CHAPTER 6: VAPORLIQUID EXTRACTION

Vapor- Liquid Equilibrium

Separation of a mixture by distillation is based on equilibrium distribution of the components btwn
the liquid and the vapor phases
Consider an aqueous solution of ethanol taken in a closed vessel. The solution is boiled for some
time and the vapor with air in the space above the liquid is expelled through a valve so that the
vessel now contains molecules of ethanol and water only
The valve is now closed and the vessel is put in a constant temperature bath. What do we expect to
happen?
Given sufficient time, the system reaches equilibrium and the liquid and the vapor compositions as
well as the total pressure in the vapor space (i.e. the total pressure exerted by the solution) attain
unique values
Now the vessel is taken out of the bath, some amount of ethanol (or water) is pushed into it and the
vessel is again maintained at the same temperature in the bath

The system will attain a new equilibrium state, i.e. it will have a different set of liquid and vapor
concentrations and a new total pressure in the vapor space
Under a given set of conditions, the equilibrium vapor composition is related to the liquid
composition

Vapor- Liquid Equilibrium

What is meant by a given set of conditions?
Gibbs phase rule expressed as ON THE WHITEBOARD
The total number of parameters and variables is four- temperature, total pressure, liquid
composition and vapor composition
Since the number of degrees of freedom, is 2, two of these four quantities need to be fixed to
define the system in equilibrium
Thus if temperature and pressure are fixed (e.i there can be only one set of liquid and vapor
compositions for which the total pressure exerted in the vapor space is equal to the given
pressure at the given temperature)
Similarly, if the temperature and the liquid composition are fixed, the total pressure and the vapor
compositions will be automatically fixed if the system is in equilibrium

V-L equilibria constitute the physical basis of separation of a mixture by distillation. The higher
concentration of the more volatile component(s) in the vapor phase compared to the liquid phase
makes separation by distillation possible

The Raoults Law

This law describes the vapor- liquid equilibria of ideal solutions for both components A and B to give the
equilibrium partial pressures of the components in a binary liquid mixture
If x is the mole fraction of A in the binary solution, that of B is (1 x)
----- Eqn 7.5
------ Eqn 7.6
pA* and pB* are the equilibrium partial pressures of A and B in the vapor; PAv and PBv are the vapor
pressures of A and B at the given temperature. The mole fraction of A in the vapour is given by
------ Eqn 7.7
Equation (7.7) can be used to calculate the vapor-liquid equilibrium data (x-y*) for an ideal binary
mixture. The procedure to calculate the equilibrium concentrations as the bubble point and the dew
point at a constant total pressure P, is described below:
Find the vapor pressures (Pav and PBv) of A and B at a temperature T (TA < T < TB)
The total pressure P being known, calculate x from Equation (7.6)

Calculate y* from Equation (7.7)

What is Bubble Point?

What is Dew Point?

Relative Volatility

Relative volatility of a component A in a mixture indicates the ease of its separation from another component B.

It is defined as the concentration ratio of A to B in the vapor divided by the same ratio in the liquid phase. It is
usually denoted by

For a binary mixture,

If A is the more volatile component in the mixture, is larger than 1 (this is not applicable over the entire range of
concentration if the system is azeotropic)

Using Equations (7.5) and (7.7), the relative volatility (= AB) in an ideal binary solution can be expressed in
terms of the vapor pressures of the components

In a multicomponent mixture, the relative volatility of component i with respect to component j is given by:

The quantity ij gives a measure of the degree of enrichment of component i in the vapor compared to component
j when a liquid mixture is partially vaporized. Its definition has been extended to other equilibrium separation
processes as well

In mass transfer operations like extraction, membrane separation, etc. a quantity similar to is called the
separation factor

Equilibrium in a Multicomponent System

Separation of multicomponent mixtures rather than binaries is much more common in the
chemical process industries. Experimental VLE data for most multicomponent mixtures are
not available and have to be computed by using the available equations/ correlations
Hydrocarbons of a homologous series form nearly ideal solutions. For the ith component in
an ideal solution, we can write

where Pjv = vapor pressure of component j at the given temperature

Flash Vaporization (Flash Distillation)

It is sufficiently hot liquid mixture is throttled into a vessel,

a part of it will vaporize. The vapor produced will be richer
in the more volatile component (s) and thus partial
separation of the desired component(s) will be achieved.
This is called flash vaporization/ equilibrium vaporization

The feed is first heated in a heat exchanger under

pressure and then led to a flash drum by throttling where
partial vaporization of the feed occurs under reduced
pressure. The vapor leaves the drum at the top and is
condensed to get the top product

Liquid droplets are formed when a part of the liquid

flashes into a vapor vigorously. The flash drum should
have internals like baffle plates in order to reduce
entrainment of liquid droplets in the outgoing vapor
stream. Pressure in the drum is suitably adjusted.

