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Imaging in tuberculosis
Evangelia Skoura a, Alimuddin Zumla b, Jamshed Bomanji a,*
a
Institute of Nuclear Medicine, University College Hospitals NHS Trust, London NW1 2BU, UK
Division of Infection and Immunity, Centre for Clinical Microbiology, University College London, and NIHR Biomedical Research Centre,
University College London Hospitals, London, UK
A R T I C L E I N F O
Article history:
Received 14 November 2014
Received in revised form 28 November 2014
Accepted 1 December 2014
Corresponding Editor: Eskild Petersen,
Aarhus, Denmark
Keywords:
Pulmonary tuberculosis
Extrapulmonary tuberculosis
Computed tomography
Positron emission tomography
Fluorodeoxyglucose
Magnetic resonance imaging
S U M M A R Y
Early diagnosis of tuberculosis (TB) is necessary for effective treatment. In primary pulmonary TB, chest
radiography remains the mainstay for the diagnosis of parenchymal disease, while computed
tomography (CT) is more sensitive in detecting lymphadenopathy. In post-primary pulmonary TB, CT
is the method of choice to reveal early bronchogenic spread. Concerning characterization of the infection
as active or not, CT is more sensitive than radiography, and 18F-uorodeoxyglucose positron emission
tomography/CT (18F-FDG PET/CT) has yielded promising results that need further conrmation. The
diagnosis of extrapulmonary TB sometimes remains difcult. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is the
preferred modality in the diagnosis and assessment of tuberculous spondylitis, while 18F-FDG PET shows
superior image resolution compared with single-photon-emitting tracers. MRI is considered superior to
CT for the detection and assessment of central nervous system TB. Concerning abdominal TB, lymph
nodes are best evaluated on CT, and there is no evidence that MRI offers added advantages in diagnosing
hepatobiliary disease. As metabolic changes precede morphological ones, the application of 18F-FDG PET/
CT will likely play a major role in the assessment of the response to anti-TB treatment.
2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of International Society for Infectious Diseases.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/bync-nd/4.0/).
1. Introduction
Tuberculosis (TB) remains a global emergency despite substantial investment in health services over the past two decades.
Patients with sputum-negative pulmonary TB (PTB) and extrapulmonary TB (EPTB) are difcult to diagnose and may be missed
at all points of care. Diagnostic imaging is challenging because
signs of TB may mimic those of other diseases such as neoplasms or
sarcoidosis. Clinical signs and symptoms in affected adults can be
non-specic and a high level of pre-test clinical suspicion based on
history is fundamental in the diagnostic work-up. The global
impact of TB is extremely important, considering that an estimated
9.0 million people developed TB in 2013 and 1.5 million died from
the disease, according to the recent World Health Organization
(WHO) global tuberculosis report 2014.
Early diagnosis promotes effective treatment and leads to a
reduced onward transmission of TB. This article gives a review of
imaging patterns of chest TB as may be detected on conventional
radiography and computed tomography (CT). The main aim is to
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: jamshed.bomanji@uclh.nhs.uk (J. Bomanji).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijid.2014.12.007
1201-9712/ 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of International Society for Infectious Diseases. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND
license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
88
2. Pulmonary tuberculosis
Classically, PTB can be divided into a primary and a postprimary pattern, each presenting with characteristic radiological
features. In practice, however, it is very difcult to draw distinct
lines between these radiographic patterns, and there is considerable overlap in the radiological manifestations.5
2.1. Primary tuberculosis
Primary TB is due to rst-time exposure to Mycobacterium
tuberculosis. At radiology, primary PTB manifests as four main
entities parenchymal disease, lymphadenopathy, pleural effusion, and miliary disease or any combination thereof.1
Chest radiography continues to be the mainstay of diagnosis.
Typically, parenchymal disease manifests as consolidation in any
lobe, with predominance in the lower and middle lobes.6 In these
cases, the bacterial infections are much more likely to be the cause
of such radiological features and hence the ndings are nonspecic, although primary infection should be suspected in
individuals at risk of exposure to TB. Multilobar consolidation
can be seen in almost 25% of cases.1 In approximately two-thirds of
cases, the parenchymal lesion resolves without sequelae on
conventional radiography.6 In the remainder, a radiological scar
persists that can be calcied in up to 15%, while persistent masslike opacities called tuberculomas are seen in approximately 9% of
cases.6 Frequently, the only radiological evidence suggestive of
previous TB is the so-called Ranke complex: the combination of a
parenchymal scar, calcied or not (Ghon lesion), and calcied hilar
and/or paratracheal lymph nodes.5 Destruction and brosis of the
lung parenchyma result in the formation of traction bronchiectasis
within the brotic region.5
The most common abnormality in children is lymph node
enlargement, which is seen in 9095% of cases; by comparison, in
adults the percentage reaches up to 43%.7 Right paratracheal and
hilar lymph nodes are the most common sites of nodal involvement, although involvement is bilateral in about a third of cases. CT
is more sensitive than plain radiography in detecting tuberculous
lymphadenopathy. It reveals nodes often measuring more than
2 cm, with a very characteristic, but not pathognomonic, rim sign
that consists of a low-density centre, representing caseous
necrosis, surrounded by a peripheral enhancing rim due to
granulomatous inammatory tissue.8,9
In contrast to lymphadenopathy, the prevalence of radiographically detectable parenchymal involvement is signicantly lower in
children up to 3 years old (51%) than in older children, among whom
the prevalence is similar to the reported percentage in adults
(80%).7,8 Also, evolution to cavitary disease is rare in children.5
18
F-FDG avid right lower lobe nodule measuring 1.5 cm (SUVmax 2). The differential diagnosis for this nodule would include cancer or
89
Figure 2. Trans-axial CT section showing a patchy, heterogeneous, poorly dened consolidation with cavitating lesion in the upper lobe of the right lung.
