RESPIRATORY EXPERIMENTS

EXPERIMENT 37: RESPIRATORY SYSTEM ANATOMY

MAIN FUNCTION: Transport of Gases

Functional anatomy consists of the conducting
structures and the respiring structures
o Conducting structures, functionally, would
just convey the air from the atmosphere to the
respiratory structures where diffusion of oxygen
and carbon dioxide take place
Anatomically, our respiratory system is divided into the
upper respiratory tract and lower respiratory tract
o Upper respiratory tract will include only the
nose, nasal cavity and pharynx
o Lower respiratory tract will include the larynx,
trachea, bronchus and up to the alveolus

Laryngitis, is classified as an upper

respiratory tract infection
UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT
1. NOSE
Anterior nares nostrils
o Made up of elastic cartilage; one of the
common signs to look for when one has difficult
of breathing is the flaring of the nostrils
o A dilatation can be seen where the nasal hairs
grow; these hairs and the lining of the
vestibule (mucus) is primarily used to filter
dust
o Posterior opening of the vestibule is called the
posterior nares (posterior nostrils)
o Posterior nares opens into the nasal cavity
2.
-

3.
-

NASAL CAVITY
Bones in the cavity are called bony turbinates
Protrusions can be seen in the nasal cavity which are
called the nasal concha
Nasal meati (sing. meatus) are seen underneath the
nasal concha
o Nasolacrimal duct empties into the nasal
meatus

A.

EPIGLOTTIS
o Most superior; leaf-shaped elastic cartilage
o When swallowing, the epiglottis will cover the
glotic area to divert bolus (food) to the
esophagus
o During normal respiration, the epiglottis is
open to allow air to go the larynx; air also
passes through the epiglottis.

B.

THYROID
o Shield-like cartilage
o Biggest protrusion Adams apple

C.

CRICOID
o Unpaired, complete ring
o Has an posterior dilatiation, making it look like
a bull ring

D.

PAIRED CARTILAGES
o Cross-sectionally, the paired cartilages can be
seen, namely, the arythenoid, cuneiforms,
and corniculate

Attachment for vocal cords

True vocal cords are the ones

located in the midline (V-shaped)

Composed of dense regular

collagenous CT

The membrane that connects the true

vocal cords to the lateral walls of the
larynx is the false vocal cords (vocal
folds, vestibular folds)
HOW IS SOUND PRODUCED?
o When sound is produced, the true vocal cords
are pulled to the midline
o And as air is blown in between, vibration is
produced which produces the sound
o The pitch is produced by the tension of the
laryngeal muscles

Humidifies and warms up the air that we breathe due

to the sensitivity of the bronchus to dry and cold air
o When the bronchus intakes dry and cold air its
tendency is to constrict
o Possible due to the nasal mucosa lining the
nasal cavity and the blood vessels that are
present in the cavity
Connects our nasal sinuses which are cavities within
the bones; nine in total: frontal sinuses. maxillary
sinuses, sphenoid sinus, ethmoid sinus
o Helps in humidifying and moistening the air;
also lightens up our skull
o Supposed to be air-filled
o Helps in the resonance of sound, specifically
the m and n sounds
Roof of the nasal cavity has olfactory epithelium
Opens up posteriorly to the pharynx through the
choanae

4.
-

PHARYNX
Has three regions: nasopharynx (posterior to the nasal
cavity), oropharynx (posterior to the oral cavity), and
laryngopharynx (posterior to the larynx)
Common conduit for air, food, and water
Pharynx and oral cavity are not suited for warming up
and moistening the air
Contains the lymphatic tissues
o Adenoids, tonsils which acts as a primary
defense for microorganisms