It is often assumed that the liquid and vapor streams

leaving the flash drum are in equilibrium. But the phases
may not reach equilibrium in reality

Flash vaporization is a single-stage distillation operation.

However, the bottom product from the flash drum may be
heated and flashed again in a second unit to get a purer
product

Flash Vaporization of a Binary Mixture

Say, we have a binary mixture of the components A and B.
In the flow rate, the composition and enthalpy of the feed, the condensed top
product (or distillate) and the bottom liquid product are denoted as (F, zF, HF), (D,xD,
HD) and (W, xW, HW) respectively and Q is the rate of supply of heat to the heat
exchanger, we may write the following material and energy balance as the following:

Example (Binary Flash Distillation)

A mixture of 40% mol% benzene and 60 mol% toluene is being flash-distilled at a rate of 10 kmol/h at 1 atm
total pressure. The liquid product should not contain more than 30 mol% benzene. Calculate the amounts
and the compositions of the top and the bottom products . The relative volatility of benzene in the mixture is
2.5

Solution:
Algebraic solution
Total material balance: F = D + W; given F = 10, zF = 0.4 10 = D + W

-------- Eqn 1

Benzene balance: FzF = DxD + WxW

Given: xW = mole fraction of benzene in the bottom product = 0.3

(10)(0.4) = DxD + W(0.3)

i.e. 4 = DxD + (0.3)W

------- Eqn 2

In equilibrium flash distillation, the distillate (vapor) and the bottom products (liquid) are in equilibrium,
i.e. xD and xW are in equilibrium, and are related through the relative volatility as follows:

xD/(1 xD) = 2.5

------ Eqn 3

xW/(1 xW)
Equation 1, 2 and 3 can be solved for the three unknowns to get D = 4.61, W = 5.39 mol/h xD = 0.517

Continuous Multistage Fractionation of Binary Mixtures

Separation of a volatile liquid mixture to relatively pure products is very often done in a
continuous fractioning column. A packed or a tray tower can be used, the choice depending
upon several factors

A tray column and the flow rates and the concentrations of the vapor and the liquid phases at
different trays are schematically shown in the figure.
The feed (it may be a liquid, a vapor/ a two-phase mixture containing components A and B; A
is the more volatile component) enters the column at a suitable location. The liquid stream
flows down the column from one tray to the next lower tray; the vapor stream flows up
bubbling through the liquid on the trays
The vapor from the top tray is condensed and the condensate is collected in a reflux drum. A
part of this liquid is drawn as the top product and the other part is fed back to the top tray
(the top tray is marked tray no. 1) as reflux
The top product contains the more volatile component A and a little of the less volatile B. The
liquid from the bottom tray goes to a reboiler where it is partly vaporized, the vapor is fed
back to the tower and the liquid part is continuously withdrawn as the bottom product
The bottom product is rich in the less volatile component B and has only a small amount of A
in it. A close contact btwn the liquid and the vapor phases occurs on a tray, facilitating rapid
exchange of mass btwn them
Transport of the more volatile component A occurs from the liquid to the vapor phase, while
transport of the less volatile B occurs from the vapor to the liquid phase

Material & Energy Balance Envelopes in Continuous Distillation

Continuous Multistage Fractionation of Binary Mixtures

The basic principles of design of a trayed distillation tower. These are the important variables,
parameters and factors involved in the design:
The flow rate, composition and state of the feed (The state of the feed may be described by
its temperature, pressure, phase, etc. The feed may be a liquid, a vapor or a mixture of
liquid and vapor)
The required degree of separation (Determined by the requirement of quality/ purity of the
products drawn from the column. The higher the required degree of separation, the more
is the number of trays and the more expensive will be the tower)
The reflux ratio and the condition of the reflux (The ratio of the reflux fed back to the top
tray and the top product withdrawn is called the reflux ratio. A specified degree of
separation can be achieved with a lesser number of trays if the reflux ratio is increased.
The condition of reflux means whether the reflux is a saturated liquid/ a subcooled liquid)
The operating pressure and the allowable pressure drop across the column (The operating
pressure also determines the temperature of the column. The pressure drop for the vapor
flow depends upon the type, the number and the hydraulic design of the trays. Pressure
drop becomes a more important factor if a column is run at a low pressure
Tray type and column internals (The efficiency of separation is largely determined by these
factors)

