ICE Civil Engineering Issue 169

Civil Engineering
Volume 169 Issue CE1 February 2016
Design
and construction of Sai Ying Pun station, Hong Kong

Transforming water management in Llanelli, UK
Adding value: how to develop a servitisation strategy in civil engineering
The future of geotechnical and structural engineering research
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Adaption
Decarbonisation
Building performance
Intervention
Asset management
Smart structures
Construction processes
Design
Material behaviour
Research themes
Hazards
Construction and infrastructure
Call for Papers
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers
Civil Engineering
Panel Chair and Honorary Editor: Emma Kent, Cundall Johnston & Partners LLP, UK
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Civil Engineering
Volume169IssueCE1February2016
CONTENTS:February 2016
Civil Engineering
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EDITORIAL
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS: JOHN ARMITT
3
Civil engineers: shaping ourselves and our world
BRIEFING
New IET president calls for engineering employers to bridge the diversity gap
9
New UK code sets out how to link design, construction and operation through BIM 10
Civil engineering opportunities abound in Africas expanding construction market 11
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TECHNICAL PAPERS
Design and construction of Sai Ying Pun station, Hong Kong
H-W. Tam, C-K. Lee and R. Kwok
17

C. Ellis, R. Cripps, M. Russ and S. Broom
25
Adding value: how to develop a servitisation strategy in civil engineering

C. Galera-Zarco, O. Bustinza and V. Fernandez-Perez
35

B. Clarke, C. Middleton and C. Rogers
41
ISSN 0965-089X (Print)

17517672(Online)
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PAGE 24
PAGE 30
PAGE 37
Adaption
Intervention
Decarbonisation
Smart structures
Asset management
Design
Hazards
Material behaviour
Research themes
PAGE 45
CIVIL ENGINEERING EDITORIAL PANEL

Chairman Emma Kent, CEng, MICE,MIStructE, Cundall, London, UK
Andy Alder, CH2M HILL, UK
J. Dario Aristizabal-Ochoa, National University of Colombia,
Colombia
David Atherton, BSc, MSc, CEng, CGeol, FICE, FIMMM, FCIWEM, MCIWM, FGS,
Peter Brett Associates, Reading, UK
John Clifton, BSc, CEng, CEnv, FICE, FCIHT,MCMI, Independent Consultant,
Santa Barbara de Nexe, Portugal
Mark Hagger, MA, CEng, FICE,MCIWEM, Environment Agency, UK
David Hobson, Jacobs, Stourbridge, UK
Siva Kandasami, BE, ME, PhD, MICT, Coimbatore, India
Sebastian Lewandowski, Atkins, Birmingham, UK
Eva Linnell, MEng, Atkins, Bristol, UK
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Civil Engineering
http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jcien.2016.169.1.2
Editorial
Atherton
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EDITORIAL: FEBRUARY 2016
Editorial
David Atherton BSc, MSc, CEng, CGeol, FICE, FIMMM, FCIWEM, MCIWM, FGS
Partner, Peter Brett Associates, Reading, UK
Welcome to the February issue of Civil Engineering, the

flagship journal of the Proceedings of the Institution of
Civil Engineers. First let me wish a Happy New Year to all
our readers, including those of you who will be celebrating
Chinese New Year this month.
Anyone who has worked in Hong Kong knows the breathtaking speed at which infrastructure is delivered. Our first
paper, by Tam et al. (2016) modestly titled Design and
construction of Sai Ying Pun station, Hong Kong, succinctly
describes the highly complex construction of a 228 m long
cavern and four shafts up to 76 m deep through 26 m of soft
ground into rock. Figure 2 graphically illustrates the difficulties
of squeezing the four station entrances in between existing
tall buildings and constructing connecting passageways under
their deep foundations.
The construction method frequently changed as different
ground conditions were encountered, with each change
potentially leading to a myriad of consequential design changes.
It is also interesting to see the use of ground-freezing in soft
clays something civil engineers in the UK do not often see.
The second paper, by Ellis et al. (2016) on management
of combined sewer overflows, is particularly apt as I write
this editorial, with over 300 mm of rain having fallen in
north-west England in the past 24 h, resulting in widespread
flooding. In contrast with the first paper, the solutions are
relatively small-scale (bioswales, roadside planters and so on)
but are sympathetic and enhancing in a green way to the
streetscape.
Retrofitting a sustainable drainage system into a busy
and utility-packed urban setting is described together with
stakeholder participation and engagement. The latter was
essential to overcome public concerns about the disruption
and loss of car parking during construction. The system
seems to work well, with significant reduction in flow. It will
be interesting to get feedback on long-term maintenance
and whether performance does increase with time as the
vegetation matures.
Galera-Zarco et al. (2016) then review approaches to
servitisation in civil engineering, which is essentially
about firms developing capabilities beyond their traditional
offering. Being a partner in a business that has grown
from 90 to 800 staff, I can tell you servitisation is not linear
or easy, but it is rewarding. The authors set out a smarttechnology-based strategy in terms of the pre-construction
stage (visualisation, virtual reality and project monitoring),
project delivery stage (information transfer) and post-project
stage (monitoring all components to assist maintenance,
diagnosis and repairs).
With ongoing advances in computing power, monitoring