LOWER RESPIRATORY TRACT

1. LARYNX

Comprised of cartilages

5.
-

TRACHEA
Series of 16-20 C-shaped cartilages
Connected posteriorly by a smooth muscle
Would eventually bifurcate, and the cartilages is called
the carina, which is in the same level where the sternal
angle and the pulmonary trunk bifurcates into the left
and right pulmonary artery
Branches in to the right and left main bronchus
BRONCHUS
The right main bronchus would be more vertically
directed, shorter and broader
The left main bronchus on the other hand is more
horizontal, longer, and narrower
The right will further subdivide into three secondary
lobar bronchi while the left will subdivide into two
o The right has three lobar bronchi because the
right lung has three lobes while the left has
only two
Each secondary bronchus will the divide into tertiary
bronchi or segmental bronchi which will supply air into
the bronchopulmonary segment (BPS)

BRONCHOPULMONARY SEGEMENTS
Due to being the functional unit of the lungs, it has its
own bronchi, segmental bronchi, pulmonary blood
supply
One segment does not affect other segments
6.
-

LUNGS
Divided into the left and right which are asymmetrical

Apices (apex) of both lungs are located at about 2.5 cm

above the clavicles

DIFFERENCES OF THE LUNGS

The right is short but broad (due to the space occupied
by the liver) , the left is long but narrow
The left lung is indented to the left due to the space
occupied by the heart (cardiac notch) which produces a
tongue-like protrusion called the lingual
The left lung is separated into lobes by an oblique
fissure while the right lung, apart from the oblique, also
has a horizontal fissure
The right lung has about 10-12 BPS, while the left has
about 9-10 BPS
-

7.
-

Our lungs have dual blood supply

o From the tracheobronchial tree up to the
bronchioles derived their blood supply from
the bronchial artery
o The alveoli receives blood from the
pulmonary artery carrying deoxygenated
blood

ALVEOLI
Lined by simple squamous epithelium due to its function
(diffusion of gases)
Have three different cells
o Pneumocyte type I squamous
o Pneumocyte type II surfactants

Also called Clara cells

A lipopolysaccharide that maintains

the patency of the alveoli to prevent
closing of alveoli
o Alveolar macrophage
o A blood-air barrier can be seen in the alveoli
which is a respiratory membrane that gases
need to traverse

Includes the pneumocyte type I,

basement membrane, and the
endothelial cell of capillaries

2.

INSPIRATORY RESERVE VOLUME

o When in need of more oxygen, accessory
muscles of inspiration are also used

The external intercostals to elevate

the
chest
and
the
sternocleidomastoid and scalenes

3.

EXPIRATORY RESERVE VOLUME

o Use of accessory muscles of expiration to blow
out more air that remains in the lungs

The internal intercostals and the

abdominal muscles

4.

RESIDUAL VOLUME
o Air that remains in the alveoli and airways after
usage of the expiratory and inspiratory
reserve volumes

5.
6.
7.

TOTAL LUNG CAPACITY all four volumes

INSPIRATORY CAPACITY TV + IRV
FUNCTIONAL RESIDUAL CAPACITY RV + ER
o When breathing stops, flow of blood does not
stop; however, at a certain point, the
pressures of CO2 and O2 will equalize
o When pressure equalized, CO2 will start to
build up signaling baroreceptors to signal the
medulla (respiratory center) to stimulate an
autonomic reflex which will make a person
breathe in
VITAL CAPACITY amount or volume of air we
can control to enter our lungs

8.

FORMULAS:
=

= +

For males/females below 19 y/o:

= (. ) .

Bronchus and bronchioles are different in that the

bronchioles lose the cartilage support, while retaining its
tubular shape, which the bronchus have
The
respiratory
bronchioles
and
terminal
bronchioles have different linings; the terminal
bronchioles are lined by pseudostratified columnar
ciliated epithelium while the respiratory bronchioles are
lined by simple squamous epithelium

= +

= + + +

EXPERIMENT 38: PULMONARY VOLUMES

SPRIOMETRY
Used to measure lung volumes and capacities
o Lung volumes can be directly measured
except for the residual volume (in digital
spirometers,
o Lung capacities are sums of one or two lung
volumes
1.