Material & Energy Balance Equations

The notations L and V denote the liquid and the vapor flow rates above the feed tray; and
V (bar) denote the same quantities below the feed tray. Thus Vn is the molar flow rate of
vapor leaving the nth tray; HL,n is the molar enthalpy of the liquid leaving the nth tray
The rate of reflux to the top tray is L0; the suffix 0 signifies that the stream is coming from
the hypothetical 0th plate above the top tray (the top tray is tray no. 1)
The rate at which heat is removed from the overhead condenser (the condenser heat load)
is QC. The rate of heat supply to the reboiler (the reboiler heat load) for vaporizing a part of
the liquid leaving the bottom tray is QB.
The feed rate to the column is F having a mole fraction zF of the more volatile. The distillate
(xD = mole fraction of A, the more volatile, in the distillate) is removed from the reflux drum
at a rate of D mole/h; the bottom product leaves the reboiler at a rate W and the mole
fraction of A in it is xW. We define a reflux ratio (also called the external reflux ratio) as:

CHAPTER 7: SOLID
LIQUID EXTRACTION

Introduction
The process of separation of soluble constituents of a solid material using a suitable solvent.
Usually the soluble material is the target product and the inert solid residue a byproduct or just
a solid waste (e.g., in extraction of oils from oil seeds: the oil is the product and the solid
residue/ cake is a byproduct)
The overall process of liquid-solid extraction basically involves four steps: (i) close contact btwn
the solid feed with the solvent (ii) separation of the solution (or extract) from the exhausted solid
(iii) separation of the solvent (and the entrained solid, if any) from the extract followed by
purification of the product (iv) recovery of the solvent from the moist solid (by squeezing/
pressing and drying to get a dry cake)
Solid-liquid extraction is also called leaching, a substantial part of the solid does not dissolve
and the soluble matters diffuse out through the solid during solid-liquid contact
Solid-liquid extraction is widely used in the food industries

Solvent Extraction of Oilseeds

Classification of Solid-Liquid Extraction System

It may involve different physicochemical mechanisms depending upon the characteristics of the
solid (particle size, porosity or compactness, reactivity, solute content, etc.) and of the solvent

If the particle size of the solid is not small, there may be substantial diffusional resistance to
transport of the solute within the solid. Whenever possible, the solid is broken down or
disintegrated into particles or flakes to enhance the rate of extraction
Sometimes, an acidic, alkaline or a complexing solution may be used for solubilization of the target
substances
Some categories of commercial solid-liquid extraction:
Diffusional extraction

For example, the extraction of sugar from sugar beet. Sugar beets are cut into small pieces which
are treated with warm water (70-75C). Diffusion within the solid occurs through denatured cell
walls and through the intersticial liquid. The solvent (water) also diffuses in the opposite direction,
thus diluting the solute within the cells.
The rate and time of extraction depend mainly upon the thickness of the pieces, the effective
diffusivity of the solute in the solid and the concentration of sugar in the extracting liquor

Washing extraction

If the solid particle size is pretty small, the solid-phase diffusional resistance becomes negligibibly
small. In such a case, extraction virtually becomes a process of washing the solid with the solvent.
An example is extraction of oil from flakes of oil seeds. Flakes are pretty thin. During the flaking
process, much of the cells are ruptured and the diffusional resistance for transport of the solute
within the solid becomes small.
In washing extraction, a substantial amount of solvent is retained in the slurry after washing

Classification of Solid-Liquid Extraction System

Leaching

This involves dissolution of one/ more substances from solid particles

accompanied by chemical reaction(s). An acid, alkali or the solution of a complexing
chemical is commonly used for solubilizing the target materials

Leaching of ores (oxides, carbonates, sulphides) is a major step in hydrometallurgy

Chemical extraction

Functionally similar to leaching but usually refers to recovering solutes from solids
of organic nature. Example, recovery of gelatin from animal bones using an alkaline
solution is an example of chemical extraction

