Major Concepts Unit 1- Ch.

1 Part 2
1. Define and describe to difference between dogmatism and empiricism. Which
of these beliefs forms the cornerstone of the scientific approach? Define and
describe the scientific method (science).
Dogmatism- Assumed that their ideas were correct without testing or

observing them. This was the cornerstone of religion.

Empiricist- They held experiments to test and observe their ideas. They
didnt accept something as true without proof. This was the

cornerstone of science.
Scientific Method- Method for learning about truth and reality from
experiments. It allows humans to avoid biases and errors. It is not

based on emotion or human perception.

2. What 3 characteristics of the human condition make people hard to study
scientifically? (understand what they mean)
1.) Complexity (of the brain)- there are 300-400 trillion active
connections functioning in the brain. No two human brains are exactly

the same.
2.) Variability (between individuals)- you cant just study one person
3.) Reactivity (while being watched)- we act differently when we are

being observed. We behave in ways that make us appear better.

3. Define and describe each of the following terms related to the scientific
method: variable, operational definition, data, hypothesis, theory, and
replication. Examples.
Variable- used for event observed in a study. Individual variable
(intelligence level of people) or relationship between two variables

(causes of intelligence).
Operational variable- in science in order to scientifically study a
variable you must be able to measure it in a way that can be converted
to numbers. The way we operationally define depression is by having
people rate how the think feel and behave on a scale.

Data- careful objective observation of numerical phenomenon. We

measure in ways that can be converted to numbers. Measure IQ.

Hypothesis- must be testable and falsifiable. An educated guess that
can be tested to determine what the value of the variable is.
Depression is a real phenomenon can be tested and proved. The
existence of God is untestable because it cant be converted to

numbers.
Theory- cant be tested with just one study. Involves a set of
interrelated ideas used to explain something you observe in the world.
A broad explanation for how the world works. Sigmund Freuds

Psychodynamic Theory has been tested one little bit at a time.

Replication- What is true for one person is not true for someone else.
You must test a variety of different people on the same test for many

years.
4. Dont need to know
5. Describe case study in science. Examples in which this method would be
useful.
Case study- Scientific study that involves an individual. Only reason to
do this is when we are dealing with an individual with unique variables.
Serial killers are an example of this because they are hard to catch.
6. Define population and sample and describe how these terms relate to the law
of large numbers. Compare this law to case method.
Population- who you want the results to apply to
Sample- the people who participate in the study
Law of large numbers- study that involves many participants (most
studies). The study of depression wants to be applied to everyone who
suffers from depression. The drawback is that what is true on average
is not true in every case.
7. Define frequency distribution and how it is used in scientific research. Define
descriptive statistics. Define and describe the difference between measure of

central tendency (mean median mode) and measure of variability (range and
standard deviation). Apply examples.
Frequency distribution- data is based on average but what is true on
average is not true in every single case. We can predict patterns by
frequency distribution which is a graphic representation of the

arrangements of a sample.
Descriptive statistics- essential information from a frequency
distribution.
Measure of central tendency:
o Mean- arithmetic average
o Median- score halfway between the highest and lowest
o Mode- most frequent measurement
Measure of variability:
o Range- difference in the largest and smallest variable
o Standard deviation- How tightly clustered a group of scores is

around the average.

8. Define and describe reliability and validity as they relate to the scientific
method. Be prepared to apply these terms to examples.
Reliability- A scale to measure must be consistent. You must come up

with the same results for the same person over and over.
Validity- Accuracy. Does it measure what it is supposed to? A
thermometer wont measure weight. A man tried to measure

depression by body mass percentage.

9. Define and describe bias in scientific research. Compare and contrast

response bias and sampling bias. Know examples.

Response bias- When people are being observed they tend not to be honest.
They respond in ways to make themselves look better regardless of their

beliefs.
Sampling Bias- When the sample doesnt represent the population you want it
to. Just studying the intelligence of college students doesnt apply to the
whole population.

10.Define and describe naturalistic observation. Explain how this technique may
be used to avoid bias in research. List and describe 4 ways bias may be
avoided in research. Examples
Naturalistic observation- Observing people in their natural environment
without them knowing. Videotaping people for scientific study is legal.

Traffic lights have cameras that observe someones driving.

1.) Anonymous surveys- guarantee confidentiality. If your information
gets out then the experimenter can lose their job or go to jail. This
makes you feel better about your answers to the questions.
2.) Measure reflexes or automatic response- physical reaction to a
stimulus that you cannot control.
3.) Deception- The experimenter tells you that you are participating in
a certain experiment but they are actually observing something else.
4.) Random sampling (for sampling bias)- Everyone has an equal
chance to be in the study
5.) Experimenter expectancy effects- double blinding design- You are
never told if you are in the treatment group of the control group.
Double is when neither the experimenter or participants know who is in
what group.

11. Define and describe experimenter expectancy effects. Define the double blind
design. Why is it necessary for researchers to be blind to conditions in their own
scientific research?

