Built Heritage 2013 Monitoring Conservation Management

Mortars in Norway from the Middle Ages to the 20th Century: conservation strategy
Ana Velosa1; Fernando Rocha2; Annika Haugen3
1
University of Aveiro, Civil Engineering Department, Geobiotec, Aveiro, Portugal; 2 University of Aveiro, Geoscience Department, Geobiotec, Aveiro, Portugal; 3 Norwegian Institute for Cultural Heritage Research, Oslo, Norway
1. Introduction
Traditionally masonry in Norway, as in most of the North-European countries
was constructed by natural stone, or brick, and pure lime mortar. In the middle
of the 19th century cement appeared as a new binder. One of the first buildings in Norway, where this binder was used, was Oscarshall castle in Oslo,
built around 1850 .
Several decades of the first part of the 20th century pure lime mortar was in
use as restoration mortar but the use of cement mortar increased. In the last
part of the 20th century it became more and more obvious that cement was
too strong and also forced frost-related decay when used for restoration of old
masonry with original lime-based mortars. Therefore natural hydraulic lime
became more and more used, since it was supposed that in the Norwegian
climate, humid and cold during at least half of the year, there was a need for
a kind of mortar stronger than pure lime mortar. The consequence was that
intervention in Norwegian heritage buildings regarding repointing and rendering in the last 10-15 years has mostly been performed using natural hydraulic
lime (NHL) mortars. However, no studies on its adequacy for application in
these buildings were undertaken and the characteristics of these mortars are
unclear.
The main and original aim of the study, undertaken by the University of Aveiro,
Portugal, and NIKU was to characterize NHL mortars, mainly NHL3,5, that
were applied over two years ago and establish their adequacy for application
on old walls taking into account composition and physical and mechanical
characteristics. In addition tests have been made of mortars from the Middle
Ages and samples of NHL 2, NHL 5 as well as of pure air lime mortar.
2. Samples
Samples are shown in Table 1. Samples NHL A to NHL L are from NHL 3,5
mortars that were exposed for 2 years, at least, prior to testing. Samples AL1
and AL2 are air lime mortars (lime putty and lime powder, respectively) produced by a mason and left to cure in natural atmospheric conditions for the
first months. NHL2 was produced in the same way but NHL2 was used as a
binder. A sample of NHL5, also naturally exposed, was tested for comparison.
Mortar samples from the Middle Ages are named MA1 to MA13. Finally, a
sample from Oscarshall, nineteenth century is designated as OH.
3. Tests
The following testing procedures were used:
Acid dissolution for the determination of binder/aggregate ratio
Wet and dry sieving for the determination of particle size distribution
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Table 1: Analysed samples

XRF analysis for the determination of chemical composition

XRD analysis for the determination of mineralogical composition
Compressive strength tests
Capillary water absorption tests
Analysis of thin sections
4. Results
4.1. Compressive strength
Compressive strength tests were carried out following the method proposed
in Characterization of mechanical properties of historic mortars testing of
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Fig.1 - Compressive strength (MPa)

irregular samples [Valek and Veiga, 2005] on a SHIMADZU: AG-IC 100 kN

equipment, with loads of 10 and 50 kN/s. Samples were prepared in order
to achieve a slenderness (height/length) of 1. For new mortars compressive
strength was performed following EN 1015-11 [CEN, 1999].
Figure 1 compares laboratorial compressive strength results (MPa) from mortars that are common in conservation practice in Norway, using different binders (air limes and natural hydraulic limes) with results of old mortars (Middle
Ages and Nineteenth Century) and results of NHL mortars provided by the
industry for mortars, at least 2 years old.
It is clear that in terms of mortars that have been environmentally exposed,
air lime and NHL2 mortars have a lower mechanical strength than NHL3,5
and NHL5 mortars. The nineteenth century mortar from Oscarshall has a higher compressive strength, when related to natural hydraulic lime mortars,
clearly due to the fact that early cement was used in its composition. Medieval mortars display a great variety of results, which is expected due to
differences in binder:aggregate ratio and other factors such as used materials
and techniques and different environmental expositions. However, the results
achieved by these mortars place them between air lime and natural hydraulic
lime (NHL3,5) in terms of strength. When comparing that these mortars display with values from NHL2 and NHL3,5 given by the industry, it seems as
if NHL3,5 mortars display values which are higher (sometimes significantly)
than those of medieval mortars.
4.2. Capillary water absorption
The capillary water absorption test was carried out as described in the paper
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Fig.2 - Capillary water absorption in kg/m2.h1/2