Factors That Affect the Rate of Solid-Liquid Extraction

Physical Characteristics of the Solid

The type of the solid matrix (porous/ nonporous).
If the solute is distributed within an insoluble matrix of the inert solid, it gradually dissolves and diffuses out
leaving a porous structure. In some cases, the solid may be available as slurry/ paste. If the solute has an
affinity for the insoluble solid, it may remain partly adsorbed to it
The rate of extraction becomes faster if the particle size of the solid is small or if the solid is porous. Since rigid
solids like metal ores and most compact solids dissolve slowly, such materials are crushed and ground

Solvent
A solvent in which the solute has a high solubility is preferred. But it should not dissolve the undesired solids
The solvent should have a low viscosity, a low boiling point and should be non-toxic and reasonably cheap
It is easier to remove a low-boiling solvent from the product liquor by flash vaporization

Temperature
Diffusivity of the solute in the solid as well as its miscibility with the solvent increases with temperature. Also,
the viscosity of the solvent becomes less at an elevated temperature and it can penetrate into the interstices of
the solid more easily. So the extraction rate increases with temperature
Heat sensitivity of the solute, volatility of the solvent and possible thermal effects on the inert or residual solid
(e.g., solubility, degradation, change in consistency, etc.) limit the temperature of extraction

Agitation
Intense agitation increases the solid-liquid mass transfer coefficient and increases the rate of extraction but
may disintegrate the solid as well, causing a settling problem
However, if the solid phase offers the controlling resistance, the effect of agitation on the rate of extraction is
not pronounced

Filtration Fundamentals- Fluid Flow Through Porous Media

The liquid passes through the open space btwn the particles, i.e. the pores or voids within the bed.
As it flows over the surface of the solid packing frictional losses lead to a pressure drop
The amount of solids inside the bed is important: the greater this is, the larger will be the surface
over which liquid flows and therefore, the higher the pressure drop will be as a result of friction
The volume fraction of the bed available for fluid flow is called the porosity or voidage

Porosity = = Volume of voids

Total bed volume

Fluid Flow Through Porous Media

In many solid-liquid separations porosity is often replaced by solid concentration which is usually the
volume fraction of solids present within the bed C; porosity is the void volume fraction so these two
fractions sum to unity. Hence solid volume fraction concentration is: C = 1
Darcy discovered that the pressure loss was directly proportional to the flow rate of the fluid
The constant of proportionality is dependent on the permeability, k (m2) of the porous network.
Darcys law can be regarded as the fluid flow through porous media analogue of the Ohms law for
flow of electric current
The analogy is as follows: the driving force behind flow is potential difference/ pressure drop per unit
length, the flow is current/ liquid velocity and the constant of proportionality is electrical resistance or
the ratio of viscosity or decreasing the permeability increases the resistance to fluid flow

In any situation involving fluid flow, it is possible to consider the drag on the solid surface as being due
to two phenomena; skin friction (viscous drag) and form drag.
Viscous drag is a result of the stationary layer of liquid that occurs at the surface of the solid object,
the drag or pressure loss is therefore due to friction btwn solid and liquid

Form drag is due to the turbulent eddies which occur at higher flow rates and fluctuate in intensities
and direction. Form drag leads to additional pressure losses over that of skin friction and a breakdown
of linearity btwn flow rate and pressure drop
Most filtration occurs at low flow rates through the porous media.

Permeability
The ease with which liquid will flow within a porous medium, including filter cakes.
Factors which affect permeability include the size of particles making up the porous medium
and the porosity
In practice, filter cake permeability is a function of porosity, particle shape and packing, particle
size and distribution, rate at which the cake was formed, concentration of the slurry being
filtered, etc.

The best known equation for permeability id sue to Kozeny (1927)

KONZENY- CARMAN EQN

Cake Filtration

The deposition of solids on a filter medium or septum as shown in the figure.