equipment, nanotechnology and the like, there are certainly
exciting times ahead in this area. But let us hope the
monitoring data are used in a timely and fruitful manner
unlike some well-known past projects where large amounts
of data have been accumulated but never analysed or taken
heed of.
The final, three-professor paper, by Clarke et al. (2016),
starts with a critical overview of Britains incremental rather
than transformational geotechnical and structural engineering
research. Based on a two-day workshop, the future key drivers
of UK research are identified as climate change, urbanisation,
ageing infrastructure and resource scarcity, plus cross-drivers
of low-carbon-dioxide engineering, adaptable infrastructure
and sustainability, and reduced energy and water footprints.
Ten target research themes are then described: hazards,
material behaviour, design, construction processes, smart
structures, asset management, intervention, decarbonisation,
building performance and adaption. Let us hope the money
is found (and spent), enabling civil engineers to realise the
innovation and value creation we seek. As John Armitt
says in his presidential address (Armitt, 2016), research and
innovation are vital to our ability to shape a better world.
References
Armitt J (2016) Civil engineers: shaping ourselves and our world.
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers Civil Engineering 169(1):
38, http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jcien.2016.169.1.3.
Clarke B, Midleton C and Rogers C (2016) The future of geotechnical and
structural engineering research. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil
Engineers Civil Engineering 169(1): 4148, http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/
jcien.15.00029.
Ellis C, Cripps R, Russ M and Broom S (2016) Transforming water
management in Llanelli, UK. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil
jcien.15.00027.
Galera-Zarco C, Bustinza O and Fernandez-Perez V (2016) Adding value:
how to develop a servitisation strategy in civil engineering. Proceedings of
the Institution of Civil Engineers Civil Engineering 169(1): 3540,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jcien.15.00023.
Tam HW, Lee CK and Kwok R (2016) Design and construction of Sai
Ying Pun station, Hong Kong. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil
jcien.15.00055.
CALL FOR PAPERS: Civil Engineering relies entirely on material contributed by
civil engineers and related professionals. Illustrated articles up to 750words
and papers of 2000 to 3500 words are welcome on any relevant civil
engineering topic that meets the journals aims of providing a source of
reference material, promoting best practice and broadening civil engineers
knowledge, Please contact the editor for further information
Civil Engineering

Armitt
Civil engineers: shaping

ourselves and our world
This is the inaugural address of John Armitt, who became the 151st
president of the Institution of Civil Engineers on 3 November 2015.
When talking about major
infrastructure projects, I often refer to
the why, what and how. I argue
that too often civil engineers like to
focus on the what and the how;
which appeal to their natural sense
of design and delivery, or to a clients
desire to see quick physical results.
But the profession does not spend
long enough on the why. Why does
something need to be built? Why build
this project over other alternatives? Why
is this 70 year solution appropriate, or
will 20 do, and can more efficient use
be made of existing infrastructure?
It is the why question that I believe
can also be applied to the Institution of
Civil Engineers (ICE). Why is ICE here?
Is it relevant to todays and tomorrows
world? To be relevant, ICE needs to
be clear in what its members offer to
society, to their clients, to employers
and to themselves. ICEs charter tells
members that their task is to, foster
and promote the art and science of civil
engineering.
But is ICE generating and sharing
the knowledge that this generation
needs to tackle the problems it faces?
Is ICE helping people develop into
professionals who ask the right why,
what and how questions? Is ICE
asking how civil engineering relates to
other technologies?
innovated and collaborated to create a

