SECONDARY LAW ENFORCEMENT EDUCATION

The Design and Implementation of Secondary Law Enforcement Education Programs

Justin Howe
CRJ 505 Capstone
Arizona State University

SECONDARY LAW ENFORCEMENT EDUCATION

Abstract
Recent trends in secondary education have been marked by a move towards increasing the
number of programs offered under the career and technical education banner. School districts are
seeking to diversify their curriculum and move away from a strict emphasis on college
preparatory programs in an effort to embrace a more diverse curricular approach that strives to
make students career ready. Recognizing a demand for more diverse and skilled workers in the
trades and public safety fields, many districts are now incorporating law enforcement courses
into their curriculum. This development has raised several questions regarding the nature and
scope of coursework, who should be teaching in these programs, and how best to implement
input from agencies and advisory committees. Magnifying the importance of this pathway of
courses is the reality that the demands and public expectations placed on tomorrows police
officers will surpass any experienced by officers in the past. To help meet this need, research
indicates that high school programs should work to create a cross-curricular academic approach
that both prepares students for further college level education as well as the field specific
practical skills needed in police work.
Keywords: advisory council, career and technical education, cadet

SECONDARY LAW ENFORCEMENT EDUCATION

Introduction
Police, at all times, should maintain a relationship with the public that gives reality to the
historic tradition that the police are the public and the public are the police
Sir Robert Peel
Sir Robert Peels Nine Principles of Policing (Lentz, Chaires 2007)
In a free society it is important that the police, who are empowered with a great deal of
discretionary authority, be as highly skilled and knowledgeable as possible so as to serve that
society effectively. The process by which police obtain their skills and knowledge has changed
dramatically over time, and continues to evolve in order to meet the ever increasing expectations
placed on them. Todays law enforcement officer must possess all the traditional police skills
and be proficient in the use of technology. They must possess an understanding and appreciation
for diverse cultures. More than ever, they must be effective critical thinkers, capable of split
second decisions that may be scrutinized long after their decisions are put into action.
Given the challenges facing todays law enforcement officer, the training process is
receiving more and more scrutiny. It is into this challenging atmosphere that a relatively new
phenomenon is beginning to emerge: secondary law enforcement training programs. These
programs, still in their infancy throughout most of the country, offer students the opportunity to
focus their time and efforts on studies and activities geared towards a career in law enforcement.
This career remains highly popular among many high school students.
Another challenge facing law enforcement is the overwhelmingly negative publicity
which seems to have intensified over the past few years with the events that took place in
Ferguson, Missouri. These events, and the subsequent and highly publicized negative
interactions between police and the public that followed, have damaged officer recruiting and
applicant diversity. Many agencies now view high school law enforcement programs as the ideal
way to rebuild their damaged public persona and foster relationships that will bear a more
diverse group of applicants, improving the publics perception of the field.

SECONDARY LAW ENFORCEMENT EDUCATION

Despite high student interest and the promise of a job with specialized skills, there are
many questions that need to be answered when it comes time for a school district to implement
such a program. Questions vary from who will teach the courses to what kind of certification
would be appropriate for such an individual? In many areas this is the first hurdle that must be
cleared, as without a qualified instructor a quality program will never materialize. Another area
that must be addressed is the nature of the curriculum and instructional style. Will it resemble a
college level criminal justice course, a police academy, or something all together unique given
the age of the students and confines of the secondary classroom? Finally, what role, if any, will
police agencies play in the design, development and implementation of these programs? High
school law enforcement programs offer a great deal of potential benefits to students,
communities and police agencies, but many important questions must be answered prior to
launching such as program in order to best serve the parties involved.
Instructors
High school teachers are licensed to teach by the state in which they work and for the
most part, teachers are licensed to teach in one specific content area. The idea being that at the
high school level, instructors should develop a certain level of expertise in one content area.
This allows them to deliver content complex enough for the student preparing to attend college
or enter the workforce. Unfortunately for law enforcement programs, states do not currently
offer a law enforcement endorsement, which means most school districts will typically appoint a
social studies teacher to serve as the instructor for these courses. The rationale behind this
decision is that the content, being akin to a criminal justice course, features concepts and
principles most closely related to the social studies discipline. Clearly, criminal justice is
considered a social science at the post-secondary level so this thinking makes sense. However,