TIDAL VOLUME
o Amount of air that comes in and out of the
lungs during normal respiration
o In regular respiration, only the diaphragm
(primary muscle for inspiration) is involved

Inspiration is through the contraction

of the diaphragm

Expiration is a passive process;

relaxation of the diaphragm and recoil
of the lungs allow exit of air
o Inspiratory time is shorter than the expiratory
time with a ratio of 1 : 2-3

EXPERIMENT 40: GASTROINTESTINAL ANATOMY

Part of the digestive system which is broader which
includes all accessory organs of digestion
1.
-

ORAL
Vestibule seen between the lips and teeth
Oral cavity contains the tongue which helps in the
movement of food and swallowing, teeth, and salivary
glands
o Three sets of salivary glands: parotid,
submaxillary, sublingual
o Saliva contains salivary anilase which initially
digest carbohydrates
Also contains the pharynx

2.
-

ESOPHAGUS
Three portions; the proximal, middle, and distal thirds
Also facilitates the three stages of swallowing

3.
-

STOMACH
J-shaped muscular organ

PARTS OF THE STOMACH

1. Dome or fundus
2. Cardia proximal part of the stomach near the
esophagus; named because it is near the heart
o Contains the gastroesophageal sphincter or
the cardiac sphincter
3.
4.

4.
-

Body biggest part of the stomach

Antrum distal part; near the duodenum
o Contains the pyloric sphincter
gastroduodenal sphincter

or

Has a lesser and greater curvature where the blood

vessels enters
Intraperitoneal organ because it is covered in
peritoneum located in the abdominal cavity
o Mesogaster peritoneum anchoring the
stomach to the abdominal wall
DUODENUM
C-shaped tube coming from the stomach around 10-12
inches divided into three parts; hugs the pancreas
Hepaticopancreatic ampulla where the pancreatic
and common bile ducts empty

LIVER
Has four big lobes
o The right and left lobes are separated by the
falciform ligament which was once the
umbilical vein
o Caudate lobe near the tail of the liver
o Quadrate lobe which is quadratic-shaped
The portohepatic vein seen near the caudate and
quadrate lobes
A.

5.
-

6.
-

Starts with the ileocecal valve

First part of the large intestine is the cecum which is a
dilated portion; the appendix can also be seen in here
o Marker would be the contralateral side where
the peritoneum is attached

Tenia coli small band of muscle in the large intestines

Haustrations depressions in the large intestine
Hepatic flexure is the connection of the ascending and
the transverse colons
Splenic flexure is the connection of the transverse and
descending colons
RECTUM AND ANUS
After the sigmoid colon, the rectum is seen; so called
due to its erect position
The anus follows the rectum which is divided into an
internal anal and external anal sphincters

the

ACCESSORY ORGANS
1. PANCREAS
Has an endocrine and exocrine function; the exocrine
functions are carried out by the acinar cells of the
pancreas secreting digestive enzymes
Some individuals have an accessory pancreatic duct
2.
-

GALL BLADDER storage area of bile

o Near the falciform ligament
o Common bile duct comes from bile
caniliculus which produce bile that is used to
emulsify fat
o Eventually, the bile canaliculi will converge to
form the left and right hepatic ducts
o The left and right hepatic ducts will combine
to form the common hepatic duct
o The cystic duct of the gall bladder combines
with the common hepatic duct to form the
common bile duct

SMALL INTESTINES
The jejunum and the ileum can be differentiated by the
blood vessels that enter them
Where the digestion takes place
Circular folds (plica/e circulares) lining of the small
intestines; when magnified, villi can be seen which
contain microvilli which are extensions of the
epithelium
Nutrients are absorbed in here
At the end of the ileum, the ileocecal valve
LARGE INTESTINES
Primarily a storage of undigested particles and can
absorb water
Parts: cecum; ascending, transverse, descending,
and sigmoid colons