better, more civilised, environment.
Civil engineers Smeaton, Brunel
and Stephenson did not wait for
industrialists and politicians to ask them
to create new methods of travel and
production, or to overcome the physical
barriers of rivers, mountains and sea.
They invented and innovated, and
they took their ideas and persuaded
investors and politicians of what could
be possible and how lives could be
transformed.
It could be said that todays equivalent
pioneers are Tim Berners-Lee, Steve
Jobs, biomedics and synthetic biologists,
and winners of the Queen Elizabeth
Prize for Engineering. However, those
nineteenth-century pioneers did get
together, organise and form clubs,
recognising that collaboration and
exchange of ideas can do something
that markets and individuals cannot.
ICE was one of those early clubs,
founded and developed in the
nineteenth century. It was initially

an extension of the coffee shops,
a way for like-minded individuals
to swap experiences and ideas, to
challenge and argue with one another
while recognising they were also in
competition.
Civil engineers are often at their best
in a crisis, when they are threatened
or when faced with an immovable
deadline. When London was awarded
the 2012 Olympic and Paralympic
Games, there was much celebration in
Trafalgar Square (Figure 1) but much
gnashing of teeth in the UK Treasury.
France had been expected to win, and
the UK had a low estimate of the cost
and now would now have to estimate
the real cost and deliver. Yet it resulted
in a rare instance of cross-party support,
such that the country delivered what
has since been recognised as one of the
best games ever.
The design and fabrication of
the structure for the UKs Great
Learning from the past

It is often said that the past can
be a guide to the future not just
in a technical sense, but also in a
behavioural sense. The human psyche
has developed rather more slowly than
science and technology. Emotions and
social interactions today do not seem
to differ from those of ancient Greece
or Rome. Roman builders may not
have belonged to an institution, but
they were individuals who imagined,
Figure 1. The UK and civil engineers in particular rose to the challenge created by Londons
unexpected win of the 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games the profession needs to learn
from the way in which it responded
Civil Engineering

Armitt

Exhibition in 1851 was completed in
12 months, driven by the programme
and leadership of Prince Albert. The
Mulberry harbours for D-Day were
driven by the exigencies of war. Britains
mass housing programmes of the late
nineteenth and mid-twentieth centuries
were a response to rapid population
growth, urbanisation and to provide
homes fit for heroes. But civil engineers
do not always learn from their
responses to these crises.
In the last 50 to 60 years there
have been major developments
in other branches of engineering:
in communications, medicine and
energy, and in new materials and their
applications. There is today a tendency
to believe that anything is possible and
an impatience for improvement and
change. Unfortunately the same cannot
be said for civil engineering. Over recent
decades the profession has been too
slow or too conservative when
compared to other disciplines.
Meeting societys challenges

Civil engineering is the fundamental
enabler of civilised life today and
supporter of growing populations.
In societies around the world which
lack basic infrastructure, modern
communication systems are raising
awareness of what the best in
living standards can be, and driving
massive demand for fundamental
infrastructure in the future. But it will
not be easy to deliver. There will be
conflicting demands, insufficient funds,
inconsistency of political policy, shortage
of skills and ineffective delivery. So what
is the role of ICE in helping society to
meet these challenges?
ICE is not an inanimate lump of wellcrafted stone: it is simply its members.
ICEs future role is dependent on its
members shared vision, ambition and
self-confidence. ICE must be relevant
and it must be valued by its members
and by society. But that value will be
perceived differently according to
different communities demands and
expectations.
The exchange of technical knowledge
and problem solving is the very stuff
of engineering. The opportunity to
share and learn from one another is
a fundamental opportunity for ICE
members. The application of knowledge

to different problems in different ways,
and innovating on the last solution, are
the bread and butter of a civil engineers
working day.
Civil engineers can have a limited
exchange with colleagues at work, or
instead seek a wider exchange with
fellow ICE members across the world
in seconds using the internet. This will
only become quicker and easier. But
how can ICE add value in a world of
constant knowledge exchange? How
does it help individuals extract the really
valuable knowledge from the noise? ICE
must find the best way to play its role in
this global exchange.
The public, however, is less concerned
with the technical inputs and more
concerned with the impacts and the
outputs of civil engineers work. Let me
give you a couple of examples from my
own experience.
In the late 1980s the volume of traffic
using the M4 motorway from England
to Wales was constrained by the single
River Severn crossing of the magnificent
1960s suspension bridge. That bridge
was literally wearing out. At John Laing
we unseen by motorists carried out
a complex internal strengthening of the
bridge, reinforcing its towers and its
hollow box-deck structure.
The UK government then asked
for proposals for a new crossing to
be funded, built and operated by the