It is generally accepted that filtration resulting in a filter cake takes place by a bridging mechanism over the
surface pores within a filter medium, cloth, septum or support. This helps to prevent the medium from clogging
with fine particles

The filter medium plays a crucial role in initiating the filtration, and the medium can have long-lasting effects on
the filter cake structure and properties throughout the filtration cycle

During filtration the cake depth increases due to deposition of solids at the filter cake surface. The change in
cake depth is accompanied by changes in fluid flow rate and pressure differential, as filtration time increases

A material which displays constant cake permeability usually does so as consequence of a constant filter cake
concentration. This is consistent with the permeability equations which showed that this is a function of the
solids type (size) and porosity (or concentration)

A material displaying constant cake concentration is incompressible and this type of filtration is known as
incompressible cake filtration

Cake Filtration
For incompressible filtration, the cake concentration remains constant, thus for each
unit volume of suspension filtered the filter cake volume increases by a uniform and
constant amount. Likewise, the filtrate volume is uniform and constant with respect to
each volume of suspension filtered
However, when filtering at constant pressure, the rate of cake deposition with respect
to time will not be uniform because each new element of filter cake increases the total
resistance to the passage of filtrate from the new cake layer. Thus the rate of filtration
declines
The constant of proportionality can be used to give an equation for cake depth, at
any instant in time:

Cake Filtration
Clearly, the volume ratio of cake to filtrate still needs to be calculated before the previous equation
can be evaluated. This is achieved by means of a mass balance on the solid and liquid entering the
filter system
Mass of solids in the filter cake (kg): C A L s

Mass of liquid in the filter cake (kg): (1 C) AL

Mass fraction of solids in the slurry feed : s
Total mass of slurry (solid and liquid) (kg): M

Mass balance on the liquid: (1 s)M = V + (1 C) LA

Mass balance on the solids: sM = CsLA
which when combined with L = V/A and rearranged gives:

1 (1)

Use of above Equation assumes knowledge of two constants (excluding densities): slurry
concentration by mass fraction and filter cake concentration by volume fraction. The slurry
concentration (by mass fraction) is readily obtained by means of sampling, weighing, drying and
reweighing. Meanwhile, the filter cake concentration by volume fraction from mass fraction can be
obtained by converting the data to volume fraction from mass fraction

Declining Filtrate Rate during Constant Pressure Filtration

Proportional Relation between Cake and Filtrate Volume

Filter Media

The role is to cause a clean separation of particulate solids from a flowing fluid with a minimum
consumption of energy

Media may be broadly classified as (a) those designed to recover a valuable solid product and (b)
those used in the clarification of a fluid, e.g., deep-packed beds of sand in water clarification

The wide range media received early attention in descriptions of wire cloth, metal edge filters,
fused metallic fibers, ceramics and impregnated cellulose

Of particular interest is the recent massive expansion in the use of ceramics in (a) conventional
solid-liquid filtration and dewatering processes and (b) membrane operations. The latter
development points to important economic gains in the use of small- pore, highly resistant media
and membranes created from ceramics

For textile filter fabrics, both woven and nonwoven filter cloths constructed from polymeric
materials (polypropylene, polyethylene, polyester, polyamides, polyvinyl chloride etc)

Typical woven filter media

(a) Plain-weave monofilament (b) reverse-plain-dutch weave monofilament (c) Twill-weave monofilament
(d) Plain-weave, multifilament, continuous fiber (e) Plain-weave, multifilament, staple fiber

Media Classification

Filter Media

Retention of particulates depends on many process variables and lower minima than reported in the table can be
realized in practical separations. Thus in woven fabrics, changes in particulate concentration can produce particle
capture much below 10 m

It is vital to have information on the particle size range to be processed in view of the interaction between the solids and
the pores during the first few moments of cake growth

Aspects of Filter Cloth Selection and Performance

Cloth Shrinkage

Cloth Stretching

Shrinkage of the cloth can produce severe problems particularly with plate and frames and the larger recessed plates.
Repeated cloth washing/drying cycles aggravate the shrinkage problems, particularly polyamides
Preshrinkage can be effected in a number of ways:

Use of hot (boiling) water with medium in a relaxed state

Heat setting in an oven, with fabric under tension in warp and weft direction. This will maintain the original levels of
cloth porosity, permeability, etc.