SECONDARY LAW ENFORCEMENT EDUCATION

even if the instructor is educated in the major concepts of criminology, their lack of experience
as a law enforcement officer calls into question the appropriateness of this teaching appointment.
However well intentioned or diligent the social studies teacher is when it comes to preparing and
implementing lesson plans for the law enforcement classroom, their lack of practical knowledge
and experience in the field means they must rely on outside experts to deliver field relevant
content. Thus, relating coursework to the occupation in a genuine way is unlikely.
Obstacles for the Social Studies Teacher
As discussed, there is a high likelihood that social studies teachers will be assigned the
task of teaching law enforcement courses in high schools. These educators will face many
challenges in attempting to prepare students to enter a field in which they may have no
experience. For example, if they sought to include instruction on practical police skills such as
handcuffing, transporting prisoners, or making a traffic stop, they would be required to enlist the
assistance of a law enforcement officer. Through the prism of first-hand experience, law
enforcement officers can offer insight into the subtle intricacies and potential dangers of these
maneuvers. The type of experience needed to accurately convey such knowledge effectively
only come with years of practice in the field and is difficult to gain through the reading of
manuals or viewing of videos. If these teachers choose not to bring police officers into their
classroom to augment their instruction, it means they will either forgo teaching practical skills
altogether, or potentially teach them incorrectly. Either situation will result in compromise of the
students instruction. School districts would likely balk at the idea of asking a science teacher to
teach a course on nursing, as they posses no firsthand knowledge of nursing skills. However,
there seems to be a general acceptance of using social studies teachers to instruct students on
how to be a police officer. To be fair, districts have few other options if they want to offer these

SECONDARY LAW ENFORCEMENT EDUCATION

programs. One way to bridge the instructional gap is to partner a traditional teacher with a police
officer, or at the very least invite them to visit the classroom frequently.
Though intended for community college curriculum, Crockett and Stinchcomb (1968)
offer several suggestions on how to staff a law enforcement program correctly. First, utilizing an
advisory council of professionals from the field is imperative. Such a group can provide field
relevant advice on best practices and curriculum decisions throughout the life of the program.
They should also be utilized when searching for instructors as they will likely be in the best
position to identify qualified instructors from within their field (Crockett and Stinchcomb, 1968).
They also suggested utilizing part-time instructors temporarily if needed, in order to secure the
best possible instruction for the programs students (Crockett and Stinchcomb, 1968). It may be
possible to find retired or part-time police officers with the required teaching credentials, to teach
on part-time bases.
Officers in the Classroom
Brown and Benedict (2005) found that students have a predominately favorable view of
police officers in the school, and that an officers presence can have a positive impact on the
school beyond the classroom. Inviting police officers into the classroom can offer a number of
benefits to the students, the teacher, and the police officer. While teachers and students gain
exposure to the officers experience and skills, the officer gets the opportunity to interact with
youth which can help break down barriers and change negative perceptions about the police.
Changing negative perceptions about law enforcement can make the officers job easier in the
long run as students will be more willing to cooperate with them and view the officer in a
positive way (Brown and Benedict, 2005). Working in the classroom can also offer the police
officer the opportunity to engage in community policing and impact recruiting which can
potentially lay the groundwork for more diversity in the applicant pool years down the road.

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Occasionally some districts are able to employ retired police officers, off duty officers ,
or officers that have changed careers and seek to become teachers. Goggins (1994) recognizes
the Akron Public School District for its use of off-duty police officers in the classroom as an
effective use of a community resource that has been perceived as beneficial program by
administrators, teachers, and students. While these past or current officers can offer some
advantages over traditional teachers, there are some potential disadvantages as well. Career
changing police officers turned teachers will lack the benefit experience in the classroom that,
just like working in the field as a police officer, brings a wealth of knowledge that is only
obtained through daily interaction with students. Additionally, most states will require these
officers turned teachers to complete a full teacher education program, which will mean returning
to school, a sizable financial investment, and completion of the student teaching process. These
hurdles can be more than many retired or second career seeking officers are willing to take on.
Fortunately, some states are now testing alternative education programs for professionals
with significant career experience that want to enter the classroom. As career and technical
programs expand, these types of alternative teacher transition programs will likely become more
common as states seek to tap the knowledge of professionals who are more familiar with the
demands and requirements of their fields than the traditional classroom teacher. Concerns
regarding alternative education programs for professionals are not substantiated, as multiple
studies have shown them to be effective means for educating teachers.
Miller, McKenna, and McKenna (1998) completed three studies comparing teachers
trained in alterative education programs with those coming from traditional programs. They
found no significant differences between student achievement or classroom instruction. Shen
(1997) found that alternative certification programs offered benefits such as alleviating teacher
shortages in areas of need and recruiting more minorities into the profession. Zeichner and