private sector. It did not specify what
form the new crossing should take;
whether it should be another bridge or
a tunnel. This approach gave bidders
the maximum chance to consider all
the options, both in engineering and
financing terms.
Laing won with a viaduct and cablestayed bridge crossing (Figure 2). For
me, the key was to have as low a capital
cost as possible in order to keep the
future toll level as low as possible in
other words, what was affordable.
This reminds me of an old engineering
adage: An engineer can do for a penny
what any fool can do for tuppence.
I deliberately asked French contractor
GTM-Entrepose to be Laings partner.
I did this because I believe that the
European system where major
contractors have their own in-house
design capability can lead to more
cost-effective solutions. It is difficult to
name another industry that separates
design from manufacture. I see this
issue as a continuing challenge for
civil engineering, notwithstanding
the international reputation of UK
consultant engineers.
Increasing consolidation in civil
engineering could lead to a wider coming
together of contractors and designers.
What has resulted from these mergers in
the past has not always been successful.
Figure 2. John Laing partnered with French contractor GTM-Entrepose to deliver the Second
Severn Crossing in 1996 due to the latters in-house design capability a wider coming
together of civil engineering designers and contractors is still needed
Civil Engineering

Armitt

However, I do believe they are necessary
if the UK is to remain competitive.
The Second Severn Crossing was also
a very good example of engineers having
the opportunity to influence every aspect
of the solution including the long-term
maintenance costs and so delivering
long-term benefits to the public.
Another project I had the pleasure
to be involved in was the UKs Channel
Tunnel rail link, now referred to as High
Speed 1. This project, with its numerous
route options and impact on local
communities, was as much about public
relations as engineering. At the time it
entailed the largest ever environmental
impact assessment. It required engineers
to work closely with planners, property
consultants, environmental specialists,
parliamentary lawyers, heritage bodies
and many other professionals.
When the BBC arrived to make a film
about the project, there was dismay
that much of their filming focused on
individuals and personalities rather
than the detailed engineering work.
But to promote the excitement of a
civil engineering career, and what civil
engineers do to help society, there is
no better way than by showcasing
individuals addressing big-picture
challenges.
Civil engineers should not be
discouraged by the fact that the
professions work is often measured by
its impact, both during construction and
in operation. It is the long-term benefit
that is important. Public interest in civil
engineering is as much driven by fear of
disrupted lives as it is by promised, but
untested, convenience. This can make
for compelling stories in the media.
The challenge for civil engineers is to
address these fears, not dismiss them
asunwarranted interference.
Gaining political support

The professions ability to articulate
civil engineering challenges in public,
to explain in plain language what
they are trying to achieve and why,
to show empathy, to be prepared to
consider alternative solutions and to
put themselves in the publics shoes
is absolutely vital if they are to gain
sufficient popular and political support
(Figure 3). Without this major projects
cannot proceed.
Figure 3. Olympic Delivery Authority

Chairman John Armitt (right) and escorts
UK Home Secretary Theresa May and Locog
Chairman Sebastian Coe around the London
2012 Olympic Stadium site civil engineers
need to win public and political support
ICE can play an important role in

explaining the benefits of investing
in the UKs infrastructure, both to
government and the wider public,
and in a way that does not rely upon
technical and complicated language. The
team at ICE has already made significant
strides in this area with initiatives such
as the This is Civil Engineering public
relations campaign. I hope to build on
this work during my time as president.
The impact of infrastructure on society,
whether physically or as an essential
service for peoples daily lives, means
politicians cannot escape the expectations
of the voter. Privatisation has not made
any difference to arguments about what
to build and where, or the cost to the
consumer. Ultimately the public will pay,
either as taxpayers, savers, shareholders
or customers of utilities.
Infrastructure provides people with
clean drinking water, electricity to
light their homes and to power every
aspect of their work, and a transport
network to move people and goods
around the country. People depend
on infrastructure every day of their
lives. As a result, politicians are held to
account as much if not more than
the private sector, so they are bound to
interfere for better or for worse.
Civil engineers are the holders of
the knowledge necessary to create
the systems. They are best able
to work with other engineering
professions to assess solutions, the
alternative technologies, to develop
new technologies, to design, fabricate,
cost, build, operate and eventually
decommission the systems. They have a