Oven treatment of the relaxed, or mildly- tensioned cloth through an oven

Absorption of liquids causes swelling of fibers and yarn. The increase in fiber diameter and length causes dimensional
change in the cloth, with serious consequences for closely fitted plates.
Recessed plates are preferred to plate and frames, in order to facilitate mechanization.
Discharge of cakes is usually of high priority and is generally easier in recessed plate filters; cake discharge from a plate
and frame unit does not necessarily follow immediately after the opening of the filter

Filter Cake Release

Adequate cake release is a fundamental prerequisite in efficient pressing operations, in maintaining a low downtime in
overall batch time
An understanding of the failure of the release mechanism follows consideration of the balance btwn the forces causing
adhesion

Microfiltration
Are mainly Dead End Filtration (DEF) plate and frame and Tangential Flow Filtration (TFF)
In TFF, the membrane is pleated and then folded around a permeate core. Many module
types are inexpensive and disposable. A typical disposable cartridge is 2.5 inch in
diameter and 10 inch long, with 3 ft2 of membrane area

The cartridge may include a prefilter to extend filter life by removing larger particles,
leaving the microporous membrane to make the required separation.
Compared to TFF, DEF has a lower capital cost, a higher operating cost and a simpler
operation. DEF is most suitable for dilute solutions, while TFF is preferred for
concentrated solutions

Microfiltration- Membrane Modules- DEF

Two different modes of microfiltration are employed.

In Dead End Filtration (in-line) filtration (DEF), which is suitable for batch or semicontinuous
filtration of dilute solutions, the entire solvent is forced under pressure through the membrane,
in a manner similar to conventional filtration of solid-liquid slurries.

With time, as retained material accumulates on or within the membrane, the pressure
required to maintain a desired flow rate must increase or permeate flux will decrease. Thus,
DEF may operate at constant pressure, constant flux or a combination of both

Microfiltration- Membrane Modules (TFF)

In tangential- flow (crossflow) filtration (TFF), which is more suitable for large scale, continuous
filtration, feed flows along the surface with only a fraction of the solvent passing through the
membrane
Ideally, retained matter is carried out of the microfilter with retentate fluid. The tangential flow mode
is usually accompanied by a large retentate recycle in a manner similar to feed and bleed
operations for ultrafiltration
Typical tangential flow velocities parallel to the membrane surface on the feed-retentate side are in
the 3-25 ft/s range. The tangential flow mode is also used for reverse osmosis and ultrafitration.

Significant attempts to improve tangential-flow filtration (TFF) have evolved into high-performance
tangential flow filtration (HPTFF) for separation of macromolecular species. In a study, significant
improvements in yield and purification factors were achieved in the separation of protein mixtures of
close molecular weights with HPTFF

Sedimentation & Thickening

Generally, dilute suspensions of coarse materials will settle as nonflocculated suspensions at
rates determined mainly by the size and density of the particles
Concentrated slurries of fine slimy materials will tend to flocculate and will settle as a bulky
aggregate with its settling behavior largely depending on the solids concentration

Clarifier Design
Design methods for dilute sedimentation are based on the principle of providing enough
residence time for the separation to take place
Estimates can be made using Stokes Law especially for well- defined homogenous system,
but due to allowance must be made for deleterious effects due to convection, air- induced
surface waves, inlet and outlet turbulence etc.
Batch Settling: Dilute Systems
The residence time required for the batch settling of a suspension that is composed of a
size distribution of particles of the same material can be calculated easily using the size of
the smallest particle to estimate the time it will take to settle the full height of the vessel
from surface to base
Some of the particles of the smallest size to be settled out must have travelled the full
height of the suspension and

Sedimentation & Thickening

Batch Settling: Hindered Systems
In these more concentrated suspensions the proximity of the particles to each
other is such that the settling rate is dependent of the size and density of
individual particles

Continuous Settling
These processes can be described most simply by an ideal continuous sedimentation tank
model which equates the residence times derived from the vertical settling motion of the
particle and the horizontal plug flow movement brought about by the drag of the liquid. Thus for
a residence time t the vertical equation is:
t = H/ut
And the horizontal equation is:

t = AH/Q
Where H is the tank depth, A is the area, Q is the volumetric flow rate of liquid through the tank
and ut is the terminal settling velocity of the particle. Clearly the depth of the tank is eliminated
from the equation and the relationship becomes:
A = Q/ut

Continuous Settling
Continuous settling: Hindered Systems/ Thickening
This process is usually conducted in a raked cylindrical tank with a loping conical
base leading to a central outlet for the sludge, an overflow launder around the
periphery of the tank for the clear liquid and a central feed point.