Capillary tests on historic mortar samples extracted from site. Methodology

and compared results [Veiga et al, 2004]. Subsequently mortars were dried
following procedure based on standard NORMAL 29/88 [Commissione Normal, 1991]. New samples were tested following EN 1015-18 [CEN, 2002].
Figure 2 displays data on capillary water absorption of studied mortars also
aiming at the comparison between values of currently used solutions and those of old mortars. Due to lack of data, values of industrial mortars are not
displayed.
There is a great variability in terms of capillary absorption values of medieval
mortars. While some mortars display values similar to those of air lime mortars, mortars from Utstein display very high values. NHL 3,5 mortar results
show that they have a substantially lower capillary water absorption than that
of medieval mortars. As expected, the sample from Oscarshall displayed the
lowest result due to the use of early cement as binder.
4.3. Porosity
Porosity was defined by thin section analysis. Thin section analysis was performed by SEIR- materialeanalyse A/S using a petrographic polarizing microscope Zeiss Axioplan 2 equipped with x10 oculars and x1,25-x100 objectives
has been used. Photographs were taken with a digital camera, model Infinity
X from DeltaPix.
Most NHL samples revealed irregular air pores, except mortars from Trondheim which displayed small air pores. Percentage of pores below and above
0,3mm were analysed in Medieval mortars revealing a wide range of pore
structures. However, regarding this analysis no clear differentiation was observed between Utstein mortars, with high capillary absorption, and the other
samples. The use of mercury intrusion porosimetry or a similar analytical technique would provide more accurate results and should be used to enable
adequate analysis.
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4.4. Binder aggregate ratio

Binder aggregate ratio was defined by thin section analysis. The NHL mortars
applied 2-5 years ago were analysed both by thin section analysis and by acid
dissolution. The results of the thin section analysis of the mortars from the
Middle Ages were as follows (Table 2):

Table 2: Binder/aggregate ration of samples from the Middle Ages

Mortars used in Norway in the Middle Ages had a very high amount of binder,
often higher or much higher than the amount of aggregate. Binder:aggregate
ratio for the studied samples was estimated between 1:1 and 1:16. In the
same building, as is the case of Utstein Monastery, different ratios were used.
Currently used ratios are extremely different, usually between 1:2 and 1:2,5
with much less binder than the old mortars analysed in this study. This is related to actual application techniques which are particularly adapted to this type
of mixtures.
4.5. Particle size distribution
Particle size distribution was performed by wet sieving followed by dry sieving
in accordance with standard EN 933-1 [CEN, 2012].

Fig.3 - Particle size distribution of aggregates from new mortar samples

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Fig.4 - Particle size distribution of medieval mortars

