Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Theory of Flight and Control

TOPIC 2
PHYSIC OF
ATMOSPHERE (PART 2)

Prepared by: Mohammad Anuar Yusof

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Theory of Flight and Control
2.12

Humidity
The term humidity describes the amount of water which is present in the air. This amount
varies with temperature. As temperature increases, the air can hold greater amounts of water
vapor. When comparing two separate air masses, the first is dry and the second is humid, the
first must be denser than the second. (Refer figure 12)

Figure 12: Humidity vs Density

2.12.1 Relative Humidity
Relative humidity is the ratio between the actual amount of moisture in the air to the amount
that would be present if the air were saturated at that temperature.
For example, a relative humidity of 75 percent means that the air is holding 75 percent of the
total water vapor it is capable of holding.

Figure 13: Effect of Temperature on Hunidity

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Theory of Flight and Control
Figure 13 describes how relative humidity changes in a parcel of air with an increase in air
temperature. At 10 Celsius, a parcel of dry air can hold a maximum of water vapor. In this state,
the parcel of air would be at saturation and its relative humidity would be 100%.
Increasing the temperature of this parcel by another 10 degree Celsius, without adding or
removing any water, would increase the temperature to 20 Celsius and relative humidity would
be 52%. Raising the temperature of the parcel of air by another 10 to 30 Celsius would again
lower its relative humidity to 28%.

2.12.2 Absolute Humidity

Absolute humidity refers to the actual amount or mass of water vapor per unit volume of a
mixture of air and water vapor. The formula is as follows:
Absolute Humidity =

Weight of water vapor in air

Unit volume of air and water vapor

The humidity is usually expressed as the number of grams of water contained in 1 cubic metre or
liter of air.

Figure 14 is an example of a 1 liter of air in the bottle that contains

22 mg of water vapor. The absolute humidity is therefore
Weight of water vapor in air
=
Unit volume of air and water vapor

22 mg
1L

= 22 mg/L

Figure 14: Relative Humidity

2.12.3 Dew Point
Dewpoint is the temperature at which air reaches a
state where it can hold no more water. When the
dewpoint is reached, the air contains 100 percent of
the moisture it can hold at that temperature, and is
said to be saturated. If the temperature drops below
the dewpoint, condensation occurs.
The good example of the condensation is when you
find water droplets on the leaves of trees or bushes at
early hours in the morning or dawn. This is due to the
warm air during the day reduces its temperature at
night to the point where it becomes saturated with
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Figure 15: Dew

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Theory of Flight and Control
water vapor which is then condenses when the air temperature passes the dewpoint. The
condehsed water is called dew. (Refer figure 15)
Another example is when a can of gas drink is first placed in the refrigerator. Water will
condense on the outer skin of the can when the gas drink get cooled passed its dewpoint.
2.12.4 Effect of Humidity on Density
The preceding paragraphs refer to air that is perfectly dry. In reality, it is never completely dry.
The small amount of water vapor suspended in the atmosphere may be almost negligible under
certain conditions, but in other conditions humidity may become an important factor in the
performance of an aircraft.
Water vapor is lighter than air; consequently, moist air is lighter than dry air. Therefore, as the
water content of the air increases, the air becomes less dense, increasing density altitude and
decreasing performance. It is lightest or least dense when, in a given set of conditions, it
contains the maximum amount of water vapor which means 100% relative humidity.
2.13

International Standard Atmosphere

To allow for comparison of e.g. flight performance data which have probably been obtained
under different atmospheric conditions a standard atmosphere for reference is needed.
Therefore the so--called international standard atmosphere (ISA) has been defined by the
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) which is used as a reference for variations in the
atmosphere at different latitudes and altitudes.
The standard atmosphere at sea level is a surface temperature of 59 F or 15 C and a surface
pressure of 29.92 inches of mercury ("Hg) or 1,013.2 millibars (mb) or 14.70 pounds per square
inch (psi) or 1,013.25 hectoPascal (hPa). Air density () is 1,249 kg/m and the relative humidity
() is 0%.
It must be remembered that the ICAO International Standard Atmosphere is an assumed state
for the purpose of comparing aircraft and engine performances and calibration of aircraft
instruments etc., and it is unlikely that the actual conditions on the day will conform to this
standard.
The following table states the International Standard Atmosphere at various altitudes as defined
by ICAO. (Refer figure 16)

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Theory of Flight and Control

Figure 16: International Standard Atmosphere

2.13.1 Standard Atmosphere Lapse Rate
A standard temperature lapse rate is one in which the temperature decreases at the rate of
approximately -6.5C per 1,000 meter or 2 C (3.5F) per thousand feet up to 11 km or 36,000
feet which is approximately -55 C ( -65 F). Above this point, the temperature is considered
constant up to 24 km or 80,000 feet.
A standard pressure lapse rate is one in which pressure decreases at a rate of approximately 1
inch Hg per 1,000 feet (305 m) of altitude gain to 10,000 feet (3,048.78 m).
2.13.2 Application to Aerodynamics
Aircraft performance and behavior is affected by changes in air temperature, pressure and
density.
The density of air has significant effects on the aircrafts performance because as air becomes
less dense, it reduces:
Power because the engine takes in less air.
Thrust because a propeller is less efficient in thin air.
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Lift because the thin air exerts less force on the airfoils.
To determine whether or not an aircraft and its engine are performing as the manufacturer
designed them, engineers have agreed upon conditions that constitute a so--called standard
day, based on the ISA. Aircraft and engine performance can be reduced to the performance
they would have under these standard conditions
2.13.3 Effect of Altitude on Flight
When an aircraft is taking off at altitude above ISA sea level, it will still get airborne at the same
indicated airspeed as at sea level, but because of the lower density the true airspeed (TAS) will
be greater. To achieve this higher speed with the same engine power, a longer takeoff run will
be needed. (Refer figure 17)
The effect of a high altitude on the power developed from the engine is adverse, and less power
will be available for takeoff. Therefore the increase in altitude will:
increased takeoff speed.
reduced engine power and propeller efficiency
increased takeoff distance.
increased landing distance.
reduced rate-of-climb and angle-of-climb.

Figure 17: Effect of Altitude on Flight