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Thermal conduction
The mechanism: energy is transported between parts of
continuum by the transfer of kinetic energy between
particles or groups of particles at the atomic level.
Steady-state conduction
Steady-state conditions:
t = F(t) = constant
q (kA)
q
k
A
dt/dx
dt
dx
The equation states that the heat flow rate (q) in the x direction is directly
proportional to the temperature gradient dt/dx and the cross sectional area A
normal to the heat flow.
The proportionality factor is the thermal conductivity k.
The minus sign indicates that the heat flow is positive in the direction of
decreasing temperature.
(t1 t 2 )
qkA
L
L
t1
t2
A
k
wall thickness
temperature at x = 0
temperature at x = L
surface of the wall
thermal conductivity
, W where R
L
L
R
R
kA
kA
R thermal resistance, K/W
Or
L m2 K
R ,
k
W
qA
t
, W
R
Example 1
Given is a solid brick wall, with the following data:
Material:
brick, fired clay, density: 1760 kg/m3,
conductivity (k): 0.8 W/m K
Surface (A):
5 m x 3 m = 15 m2
20 C
0 C
25 cm = 0.25 m
Calculate
a) the heat flow through the wall
b) the thermal resistance
t1 t2 t2 t3 t3 t4
q
, W
R1
R2
R3
If the number of layers is n:
t1 t n 1
n
Ri
i 1
Example 2
Given is an insulated concrete wall, which data are:
Layers:
1 sand and gravel concrete,
2400 kg/m3, k1 = 1.5 W/m K, L1 = 16 cm
2 expanded polystyrene,
20 kg/m3, k2 = 0.036 W/m K, L2 = 6 cm
3 sand and gravel concrete,
2400 kg/m3, k3 = 1.5 W/m K, L3 = 8 cm
Surface (A):
5 m x 3 m = 15 m2
Interior surface temperature (t1): 20 C
Exterior surface temperature (t4): 0 C
a) Calculate the heat flow through the wall and the
temperature on the surface of the layers
b) Illustrate the temperature in the wall
dt
Q 2r L k , W
dr
q
r
L
k
dt/dr
t1 t 2
Q 2 L k
, W
r
ln 2
r1
At the same way, with the thermal conduction resistance:
t
Q , W
R
The thermal conduction resistance:
r2
d2 m K
1
1
R
ln or R
ln ,
2 L k r1
2 L k d1
W
Thermal convection
Energy transfer is involved by fluid movement and molecular
conduction.
q hc A (t s t f ) hc A t
Where
q heat flow rate, W
hc convectional heat transfer
coefficient, W/m2K
A surface of the wall, m2
ts temperature of the surface, K or C
tf temperature of the fluid, K or C
hc L
k
characteristic dimension, m
Dimensionless Numbers
In the equation of Nusselt number
Pr
cp
L3 2 g t L characteristic dimension, m
Gr
density, kg/m3
coefficient of thermal expansion, 1/K
g
Re
vL
t temperature difference, K or C
absolute viscosity, kg/ms or Ns/m2
v
velocity, m/s
hc L
C (Gr Pr) n
k
n
k L g t
hc C
L
2
f
3
c p
Open spaces:
horizontal
Floor
up
t = ts tair > 0
hc up >hc hor > hc down
Water, liquid
10
50 W/m2 K
Example 3
Given are a room and a radiator.
Surface temperature:
ts = 85 C
Solution:
h L
Nu c
C (Gr Pr) n
k
k L3 2 g t
hc C
L
av2
f
cp
30 = 1,1270 kg/m3
density,
gravitational acceleration,
absolute viscosity,
specific heat,
t = 85 30 = 55 C
Temperature difference
Average temperature
absolute viscosity at 60 C
Requi
L
kequi
Thermal radiation
The total energy emitted per unit time and unit area is given
by the Stefan-Boltzman law:
Eblack T 4
where
E Eblack T 4
where
hemispherical emittance or emissivity.
is a function of the material, condition of its surface.
E En cos
Utilising the Lamberts law the total energy
radiated to the hemisphere is:
ETotal En
The energy flux which leaves dA1 element and which is absorbed by
dA2 element is quadraticly small:
d2E1 = E1n cos 1 dA1 dW1
From this, the radiation absorbed by dA2 is:
d2E1-2 = 2 d2E1
The heat exchange through radiation between the two plane elements is:
d2q1-2 = d2E1-2 d2E2-1
Angle Factor
The fraction of all radiant energy leaving a surface i
that is directly incident on surface k is the angle
factor Fik (also known as view factor, shape
factor, and configuration factor).
Inside
convection
conduction
Outside
also convection
q U A (t i t o )
Example 4
Given is a multilayer wall, where the wall construction data are the following:
Material
1 Brick, fired clay
Density
Condutivity
, kg/m3
k, W/m,K
1760
Thickness
L, m
0.8
0.25
2 Mineral fibreboard
260
0.049
0.06
660
0.16
0.02
ASHRAE F.25.2
EN 12831
9.26/0.11*
10.0/0.1
6.13/0.16*
5.9/0.17
Vertical surface
8.29/0.12*
7.7/0.13
34/0.03*
25/0.04
Calculations
1. Overall heat transfer coefficient:
1
1 n Li 1
hi j 1 ki ho
1
n
Ris R j Ros
j 1
q U A (ti to )
1 1
tis ti q
A hi
1 L1
t1 tis q
A k1
1 1
tos q to
A ho
4. How to illustrate the temperature in and around the wall?