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Schulte (2001) also found these programs draw more minorities into the profession and result in
educators of the same quality found in traditional education programs.
Pairing Teachers and Officers
Currently there is an instructor gap between those with knowledge of pedagogy, a state
license and experience in the classroom, and those with the kind of education that can only come
from working as a police officer in the field. Somewhere between these two individuals lies the
perfect preparation for teaching these courses. The solution adopted by some districts is to
augment the social studies teachers instruction with input from the school resource officer or
other officer from a local agency. This is a reasonable option that can result in a quality
educational experience with the necessary, although limited, exposure to the practical skills of
policing. It does, however, have limitations. One way to understand these limitations is to
envision a science teacher who, when conducting a lab experiment, is required to bring in an
outside expert. This reliance on an outside expert will eventually erode the students respect for
the classroom teachers knowledge of the subject, and has the potential to cause them to discount
instruction from that teacher. This erosion of respect is understandable given that students in this
situation are being asked to take instruction from an individual on a subject which they have no
practical experience. Given the nature of career and technical courses it is that understanding of
the career field that is so desperately needed to give these courses validity. These courses are
designed to expose students to the realities of different careers and the skills needed to gain
initial employment in the field.
The pairing of a teacher and police officer in some districts may elicit backlash from the
community if law enforcement does not already have a presence in the school system. Brown
(2006) found in some districts, the presence of officers damages the perception of their district
and they create the illusion that district crime and violence has increased. If these obstacles can

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be overcome, the pairing of officers with teachers is an advantageous compromise when

searching for qualified instructors.
Addressing the Instructor Dilemma
A solution to the instructor dilemma may lie in the development of a specialized teacher
law enforcement training program. A program such as this could be designed as a joint effort by
the state departments of education and public safety, working to create a program that serves the
interest of both agencies. In essence such a program would take the classroom teacher and put
them through a modified police academy in the summer months when school is out of session.
During the academy the teacher would learn the practical skills of policing, gain insight into the
challenges of the profession, and be exposed to the training process their students would
experience should they pursue such a career. In the end, if the teachers completed the program,
they could be licensed as sworn police officers and serve as a resource for their districts. This
would especially benefit rural and impoverished districts that may not be able to afford security
or school resource officers.
Chappell (2008) found that highly educated recruits, as the classroom teacher would be,
fared better overall in the community policing curriculum presented in police academies than the
typical recruit. Marion (1998) had a similar finding regarding education level and academy
performance. This may suggest that classroom teachers would perform well at the academy and
use their community policing skills effectively in the classroom.
A challenge for the teacher-to-police officer approach may be the inability to find
teachers willing to complete the program and serve as police officers. After all, education and
law enforcement typically attract different types of individuals.
Moving forward, programs such as training teachers to become police officers or finding
alternative ways to train police officers as teachers seems to be the best option for solving the
experience gap facing districts today. If state education and public safety agencies work together,
there is a potential to develop programs that will benefit both in the long run and achieve the

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ultimate goal, which is to prepare the student to enter the field as a more capable and prepared
police recruit.
Curriculum
Once the challenge of finding the right instructor is resolved, the next issue that must be
addressed is the nature and scope of the high school law enforcement curriculum. In many states
the curriculum is highly detailed and developed by the state education agency, leaving little room
for the district or teacher to augment the content. However, this does not mean what is
established by the state is the appropriate approach. Much debate exists over how and what
secondary students should be taught in the law enforcement classroom. To address this issue is to
address the fundamental purpose of these programs. Are they meant to provide students with a
basic understanding of the criminal justice system and the interworking of government? Or are
these courses more appropriately focused on a vocational training which emphasizes practical
skills and hands on learning? One reason this question is so difficult to answer is the nature of
the law enforcement career field. Law enforcement is both a vocation that demands a high degree
of hands on skills while at the same time requires its members to have significant knowledge of
criminal justice concepts. How best to balance these two needs is the challenge facing districts
that decide to offer these programs.
Carter, Sapp, and Stephens (1989) examined higher education recommendations for
police and developed a profile of current practice. Their study found that college educated
officers were far better communicators, more flexible and adaptive, and performed better on the
job. Shernock (1992) found that college educated officers tended to place a higher value on
ethical behavior and the results of Roberg and Bonns (2004) study recommended a bachelors
degree be required of all officers over time. It should also be noted that multiple national