responsibility to put all this information
before politicians and investors, and
make it available to the public.
When it comes to the assessment of
need and how to price to the consumer,
the social, environmental, economic,
political and policy challenges will all be
factors that need considering. Individual
ICE members will hold different views,
both on technical solutions and how they
interact with some of these wider issues.
ICE will never promote a partypolitical position. If, however, it is to
have influence and discharge its duty as
a professional body, ICE needs to make
the professions collective knowledge
available to governments and be involved
in policy making from an early stage. It
does mean taking a public position on
High Speed 2, on spending priorities, on
airport expansion or on flood control.
It is vital for ICEs credibility that
the advice is genuinely independent
and expert. This is why it places the
responsibility for developing its policy
positions with the relevant expert
panels, and has wider consultation
among members on particularly
controversial issues.
Many members say they would like
to hear ICEs voice heard more loudly.
I agree, but ICE must be careful not to
be seen as partial, or self-interested,
or looking to create more projects or
more jobs for civil engineers, as ends in
themselves.
Over the coming years I am convinced
ICE will need to argue for greater use
of smart technology to obtain more
efficiency. This may result in a reduced
need for new build and less concrete.
But if calls are made that are clearly in
the public interest, I am sure they will
be given a hearing. ICE already achieves
this with its annual UK State of the
Nation reports, its Thought Leadership
programme and, most recently, its UK
general election campaign, where it
succeeded in getting its ideas into the
manifestos of all the major parties.
The challenge now is to continue
keeping the professions views, and
the related solutions, alive and in the
public eye all year round. Projects and
initiatives are already underway to help
achieve this.
The 2015 State of the Nation report
analysed infrastructure in Scotland
Civil Engineering

Armitt

and was presented to the Scottish
government. Work has started on ICEs
next major report looking at the impact
of devolution on UK infrastructure and
the proposed northern powerhouse.
Itis recognised that there are also needs
outside Westminster. Next year ICE will be
delivering policy reports in the run-up to
the devolved elections and in Hong Kong.
National Infrastructure
Commission
People know what infrastructure
does for them and how important it
is to them. However, the UK lacks a
long-term strategy that outlines what
is needed from its infrastructure in the
future. In other words, how should
future infrastructure be shaped?
Civil engineers know that they
face challenges from climate change,
population growth and affordability.
But they cannot be sure how these
challenges will impact on the
infrastructure services they provide,
nor how best to meet these future
challenges. Understanding the impacts
of these challenges is not easy.
Making decisions on infrastructure
certainly is not easy I should know,
having served on the UK Airport
Commission. I was therefore delighted
when the UK government announced
the establishment of a National
Infrastructure Commission, to be led by
Andrew Adonis. He and I had argued
for such a commission in a review for
the Labour Party. They had accepted
the concept, so it is pleasing to see a
Conservative government adopting the
idea. We need cross-party support for
long-term infrastructure.
Andrew has long championed
infrastructure and brings policy and
ministerial experience to this new body.
He is known and respected across the
political spectrum for his intelligence
and ideas. I cannot think of anyone
better to drive this new step change
in infrastructure decision-making. I am
also pleased that I have been asked
to serve as an interim commissioner.
In my role I will work with Andrew to
address the commissions three shortterm priority areas around transport and
energy, as well as the assessment of
long-term infrastructure requirements.
Establishing the commission was a bold

and positive move by government, one
which can enable the UK to reach the
essential goal of a long-term infrastructure
strategy. I believe that through this new
political consensus, civil engineers can
achieve an infrastructure revolution, one
not seen since the professions great
forebears in the nineteenth century.
However, the work of the commission
must be informed by robust evidence. Ifit
is to make real progress, civil engineers
must first of all understand why they are
doing something. What is it that they
want to achieve? A second engineering
adage comes to mind: give me a
problem and Ill give you a solution.
Civil engineers are good at engineering
solutions, but they do not always fully
examine the root cause of the problem.
If the UK is to have world-class
infrastructure, the government, industry,
investors and the public must get better
at identifying choices for infrastructure
that are based on cost, benefit, risk
and opportunity. In essence, a better
understanding is needed of what the
UK needs from its infrastructure, taking
into consideration a number of future
uncertainties, such as climate change
and population growth.
I am pleased to say that ICE in
partnership with leading individuals from
utilities, business, environmental groups
and others is to lead an advisory
group to the National Infrastructure
Commission as it undertakes its work.
By harnessing its expertise, the group
will assist the commission to establish a
shared, long-term vision to 2050. Work
will begin on an independent, evidencebased, infrastructure needs assessment
which will directly inform my work on
the commission.
ICE and its members particularly
when working with other bodies can
be a powerful voice for infrastructure.
Civil engineers can help inform these
complex choices so that successive
governments can come to better
decisions that benefit everyone in
society. I hope to demonstrate this
as ICE works with the commission
throughout my presidential year.
Broadening membership
Other ways for civil engineers to
help shape the future of infrastructure
and their profession include opening