Continuous Settling
Continuous Settling: Special Designs
In the usual design of a sedimentation process the chemical pretreatment
stage is expected to take place separately before the settling step and in many
cases this may be appropriate
However there are applications where this approach is not particularly
successful owing to low solids concentrations in the feed, long flocculation
times and the formation of low-strength or small flocs

Application: Floc Blanket Clarifier

In a floc blanket clarifier as used in the treatment of

potable water with aluminum sulphate, a fluidized bed of
aluminum hydroxide flocs is formed in the body of the
vessel and the chemically treated feed water is led directly
into this bed from below

The effect of the floc blanket is twofold. First, the presence

of a high concentration of flocs rapidly increases the rate of
coagulation of the particles in the feed stream by
orthokinetic coagulation and second there is a particle
capture mechanism, operating in which the smaller flocs,
which might otherwise pass through the clarifier, collect on
the larger ones

The clear liquid passes upwards and out of the clarifier

over weirs and the accumulating floc material is removed
as a sidestream with a little of the clear liquid

With this type of clarifier much higher overflow velocities

can be used than in the conventional design

The high- rate thickener design is very similar to the

conventional one but, differs in that it particular attention
the careful addition of the polymeric flocculant in the
feedwell and to the introduction of the flocculated
suspension to the sludge bed without diluting/ disturbing
the settling suspension

Benefit is gained from having an increased concentration

in that bigger flocs are produced faster and the time for floc
development is reduced

Floatation
The use of air or gas bubbles to separate mineral particles by preferential attachment and
subsequent floatation has been a feature of the mineral processing industry for many decades
In mineral floatation, it is more common to use chemicals to enhance the collection of the
particles and the stability of the froth and to produce the bubbles by beating air into suspension,
but in solid liquid separation it is more usual to dissolve air into the liquid under pressure, allowing
the gas to expand out of solution under the lower pressure of the separation chamber, producing
bubbles for the preflocculated particles to collect on without the need for further chemical
addition
Alternatives to pressure dissolution of air have been tried during the development of the process
technique. These methods of bubble generation include:
Dispersed Air Floation (DAF): beating air into the suspension, using a high-speed agitator and
air entrainment system
Electroflotation: passing an electric current between electrodes immersed in the suspension
and producing bubbles by electrolysis of the liquid which is usually water
Vacuum Filtration: saturating the suspension with air at atmospheric pressure and
transferring the suspension to an expansion chamber where the pressure is reduced to less
than atmospheric; the dissolved air rapidly comes out of its supersaturated solution,
producing bubbles

Conventional DAF unit with

paddle flocculator

DAF unit with lamella

separator

Bubble Size and Volume Concentration

These parameters are governed by the design of the air-liquid saturator and diffuser system and by
the recycle rate. The saturator may be a packed tower, spray tower or an ejector system; a major
advantage of saturating a recycle stream of clean liquid is that more efficient saturator designs
involving complex packings can be used with less blockage by solids
The bubble size and size distribution is governed by the designed and operating conditions of the
injection system. Bubbles form and grow on nucleation sites within the surface roughness of the
cavitation plate until buoyancy and drag forces are great enough to lift them into the liquid stream

The next stage of growth involves the precipitation of dissolved air onto the newly formed bubbles
and the third and final stage of development is coalescence which increases bubble size and
reduces numbers
Edzwald et al [1991] suggest that treating the saturated water as a dilute solution of air in water,
allows Henrys Law to be used in the form:
c=f p
K

Where c is the concentration of air in the saturated liquid, p is the absolute pressure, K is the
Henrys Law constant and f is an efficiency factor
Values are given for f of about 0.7 for unpacked saturators and up to 0.9 for packed systems; for K
at 0 and 25C figures are 2.72 and 4.53 kPa/mgL respectively
For 100% efficiency at 70 psig (482.3 kPa), the air concentration is 25 mg/L at 0C and 129
mg/L at 25C.

Bubble Size and Volume Concentration

Thus the concentration, cr, of air released into the floatation vessel of a continuous system
can be obtained from the following expression, assuming that the incoming waters air
concentration is c0 :
cr = (cs ca) R ca + c0
(1 + R)
where cs is the concentration of air in the recycle stream, ca is the air concentration
that stays in solution at atmospheric pressure and R is the recycle ration of the recycle
flow rate to the influent flow rate.

The bubble volume concentration is obtained by dividing the concentration by the density of
saturated air; typical values for this are given as 1.29 and 1.17 g/L for 0 and 25C
respectively. These give typical values for an 8% recycle at 70 psig and for 40m bubbles per
milliliter. They suggest that for a typical application such as DAF treatment of water containing
an algae this would represent about 1 bubble per particle of contaminant
b = cr
sat