Figure 3. Left panel: CT image showing a 1.6 1.2-cm cavitating lesion (arrow) in the upper lobe of the right lung. Right panel: this lesion shows mild 18F-FDG uptake on the
PET scan (small arrow) (SUVmax 2.2). Bottom left panel: Fused 18F-FDG PET/CT image showing the same cavitating avid lesion (arrow).
90
Figure 4. Left panel: Multiple intensity projection image showing 18F-FDG uptake in the mediastinal and bilateral hilar lymph nodes (arrows). Right panel: Multiple fused
trans-axial section 18F-FDG PET/CT images showing hilar and mediastinal lymph nodes (arrows).
3. Extrapulmonary tuberculosis
Despite recent advances in imaging, the diagnosis of extrapulmonary involvement sometimes remains difcult.38 The
91
Figure 5. CT (left panel) and 18F-FDG PET/CT fused images (right panel): trans-axial and sagittal sections. Moderate to intense 18F-FDG uptake is seen in a paravertebral soft
tissue mass lesion extending from the level of T7T10 vertebrae with associated lytic sclerotic changes in T7T9 vertebrae and collapse of the T8 vertebra (arrows). The lesion
inltrates into the spinal canal at the level of the T8 vertebra and involves the spinal cord (small arrow). The lesion is seen to extend along the left costal margin, with faint 18FFDG uptake and foci of calcication, likely representing a cold abscess (courtesy of Prof. B.R. Mittal).
Abdominal lymphadenopathy is the most common manifestation of abdominal TB, seen in 5566% of patients, and may or may
not be associated with other abdominal organ involvement.52
Abdominal lymph nodes are best evaluated on CT, which reveals
enlarged nodes with hypoattenuating centres and hyperattenuating enhancing rims.52,53 On MRI, the appearance is typically
hypointense on T1 images, whereas on T2 images the signal is
generally hyperintense or with peripheral low-intensity signal.1
Hepatic TB can be classied into local, miliary TB, or
tuberculomas.54 Miliary TB is the most common form of liver TB
and is a part of generalized disease; innumerable small nodules are
found on the liver which may or may not be seen on CT, but on
ultrasound usually present as bright liver or spleen patterns in the
form of a diffuse increase in echogenicity.54
Calcication in the hepatic region on plain radiography may
occasionally be seen in local hepatic TB.54 On CT, liver tuberculoma
appears as a non-enhancing, central, low-density lesion with a
slightly enhancing peripheral rim, while liver calcications can
also be demonstrated. MRI offers no added advantage in
diagnosing hepatobiliary TB.55
92
Figure 6. Multiple intensity projection image (left panel) and fused trans-axial section 18F-FDG PET/CT images (right panel) showing 18F-FDG uptake in multiple lymph nodes
(SUVmax 6.8) (porta hepatis, portacaval, para-aortic, retroperitoneal, bilateral internal iliac, left external iliac, and left inguinal (arrows)) and heterogeneous 18F-FDG uptake in
the grossly enlarged spleen (SUVmax 10.2) (arrow) and in bones (T8 vertebra coupled with paravertebral soft tissue uptake (SUVmax 17.6), L3 vertebral body anteriorly (SUVmax
11.6), and the right sacral alae (SUVmax 6.7) (arrows)) (courtesy of Dr A. Alshammari).
co-infected with HIV. Such patients characteristically demonstrate an atypical radiographic pattern, for example middle and
lower lung involvement, absence of cavity formation, presence
of lymphadenopathy and pleural effusions, or a miliary pattern.38
The radiographic appearance of HIV-associated PTB has been
found to be dependent on the level of immunosuppression at the
time of overt disease.66 Radiological manifestations in patients
with a CD4 T-lymphocyte count of <200/mm3 show a higher
incidence of mediastinal or hilar lymph node enlargement, a lower
prevalence of cavitation, and often extrapulmonary involvement
compared with HIV patients with a CD4 T-lymphocyte count of
200/mm3.66 A study performed to determine the CT spectrum of
PTB in HIV patients showed nodular opacities (in 78.5% of cases),
consolidation (46.4%), lymphadenopathy (35.7%), pleural effusion
(35.7%), ground glass opacity (21.4%), and cavitation (21.4%).67
Other authors have reported that features of post-primary PTB are
patchy consolidation with involvement at unusual sites.68 Cavitation is less common at lower CD4 counts. Patients with severe
immunosuppression have an increased incidence of miliary
pulmonary disease, with diffuse, randomly distributed nodules
on CT.69 Mediastinal and hilar lymphadenopathy occurs in 7577%
of cases and is more commonly seen in HIV-positive than in HIVnegative patients.68 Extrapulmonary localizations are frequent in
HIV-infected patients and may involve brain, pericardium,
gastrointestinal tract, peritoneum, and genitourinary tract.70
Currently there are no data to support the use of 18F-FDG PET/
CT in this patient group.
Funding: None.
Ethical approval: Ethical approval was not required.
Conict of interest: All authors have no competing interests to
declare.
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