7.
-

ADDITIONAL:
A. Appendix Epiploicae
o Grape-like fat deposits in the large intestine
EXPERIMENT 41: RENAL ANATOMY
1. KIDNEY
The left kidney is higher than the right kidney due to the
large space occupied by the liver
Retroperitoneal organ; not covered by the peritoneum
Has its own renal capsule which is a covering similar to
the pleura, pericardium and peritoneum
Pelvis indentation of the kidney
o Also called the renal hylum
LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF THE KIDNEY
Has two layers: an outer renal cortex and an inner
renal medulla
The medulla will have alternating renal pyramids with
the midline directed to the midline and renal columns
The apices of the renal pyramids connect to a tube-like
space known as the renal calyx
o Can be small minor calices which converge to
become major calices that form the renal
pelvis; where urine passes
In between the renal columns, renal sinuses can be
seen which are passageways of blood vessels
NEPHRON
Functional unit of the kidneys comprised of the renal
corpuscles, proximal convoluted tube, loop of Henle,
and the distal convoluted tube
o Renal corpuscle is comprised of the
Bowmans capsule and glomerulus
2.
3.
4.

URETER
URETHRA
Longer in males; due to having the
membranous urethra and penile urethra
URINARY BLADDER

prostatic

EXPERIMENT 42: REPRODUCTIVE ANATOMY

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
1. SCROTUM
Contains the testes
Contains dartos muscle that moves scrotum and testes
close to and away from body depending on the
temperature
Sperm must develop at a temperature less than the
body temperature
2.
-

TESTES
Primary male reproductive organ
Produces sperm
Contains seminiferous tubules where the sperm cells
are produced

3.
-

Also contains the following cells:

o Interstitial Cells secrete testosterone
o Germ Cells origin of sperm cells
o Sustentacular Cells nourishing cell of the
germ cells, produces hormones
EPIDIDYMIS
Thread-like tubules on the side of each testis
Place where the seminiferous tubules empty the sperm
Also the place where the sperm continue to mature,
develop the ability to swim and bind to oocytes

4.
-

DUCTUS DEFERENS
Also called the vas deferens
From the epididymis and joins the seminal vesicle
Cut during a vasectomy

5.
-

URETHRA
Extends from the urinary bladder to the end of the penis
Passageway for both urine and male reproductive fluids

6.
-

PENIS
Comprised of three columns of erectile tissue which fill
the penis with blood during erection
o Corporus cavernosum
o Corpus spongiosum
o Spongy urethra
Transfers sperm from male to female
Excrete urine

7.

GLANDS
A. SEMINAL VESICLE
o Help form the ejaculatory duct
B.

PROSTATE GLAND
o Surrounds the urethra
o About the size of a walnut

C.

BULBOURETHRAL GLAND
o Small mucus secreting gland near the base of
the prostate gland

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

EXTERNAL
1.
-

VULVA
External female sex organ
Composed of the mons pubis, labia majora, labia
minora, clitoris and the vestibule
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.

MONS PUBIS fatty layer of skin covering the

pubic symphysis
LABIA MAJORA larger, outer folds equivalent to
the male scrotum
LABIA MINORA thin, inner folds of skin
CLITORIS small erectile structure located in the
vestibule equivalent to the male penis
PREPUCE where the two labia minora meet/unite
over the clitoris
VESTIBULE space in which the vagina and
urethra are located

INTERNAL
1.
-

OVARIES
Primary female reproductive organ
Produces oocytes and sex hormones
Seen on either side of the uterus
o Ovarian Ligaments ovaries to uterus
o Suspensory Ligaments ovaries to pelvic cavity
Ovarian follicle cells in ovaries that contain oocytes

2.

UTERINE (FALLOPIAN) TUBES

3.
-

Part of uterus which extends toward ovaries and receive

the oocytes during ovulation
Fimbrae fringe-like structures around opening of
uterine tubes that help sweep oocyte into uterine tubes
UTERUS
Pear-shaped structure located in pelvic cavity
Receives, retains, and provides nourishment for
fertilized oocytes; where the embryo resides and
develops
Divided into two parts: body and the cervix

LAYERS OF THE UTERUS

A. Perimetrium (Serous)
B. Myometrium (Muscular)
C. Endometrium
o Innermost layer that is sloughed off during
period/menstruation
4.
-

VAGINA
Extends from the uterus to the outside of body
Female copulation organ that receives penis
Allow menstrual flow
Involved in childbirth
Contains very muscular walls and a mucous membrane
Very acidic to keep bacteria out