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commissions have recommended departments institute formal policies requiring college

education for promotion (Carter, Sapp, and Stephens, 1989).
Birzer (1999) recommends abandoning the intense focus on the traditional technical skills
of policing when it comes to training and educating police officers, recommending dedicating
more time to critical thinking and interpersonal skills. The technical skills, it turns out, are only
utilized roughly 10% of an officers service day while the other 90% is consumed with other
activities such as service calls.
These studies offer powerful takeaway lessons for students as well as those designing
high school programs. In order to prepare students for a competitive workplace and equip them
with the skills necessary to be highly effective officers, the mandate is clear; a college
preparatory approach would appear to be the most advantageous for students.
Two Different Approaches to Instruction
The decision to give more focus to traditional technical skills or take a more traditional
academic approach is determined by the background of the instructor. Instructors trained as
social studies teachers will likely create a classroom experience that resembles a traditional
social studies classroom with lecture, research and self-directed learning activities. In
classrooms where the traditional technical skills are the focus, the format may resemble
instruction that occurs at the academy. In these classrooms, students may receive a small amount
of lecture, frequent, short tests, and a generous amount of hands on practicals. In skills focused
classroom, instructional units may be topics such as Completing a Traffic Stop or
Handcuffing. Conversely, in the traditional classroom model, units may be more academic in
nature with titles such as The Causes of Crime or Criminal Law. In either case, students are
learning important content. Given the condensed nature of a typical high school semester, it may
be more prudent to abandon a significant amount of the technical instruction in favor of the
traditional academic or college preparation approach.

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Although studies seem to indicate an advantage to following the college preparatory

approach, some believe integrating the two still holds merit. According to Buerger (2004) the
answer lies in integration of these two educational experiences. Without integration, neither
formal study nor secondhand experience is an adequate preparation for the demanding tasks of
police work (Buerger, 2004). Clearly Buerger (2004) is accurate in his assertion in as far as
students should receive exposure to both learning curricular and instructional styles, but the
majority of research still seems to indicate there are advantages to expanding the traditional
academic approach at the expense of the traditional technical one.
Kansas as a Case Study
In order to examine curriculum specifics, the state of Kansas will be used as a case study.
Kansas adopted the law, public safety, corrections and security pathway of classes two years ago
with approximately 6 schools electing to offer the program the first year. Each subsequent year
the number of schools has grown and currently the number of schools offering the program is
just over 20 (KSDE, n.d.). In Kansas students are offered courses at three different levels which
include the introductory, technical, and application levels. The state assigns each course a set of
competencies which the students are expected to be proficient in by the end of the course. In the
introductory course students are expected to achieve proficiency with 12 different competencies
while at the technical and application levels, the competencies increase in number and
complexity (KSDE, n.d.). In general, the competencies for these courses are similar to objectives
that may be found in a high school level criminal justice course. However, combined with the
criminal justice based competencies are several related to practical skills that fall under the
headings of search and seizure and maintaining custody of prisoners (KSDE, n.d.).
Given the issues discussed previously regarding the challenges facing a social studies
teacher and the value of focusing on the more traditional academic content, it would seem

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Kansas has struck a good balance between traditional academic and vocationally specific
practical skills. This is a curriculum that can easily be taught by a social studies teacher who
enlists the assistance of a police officer when covering the relatively limited number of practical
skills.
Police vs. Fire and the Gap Years
In developing a program from scratch it is tempting to look to similar programs in the
hopes of finding some guidance where others have succeeded. Perhaps the most natural
inclination is to compare law enforcement programs to the other public safety option offered by
many districts: firefighting. It may appear to be a natural comparison, but there is a key
difference that is important enough to render the comparison of little use. This difference also
changes the necessary focus of the entire program.
The typical fire program is a much more hands on program with a multitude of practical
exercises embedded throughout. The key difference between the two programs however, is a
result of difference between entry ages for each profession. While a firefighter may be hired, or
at least certified at the age of 18, a police recruit must wait until the age of 21 in most states. This
is due to the operational requirements of each profession. While firefighters work as a team to
rescue civilians in various states of danger, the police officer generally operates alone with
discretionary powers and the authority to arrest and if need be take a life (Goldstein, 1960). It has
been decided that these types of decisions should not be left to an individual under the age of 21.
Though the four year gap created by this age requirement appears to be a relatively short
period of time, it creates a span of years where students may have no affiliation with the
profession. What occurs in these gap years is a major issue for departments and should have a
significant influence on high school programs.
Additional Support for a College Education
Many students will choose to enter college in the years between high school and the
academy, which means they must be academically prepared to handle the rigors of college

