source between 45 - 85

Determine the quality class and illuminance required.
Select the curve class / level.
Determine. Max. Angle to be considered from length & height and plane of eye level & plane of
luminaires. (Refer to Fig 1)
5. Horizontal limit based on a / h, part of the line (or curve) to be ignored.
6. Compare luminance of one luminaire with selected part of the limiting curve.
14. Briefly explain about the Street Lights schemes.
The standard of street lighting to be adopted on Residential Access Roads is
generally to be in accordance with British Standard 5489:1992 (parts 1-9 inclusive).
Lighting columns and fittings make a major impact on the appearance of the
scheme and should be planned as part of the overall design concept.

It is especially important that in historic towns and conservation areas particular attention should be
paid to the aesthetic quality of the street lighting installation. At the same time care should be taken to
avoid light pollution, particularly in rural areas.
Lighting has an important role to play in:
Reducing risks of night time accidents,
Assisting in the protection of property,
Discouraging crime and vandalism,
Making residents feel secure and Enhancing the appearance of the area after dark.
Lighting arrangements may be used to identify the functions of different roads.
For example, two lamp columns at the entrance to a road can be used to create a
gateway effect.
Adequate lighting should be provided in all parts of the layout to enhance safety
and security for drivers, pedestrians and cyclists.
Lighting is necessary to illuminate bends and traffic calming features, to enable road users to see
potential obstacles and each other after dark and to reduce the fear of crime.
Sizes of trees and shrubs when mature and their location in the layout must be considered in relation to
street lighting.
Raise awareness of the importance of street lighting in the creation of safe, quality places.
Lighting must be planned as an integral part of the initial layout.
Adequate lighting should be provided in all parts of the layout to enhance safety and security for
pedestrians, cyclists and drivers.
Lighting should be wall mounted or suspended from cross wiring wherever possible to reduce street
clutter.
The height of lighting columns should relate to context.
White lighting is more appropriate in residential areas. The standard of lighting provided should ensure
that shadows are avoided in places where pedestrians would otherwise be vulnerable.
Lighting columns, wall-mounted brackets and other fittings need to be resistant to vandalism and be
placed in positions that minimise risks of damage by vehicles.
Lighting columns should be located within the limits of the adoptable highway, at back edge of the
footway, verge or service strip. However, it is acceptable to attach lighting units to buildings to help
reduce street clutter, provided electrical connections are external to the building. This will necessitate
an agreement between the freeholder of the property and the Highway/Lighting Authority.
Lighting columns should be aligned with other street furniture and located to ensure that a clear
pedestrian path, preferably at a minimum 2m width, is maintained. Where lighting is taken out of
service, it should be removed.
Similarly, mounting lighting on buildings can provide a means of ensuring appropriate lighting levels
without introducing additional street furniture at surface level. While maintenance and access issues
can arise from the installation of such features on private property, these are not insurmountable.
In designing lighting within streets, consideration should be given to the type of
lighting that is appropriate in the context. It is often the case that lighting in streets is
essentially suitable for highway illumination but is not entirely in keeping with the street
environment.
provision of lighting are:
Luminance, Scale, Color.
An acceptable level of street lighting is 5 lux, although DfT (Inclusive Mobility) recommend that at
locations where people gather, for example bus stops, 10lux is appropriate.
In providing inclusive streetscapes, continuity of lighting levels is important, with sudden changes in

lighting level being particularly problematic for partially sighted people. The shading effect of street
trees should also be considered in determining their species, location and management.
As noted above, much street lighting is actually provided for highway purposes. A
consequence of this is that it is often located at a height inappropriate to the cross
section of the street and out of scale with pedestrian users.
Consideration should be given in street design to the purpose of lighting, the scale of lighting relative to
human users of the street and the signals sent to drivers by lighting design.
15. Two lamp posts are 14m apart and are fitted with 200 C.P lamps each at a height of 5m above
the ground. Calculate,
i. Illumination mid way between them
ii. Illumination under each lamp [May/June 12]
Given data:
Candle power of each lamp = 200 CP
Height of each lamp from the ground = 5m
Distance between the two lamps = 14m
Illumination midway between the lamps EC
= Illumination due to lamp + illumination due to lamp

Illumination under either of the lamps

Illumination due to lamp
+ illumination due to lamp

16. A hall 30 m long and 12 m wide is to be illuminated and the illumination required is
Calculate the number of fitting required, taking depreciation factors of 1.3
and utilization factor of 0.5. Given that the outputs of different types of lamp are given below.
[May/June 13]
Watts 100
200
Lumens 1615 3650
4700
Given data:
Area
Illumination =
Depreciation factors = 1.3
Utilization factor = 0.5
Number of fitting required =

300

500
9950

1000
21500

17. A drawing hall 30

is to be provided with a general illumination of 120 flux.
Taking co-efficient of utilization as 0.5, depreciation factor as 1.4, determine the number of
fluorescent tubes required, their spacing height, mounting height and total wattage. Take
luminous efficiency of fluorescent tubes as lumen/watt for 80 watts tube. [May/June 12]
Given data:

Number of fluorescent tubes required =

Number of fluorescent tubes required

Considering the use of 50 tubes in 5 rows, each row having 10 tubes giving spacing of 3m along the
length as well as width of the hall.
18. A lamp of uniform intensity of 200 C.P. is enclosed in dins glass globe. 25% of the light
emitted by lamp is absorbed by the globe. Determine
1. Brighten of globe
2. CP of globe if diameter of globe is 30 cm. [May/June 13]
Given data:
Candle power = 200
Light absorbed =25% =0.25
Diameter = 30cm

Flux emitted by the globe = candle power

Flux absorbed by the globe = Brighten flux emitted by the globe

0.25 = Brightness 565.48
Brightness = 565.73lumens
19. A lamp of 500 CP is placed 2m below a plane mirror which reflects 80% of light falling on it.
Determine illumination at a point 5m away from the foot of the lamp which is hung 5m above the
ground. [Nov/Dec 12]
The lamp L produces an image
as far behind the mirror as it is in front.
Height of the image from the ground = 5+2+2 = 9m

Illumination at point B (5m away from the point vertically below the lamp)