Figure 3 displays the particle size distribution of currently used mortars denoting the use of pre-mixed mortars (probably using Danish sand) in most cases
and the use of natural sand in samples from Trondheim.
Samples MA4 and MA10 in Figure 4 are from plasters and therefore contain
finer sand. The remaining samples contain sand with maximum particle size
of 4mm or over.
5. XRF/XRD results
The chemical composition (major elements) was analysed using a Panalytical
Axios X-ray fluorescence spectrometer. Loss on ignition was determined by
heating the samples in an electrical furnace at 1000C during 3 hours.
A Philips XPert diffractometer equipped with CuK radiation was used to
establish mineralogical composition of the specimens. The XPert HighScore
(PW3209) program was used to analyze XRD peaks.
XRF results of old mortars revealed calcium oxide and silicon oxide as main
oxides while XRD results showed calcite and quartz as main components in
most mortars, which clearly reveals the use of air lime mortars. Results of
repair mortars were somewhat different as portlandite was present in some
samples showing that they werent completely carbonated after 2 years of
exposure.
6. Discussion / conclusions
From the sampling that was obtained it seems that, generally, NHL3,5 is prefered as binder for mortars employed in the conservation of old buildings in
Norway. Furthermore, the same sand was employed in most cases. Therefore, most of the mortars were pre-mixed, with a 1:2 volume ratio and using the
same binder and sand. Mortars used in Trondheim were distinct as natural regional sand was used in their manufacture.Mortar choice seems to be based
on binder type and mass ratio rather than on properties. In terms of requisites
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for conservation mortars not many works have been developed and this is
especially critical in terms of mortars from Norway, where aspects such as
freeze-thaw should be considered.
The results from the described tests show that NHL5 and some NHL3,5 mortars seem to have much higher compressive strength than the original mortars
from the Middle Ages. In addition the porosity and the particle size distribution
differs. The air lime and the old mortars from the Middle ages have a porosity
roughly estimated as the double of the two year old NHL3,5 mortars. When
using natural sand the sizes of aggregate seems to be much more spread up
to 4 mm, while the produced sand is more dominated by small sizes. A recent
publication [Gimnes and Pennock, 2012] evaluated air lime and NHL mortars
taking into account adhesion, carbonation, hardness and freeze-thaw endurance concluding that actual NHL3,5 mortars were too strong to be compatible
with medieval mortars. In fact, this study also reveals high values for compressive strength of NHL3,5 mortars and although these values are expected, they
are considerably higher than values determined for old lime mortars [Veiga,
2010] and for several medieval lime mortars from Norway [Haugen et al, 2005;
Waldum and Kvande, 1998]. The mortar hardens over time and the European
standard does not limit the definiton at this point; even a mortar defined as an
NHL 2 can for example, after hardening, have a compressive strength of 5
MPa [Gullota et al, 2013]. Studies show that even if the total porosity values
for NHL mortars vary within a limited range, the pore size distribution seems
to be the critical parameter strongly affecting the durability with respect to salt
decay [Gullota et al, 2013]. Probably it also affects the frost-thaw-endurance
of the mortars, which is important for Norwegian mortars.
Other factors play an important role in mortar performance. This may be the
case of application time, as mortars from Akershus applied later on in the year
(application finished in October) showed clear signs of lack of carbonation. If
uncarbonated mortars are subject to water/humidity, this will cause the dissolution of portlandite and create vulnerability.
Since, in building conservation, mortar choices have to be performed for repointing or rendering of old surfaces, it is important to establish a mortar composition with adequate properties. Binder/proportion choice will not directly
imply the choice of properties due to differences in binders and aggregates
from different suppliers. It is important to stress that in conservation actions
in which new mortars will be applied contiguous to old mortars, compatibility
(chemical, physical, mechanical) is a vital issue towards success. For this
purpose, characterization of the old mortars should be performed. The evaluation of for example compressive strength, porosity, particle size distribution
and freeze/thaw endurance are necessary to ensure the adequacy of these
materials.
References
CEN: EN 1015-1:1999, 1999, Methods of test of mortar for masonry- Part 11: Determination of flexural and compressive strength of hardened mortar.
CEN : EN 1015-18:2002, 2002, Methods of test of mortar for masonry- Part 18: Determination of water absorption coefficient due to capillary action of hardened mortar.
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CEN : EN 998-1:2003, 2002, Specification for mortar for masonry - Part 1: Rendering
and plastering mortar.
CEN EN 933-1, 2012, Tests for geometrical properties of aggregates. Determination of
particle size distribution. Sieving method.
Commisione Normal, 1991, Misura dellindice di asciugamento, Roma CNR/ICR 29/88.
Gimnes T., Pennok C., 2012, An investigation of lime mortar enhancement using traditional additives.
Gulotta D., Goidanich S., Tedeschi C., Nijland T.G., Toniolo L, 2013, Commercial NHLcontaining mortars for the preservation of historical architecture. Part 1: Compositional
and mechanical characterisation, Construction and Building Materials, 38, pp.3142.
Haugen A., Hole E., Mydland L., 2005, Middelalderske kalkmrtel Analyser av
egenskapene til et utvalg av mrtelprver tatt fra middelalderske anlegg, NIKU rapporter 12/2005.
Valek J., Veiga M.R., 2005, Characterization of mechanical properties of historic mortars testing of irregular samples, Advances in Architecture Series 20, pp. 365-374.
Veiga M.R., Magalhes A.C., Bokan-Bosilikov V., 2004, Capillarity tests on historic
mortar samples extracted from site. Methodology and compared results, 13th International Brick and Block Masonry Conference, Amsterdam.
Veiga R., 2010, Conservation of historic renders and plasters: from lab to site, 2nd
Historic Mortars Conference HMC 2010 and RILEM TC 203-RHM Final Workshop
Prague, Czech Republic, 22-24 September 2010, pp.1241-1256.
Waldum A.; Kvande T., 1998, Analyse av gamle kalkmrtel- samling av prvresultater,
Projekstrapport 239-1998, Norges byggforskningsinstitutt.

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