A researchers expectations lead them to treat different groups in different

ways. They must remove themselves from the experiment because they just

want to prove themselves right.

11.Above
12.Compare and contrast case study, naturalistic observation, and surveys.
Consider advantages and disadvantages of each technique and give

examples.
Case study- focuses on a single interesting case in detail.
o Ex. Studying someone who reads minds.
Naturalistic Observation- Allows one to see patterns in the real world.
o Ex. Observing someone without their knowledge by videoing or
watching people behavior.
o Disadvantage- you can only observe behavior and not thought
Surveys- A set of questions where people are asked about their beliefs,
attitudes, preference, or activities. Gathers a lot of information on a lot of
different variables from a lot of variables.
o Ex. Paper and pencil or online questionnaire. Yes or no questions or

ratings.
o Disadvantage- Response bias.
13.Define correlation and describe how this relates to variables. How are
correlation studies conducted in science? What do correlations allow us to do
regarding variables? How are correlations used to describe the relationship
between variables? What are the main advantages and disadvantages?
Examples.
Correlation- studies that investigate the relationship between two or
more measured (but not manipulated) variables.
o Variables are never manipulated in correlation studies, they are
simply measured.

o
o

Ex. People who are more intelligent have higher grade point
Ex. Weather forecasting is the biggest correlation. Weather is

based on average
Ex. Health and age, gender, behavior, substance use, and jobs
Insurance charge is based on these correlations
Allows for predictions based on relationship between variables.
14.Define Correlation Coefficient. Describe the concepts of strength and
o

direction with regard to correlations. Difference between a positive and

negative correlation. Examples.
Correlation Coefficient- strength and direction
Strength
o No correlation coefficient greater than one
o 0 means there is no prediction because the variables are
unrelated. Ex. Hair color and intelligence has no mathematical

correlation.
A perfect Correlation is 1. Almost nonexistent. The closer it is to

one the more accurate the correlation becomes.

Direction involves how change in one variable results in change of
another variable.
o Positive Correlation more-more/ less-less. Intelligence and GPA is

a positive correlation because they go up or down together

Negative Correlation more-less/ less-more. Substance abuse and
GPA are a negative correlation because they go in opposite

direction.
15.Describe the relationship between correlation and causation. Define and
describe confounds and the third variable problem. How might a third
variable presence effect assumptions about causation? Consider examples of
confounds.
Correlation- explains a relationship.

Causation- correlation is not causation.

Disadvantage- just because two variables correlated doesnt mean that
one variable changes another. Only accounts for two variables at a
time. Do not account for any other variables that might affect the two

you are studying.

Confounds- Any variable that is not studied in a correlation that could

account for other variables.

Third variable presence- Variables that are casually related are
correlated, but not all variables that are correlated are casually related.
Two variables may be correlated only because they are both caused by

a third variable.
Ex. You can measure foot size to predict intelligence until age 12. Age

is confounding.
16.Define and describe experiment. Define and describe the critical
experimental features of manipulation and random assignment. How is each
feature achieved and what does each feature do for an experiment? What
can the experimental method do that no other research method can achieve?
Experiment- has two critical features: Manipulation and Random

Assignment
Manipulation:
o Independent variable- variable that you intentionally manipulate

o
o

(cause)
Dependent variable- Its observed (effect)
Control group- Room with no experimental manipulation. Gets

nothing.
Experimental group- Group that get the substance. Ex. Hotter
room.

Random Assignment (control for confounds):

o Allows for control of compound because you are manipulating

under controlled settings

Every participant has an equal chance to be assigned to either

group
Large sample size that is randomly divided to balance out

compounds
The only way to prove cause and effect is to use manipulation and

control to prove correlation.

Must manipulate, control, and randomly divide.
There must be a measurable difference on the dependent variable,
then you can say that the independent variable caused the effect on

the dependent variable.

17.See 16
18.Consider the advantages and disadvantages of the experimental techniques.
Consider ethical and practical reason why experiments cannot be conducted
on some psychological phenomenon.
Strength- Rigorous control, casual inferences, allows you to make

inferences.
Weakness- Not all variables can be manipulated. You cant do some

experiments under certain circumstances where people will get hurt.

19.Define and describe pseudopsychology and consider what differentiates
science from nonscience.
Pseudopsychology- Theories or statements that at first glance look like

psychology but in fact are superstition or unsupported opinion.

False psychology or false science- Things on media like Dr. phil,
politicians, and self help books seem like science but are actually

unsupported. It can only be science if you show evidence and multiple

studies to prove it.
20.Consider the purpose of an institutional review board. Define informed
consent and debriefing and how they relate to ethics in psychology. Consider
why deception of human subject or harm of nonhuman animals is regularly
approved in psychological research.
Institutional Review Board (IRB)- Research with people
Informed Consent- general explanation of what the study involves and
the risks. Legal right to evoke at any time. Avoid deception unless

necessary.
Debriefing- Explanation that you get when the experiment is over. Tells

you if you were deceived and what group you were in. Legal right.
Confidentiality- Information is protected by federal law.