ICEs doors to a broader membership.
This will provide for expert views on a
range of infrastructure challenges. It
should be done in a concerted, planned
and continuous programme, year in,
yearout.
At the heart of ICEs mission is
the qualification and support of civil
engineers. I know just how valuable
membership of ICE is and how much
it means to engineers. But there are
many other professionals who spend
their whole careers contributing to the
creation of infrastructure. They may
never seek to qualify as civil engineers
but would nevertheless value and
benefit from a closer relationship
with ICE. This, of course, would be
of mutual benefit both for ICE and its
members.
Collaboration within the supply
chain is now recognised as essential
for the successful delivery of projects.
By opening ICEs membership to other
professionals and increasing crossdiscipline collaboration, ICE will be
more relevant to society and increase
its influence. ICE must not step away
from this responsibility because it is
too hard or too controversial. If it does,
civil engineers risk being marginalised
by economists, financiers, planners
and think tanks. They will only then be
asked to do the technical calculations,
while others are succeeding in being
relevant and answering the why
question.
Looking forward, the role will require
civil engineers to be comfortable
debating social and economic issues.
They must be prepared to learn and
understand more about these issues as
part of their professional development.
The profession has already started
to grapple with these matters when
they seek professional qualification as
Engineering Technicians, Incorporated
Engineers or Chartered Engineers. But
more needs to be done.
Embracing innovation
In todays world, the new
technology headlines tend to
be grabbed in healthcare, in the
biomedical and bioengineering world,
telecommunications and digital, and in
materials technology. When it comes
Civil Engineering

Armitt

to the building and civil engineering
sectors, big changes are less obvious
and certainly less obvious to the public.
With buildings, the impact of a
range of different technological
innovations can be seen: digital
control on mechanical and electrical
systems, the opportunities of remote
condition monitoring, the power of
high-speed computing applied to
multiple simulations at the design stage,
and pressure to reduce the carbon
dioxide footprint of buildings and of
construction process.
As I look back over my career, the
biggest changes are in the impact of
environmental considerations at the
design stage and during construction;
the impact on habitats, biodiversity,
pollution control, waste management
and the use of recycled materials.
However, 50 years ago, civil engineers
were using recycled blast furnace slag
as lightweight aggregate and cement
replacement. Today, steel, concrete,
stone and bricks remain the primary
materials; 1960s modularisation went
out of favour with knee-jerk reactions to
single failure. It has recently been seen
again, led in the UK by Laing ORourke.
However, by and large, conservatism
and traditional techniques prevail.
Lowest cost wins and wafer-thin
margins, with low-capital-base
companies, all mean there is little in
reserve for research and development.
This applies to both consultants and
contractors. The low margins also mean
a low capacity for experiment and risk.
Civil engineers rarely seem to transfer
the knowledge they gain from either
success or failure and not just in the
UK, it is a global phenomenon.
I argued earlier for the benefits of
design and construction as a single
process. This can lead to challenges and
innovation. The vertically integrated
companies, particularly in Europe, are
gaining strength and I believe can
provide clients with a better service.
But it has not led to major changes in
technology. Infrastructure needs to find
ways of using technology to reduce
costs, improve utility efficiency and
increase life cycles.
It is interesting to see that the next
generation of cars could be Apple
products rather than Ford, and Toshiba
and Honda are collaborating on smart
housing. If the traditional professions

and companies in the construction
sector do not research, innovate or
embrace new ideas coming from other
technologies, they will get left behind.
They may find their lunch has been
eaten by others such as Samsung or
Siemens.
ICE and its members can encourage
more innovation by doing the following.
Make innovation a key value.
Create awards for exciting and
challenging new ideas, including the
adoption of technologies from other
industries and sectors.
Use ICEs website and the internet
as an easy way to encourage
exchange of knowledge and ideas.
Making better use of social media
will drive more interaction and
engagement, particularly amongst
younger members.
While ICE membership candidates
are already required to demonstrate
innovation to achieve chartered
status, there is scope for this to
be increased by requiring them to
showcase how they are thinking and
using innovation at work.
For civil engineers in client
organisations, recognise that they
will be better served by designers
and contractors who are given the
opportunity to bring forward new
ideas and to share the risks.
Strive to ensure that procurement