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coursework. For decades the trend in policing has continued to be a push for increases in
education and as Carter (1978) reported, most officers support increased educational standards
for the profession. This push, now decades old, lends additional support to the determination that
high school programs should focus on college preparation at the expense, if needed, of traditional
technical police skills. This should also provide additional encouragement to students to spend
their gap years in college.
Carter and Sapp (1990) found that the average educational level of police officers rose
steadily from 1970 to 1990 despite the fact that only a small fraction of departments required
college of any kind for employment. They also found that college education was generally
expected of officers seeking promotion (Carter and Sapp, 1990). Given this study was conducted
over 25 years ago, students can be sure that the college education expectation has only increased
since that time. This is not to say students shouldnt be taught the traditional technical skills of
law enforcement, but that the gap would seem to lessen the importance of focusing on these
skills.
As noted earlier, a study conducted by Birzer (1999) indicated that the same skills that
bring success in college are the skills needed for a majority of the work performed in law
enforcement. The same study indicated 90% of an officers time is spent on service calls and
conducting community policing activities while only 10% is spent addressing criminal issues
which would require the traditional technical skills of policing. Johnston and Cheurprakobkit
(2002) found that the vast majority of police administrators preferred to hire recruits with a
college education. This suggests that acquiring these college skills is more important for police
work given the frequency with which they will be used.
Also important to note is that each future officer will receive hundreds of hours of
practical skills training at the academy and by their departments, should they eventually be hired.
Additionally, focusing on academic skills will have a cross-curricular benefit and help them hone

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skills which will serve them well in multiple areas of their lives. College skills will even serve
them well at the academy where a portion of the instruction is similar to a traditional college
classroom.
Buerger (2004) found that police administrators believe their recruits need additional
instruction in the area of communication. In particular, the ability to write appears to need
increased attention. A large portion of police work involves writing reports and the ability to
communicate effectively should be an area of emphasis in the secondary classroom. This is
another argument to take a more academic approach to learning as opposed to focusing primarily
on practical skills.
Role of Agencies
In order to create a program that is current and authentically aligned with standards and
practices of todays law enforcement agencies, it is imperative that districts obtain input from
and involve agencies in every step of the development and implementation of their programs.
Given the purpose of career and technical education programs such as this is to prepare students
to enter a specific career field, it would be prudent for districts to invite their local agencies to
not only be involved in the process but to take a leadership role in the design, development and
scope of the program. One approach would be to start by inquiring which skills the agencies
seek in their new hires and to place special emphasis on these skills throughout the program.
The practice of creating an advisory council is common among career and technical
education programs according to Gordon (2014). It is one of the first and most important steps
in developing a quality career and technical education program. An advisory council is
comprised of professionals in the programs vocational field that meet with teachers and
administrators at regularly scheduled meetings. During these meetings the professionals are
asked for guidance and input on industry standards and kept abreast of the latest events and

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developments in the program. These meetings present the perfect opportunity for educators and
professionals to share ideas and receive industry updates that may impact the programs
curriculum.
Cadet Programs and Maintaining the Pipeline to Employment
One feature that makes the law enforcement program unique within the career and
technical education area is the delay imposed upon high school graduates before they are allowed
to enter the field. This gap of approximately four years can have some detrimental effects on the
goals of these programs. Students may leave the high school program enthusiastic about pursuing
a career in law enforcement but within the span of time they are forced to wait before
employment, they lose direction and end up pursuing a different career path. Another pitfall
students must avoid in these years is poor decision making that would lead to even a minor
infraction. Due to the fields understandably strict background standards, what may be a
common juvenile prank for others, could exclude program graduates from consideration for
employment in the field.
One solution to the gap problem is the cadet program, which was introduced by more
progressive agencies. Under these programs, individuals between the ages of 18 and 21 are
allowed to apply for cadet positions with agencies where they can work for the entirety of the
gap years. Typically cadets are issued a uniform and spend time working in each unit within the
agency during their time as a cadet. In their formal evaluation of the New York City Police
Department Cadet program Pate and Hamilton (1991) noted the program yielded encouraging
results and the citys program offered students substantial college tuition assistance. Most cadet
programs offer scholarships in one form or another to help offset college tuition costs as well as
an average salary. This is perhaps the most impactful aspect of the cadet program. Through
tuition assistance programs and a moderate amount of pay, aspiring officers can afford to attend