allows for innovation to be brought
forward during projects.
Encourage government to set
long-term, demanding goals and
standards, and use contracts
and procurement to incentivise
technological advances.
This can apply to maintenance
as well as new build. Proper
maintenance ensures sustainable
and resilient infrastructure.
Forexample, digital technology
has a major role to play in
enabling condition monitoring.
Iforganisations invest in
maintenance now, it will save them
money down the line.
As designers and contractors, civil

engineers should always be asking why,
encouraging new ways and pushing
their clients to work with them and
think afresh. Civil engineers do not
have the public as direct clients and
customers. They do not need to keep
selling products, yet they all tend to
be risk averse in their thinking. They
must push one another and they must
become more tolerant of risk taking.
Let me give you just two examples
from the Olympic Park. On the Velodrome
(Figure 4), the architect and contractor
worked together from the start. As a
result, they changed a steel-beamed roof
to a cable-net roof, saving weight and
Figure 4. The London 2012 Velodrome roof was changed from steel beams to a cable net through
close collaboration between the contractor and architect, resulting in considerable savings
Civil Engineering

Armitt

cost right through to the foundations.
This collaboration also created a naturally
lit and ventilated building.
As the client, we pushed for the
use of recycled aggregates. Engineers
modified concrete designs so that
as well as using aggregate for the
foundations, they were also used in fairfaced concrete. In both examples, the
changes flowed simply from engineers
working together and asking why not.
All engineering is about optimism
and discovery. The world is brimming
with new ideas in other sectors, so civil
engineers should make theirs every bit as
vital. So far I have talked about the wider
role the profession must adopt in society
and the responsibility to collaborate and
innovate. To do this a vibrant profession
is needed, which provides a visible
opportunity for youngpeople.
ICE has an essentially static number
of active members and a clear failure to
develop technician membership over the
last decade. To address this latter issue,
efforts have been combined with the
Institution of Engineering Technology and
the Institution of Mechanical Engineers to
promote technician status and registration.
But it will only work if, as colleagues and
employers, civil engineers actively think
about how they can use the skills of
technicians, give them proper recognition,
career paths and reward them.
Civil engineers must play an active
part in promoting the vocational, work
and study routes to a career. University
is not the only route to a successful,
well-paid future. My own background
was 1 year on site and 3 years at college
to obtain exemption from ICEs entry
exams. While I could not be let loose on
designing The Shard, I have been able
to enjoy a fulfilling career.
Civil engineering is an industry with
an enormous range of opportunities.
Earlier this year I had the pleasure of
chairing the James Rennie Awards.
We heard from three engineers, who
in their mid-twenties have significant
responsibility for leading the design
of complex structures both on and
off shore. These and others like them
are personal stories which must be
promoted to show young people at
school just what fantastic opportunities
the civil engineering profession and
industry can offer.
The civil engineering industry needs

skills at every level. As individuals,
civil engineers have a vital role to
play in encouraging and influencing
the training of a skilled workforce
through the organisations they work
with. At the same time ICE must be
open to engineers, especially in other
countries, who do not necessarily
adopt its professional qualifications and
with whom it does not have mutual
recognition.
The profession must learn from
engineers across the world, be inspired
by them and incorporate their ideas. ICE
cannot influence or learn by remaining
aloof and separate. It is part of a global
network and, as such, should interact
with all those around the world who
deliver civil engineering.
A broad professional outlook is needed
for ICE to be relevant to the challenges
facing the built environment. But that
challenge cannot be solved from the UK
alone. A broader membership would
enable ICE to offer a more holistic
perspective to global issues, for the
benefit of current and new members.
It is another aspect of how civil
engineers can serve society and ensure
a better world.
Shaping the world

I would like to conclude with a short
allegory from one of our great political
leaders that I believe illustrates my

overriding message.
On the night of 10 May 1941,
one of the last bombs of one of
the last serious raids on London
destroyed the House of Commons.
Winston Churchills government had
subsequently to consider whether they
should build it up again, and how,
and when. Churchill asked himself
and Parliament the why question.
He argued to see it restored in all
essentials and glory to its old form. In
doing so, Churchill gave us this famous
quote: We shape our buildings, and
afterwards our buildings shape us.
Civil engineers can shape the world
by being open-minded. They need
to be open-minded to every aspect
of infrastructure, not just the pure
engineering but the social, economic
and environmental aspects too.
ICE must be open to a broad
membership, and be open in its dialogue
with engineers of all disciplines across
the world. It must use every opportunity
to inspire young people to join what
for me and I am sure for members is
one of the most enjoyable and satisfying
ways of benefiting society (Figure 5).
If civil engineers always start by
asking why, it will help us to influence,
to innovate and to learn. In doing so
we will end up shaping ourselves as
engineers, and ultimately help shape a
better world.
Figure 5. The UK Big Bang fair civil engineers should use every opportunity to inspire young
people to join the profession
Civil Engineering
New IET president calls for engineering