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college. The benefits of offering these programs are numerous, but the numbers of positions are
typically limited and highly competitive.
Fostering the expansion of these programs and establishing partnerships between high
schools and area cadet programs can help to ensure the growth and success of each. Creating a
clear pathway from high school graduation to employment will help ensure fewer aspiring police
officers are diverted from their original employment goal. Additionally, departments will have
the opportunity to train and observe their future officers over the span of four years. This period
will allow time for instructing them in department policy, the organizational structure of the
department and the culture. These cadets could also be used within the high school programs to
help recruit future cadets and instruct students on the skills they are learning in their new
positions. The growth and development of these programs would ideally be discussed and
strategized during the advisory council meetings.
Discussion
Although career and technical education programs have existed in high schools for
decades under various names, the addition of public safety pathways within this educational area
is relatively new in most states. Little specific research exists on the impact these programs have
had on the law enforcement career field. Nor is there research on specific best practices for
creating, managing and developing law enforcement programs. Thus moving forward there are a
number of areas that need to be addressed through research. Areas such as instructor
qualification, use of officers in the classroom, style of instruction and curriculum composition
are all areas in need of exploration. Examination and further study on the gap year could also
yield beneficial data on how best to manage these years in order to enhance the high school
experience as well as prepare for employment.

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The starting point for specific research on these programs should be focused on the
instructor. Studies should examine whether or not non law enforcement personnel should be
teaching these courses or if districts should seek alternatives. The ramifications of training
educators as law enforcement officers or offering shortcuts to retired officers to enter the
teaching field should be examined to assess which is more practical and which is more likely to
result in effective instruction. The nature of effective instruction and curriculum in this area
should also be explored to determine if a college prep approach truly is the best option.
The question of how and what these students should be taught can only be answered once
the goal of these programs are established. Should they focus primarily on vocational preparation
or academic skills that will carry students through their college gap years? Research into the
effects of and options for the post-high school gap is an area that could benefit from significant
research which could focus on current officers gap year experience and their effectiveness as
officers. This type of study should shed some light on which activities may result in a more
skilled and prepared police officer.
Conclusion
Determining best practices in the establishment and management of secondary law
enforcement programs takes on a special importance in a nation which grants its officers
immense discretionary power. High school programs present an opportunity to enhance and
extend the training process for tomorrows police officers. These programs are just the latest way
in which police training is evolving and becoming more specialized. The growth of these
programs could not come at a better time as officers are being asked to take on an increasingly
complex job for a public whose support, in some corners, has wavered.
Although tomorrows officer must be skilled in numerous areas, a successful and
productive public servant must also possess strong critical thinking skills. Whichever approach

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to educating aspiring future officers is decided on, critical thinking skills must be featured
prominently in the curriculum. For the profession to overcome the recent challenges it faces, it
must continue to develop and adapt its educational process in order to create a new generation of
officers equipped to take on evolving threats and complex challenges.

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Table 1
Officer Perceptions of Education Requirements for Promotion

Requirements

Sergeant

Lieutenant

Captain

Chief

2-year degree

278 (45.4%)

161 (29.4%)

126 (21.4%)

68 (12.7%)

4-year degree

76 (12.4%)

108 (19.7%)

128 (21.8%)

139 (25.9%)

Grad. Degree

3 (.5%)

8 (1.3%)

38 (6.5%)

77 (14.4%)

No Minimum

204 (33.3%)

170 (31.1%)

154 (26.2%)

66 (12.3%)

52 (8.5%)

100 (18.3%)

142 (24.1%)

186 (34.7%)

613

547

588

536

Not Sure
Total

Notes. From Breci, M. G. (1994). Higher education for law enforcement: The Minnesota
model. FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, 63(1), 1-4.