employers to bridge the diversity gap
Climer
BRIEFING: PROFESSION
New IET president calls for engineering

employers to bridge the diversity gap
The new Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET) president Naomi Climer says engineering
firms should recognise the real social and economic benefits of greater diversity in the workplace.
More needs to be done to attract staff from all genders, backgrounds and ethnicities.
The Institution of Engineering and
Technology (IET) is now Europes largest
interdisciplinary engineering institution,
with more than 163000members in
127 countries.
We have a remit to inspire, inform
and influence, but we cannot do this
alone. This is why we work closely with
other engineering institutions, including
the Institution of Civil Engineers, on
a range of projects including policy,
events and education programmes.
By working together we can have
greater impact on the engineering-related
issues affecting our society today, such
as creating a transport infrastructure fit
for the future, tackling cyber security and
optimising our use of big data.
But we must also work together to
tackle the engineering skills shortage.
This includes finding the best way to
create the perception that engineering
offers the opportunity for an exciting
and rewarding career and to make a
real difference in the world.
Wehave also been working with the

UK Prospect trade union to create some
practical guidance for companies to help
them recruit and retain more women
in science, technology, engineering and
maths roles.
Furthermore, according to several
studies, diversity is good for business.
Mixed teams whether of race, gender
or age are naturally more creative and
therefore better able to come up with
solutions for the problems engineers face.
Recognising need for diversity

Despite the fact that fewer than one
in ten UK engineers is female, the IETs
2015 Skills & Demand in Industry report
(IET, 2015) found that over half of
engineering employers still do not have
gender diversity initiatives in place.
It is vital for business and the
economy that engineering companies
recognise the need for diversity in
the workplace and consistently do
more to attract staff from all genders,

backgrounds and ethnicities. Theonus
is on large companies particularly to
change their behaviours: if they set the
example, which the likes of Atkins and
Arup have done, others will follow suit.
And if parents, educators and the
engineering industry as a whole join forces
to help tackle the issue of female underrepresentation in engineering, perhaps we
will see that 9% figure start to change.
Butthis will only happen if we all continue
to work together over a sustained period
of time, measuring our progress so that
we can adapt our approach as we go.
I am gearing myself up for the challenge,
confident that change will happen in the
end. Ihope others will do the same.
Reference
IET (Institution of Engineering and Technology)
(2015) Skills & Demand in Industry. IET, London,
UK. Seehttp://www.theiet.org/factfiles/
education/skills2015-page.cfm (accessed
10/12/2015).
Addressing the skills shortage

There is a global need for wellqualified, talented, professional
engineers. Oneway to improve the
pipeline would be to persuade more
women and minority groups that
engineering could be a career for them.
Today for example, only 9% of engineers
in the UK workforce are female.
There are so many big, global as well
as small, local challenges for engineers to
crack that we need all the talent we can
get. This is not about doing the right or
fair thing for women it is a compelling
economic and societal issue to train as
many talented engineers as we can.
At the IET we have been working with
parents, schoolchildren and teachers to
try to change perceptions of engineering.
IET president Naomi Climer says attracting a more diverse range of people to engineering will lead
to more creative engineering solutions
For further information please contact: Robert Beahan Tel: +441438 767336 Email: rbeahan@theiet.org Web: www.theiet.org
Civil Engineering
New UK code sets out how to link design,

construction and operation through BIM
Kosandiak and Atkin
BRIEFING: INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
New UK code sets out how to link design,

construction and operation through BIM
BSI has recently published an updated code of practice on how to reinforce the links between
design, construction and operation through building information modelling (BIM). Stephanie
Kosandiak of BSI and lead technical author Brian Atkin introduce BS 8536-1:2015.
The UK governments April 2016
deadline for level 2 building information
modelling (BIM) on all public sector
construction projects is approaching fast.
Allproject team members will soon need
to be able to exchange information using
three-dimensional computer models.
However, whether BIM is used or not,
facilities are often delivered by project
teams that have not taken sufficient
account of operational requirements,
especially those relating to environmental
management, functionality, effectiveness,
security and cost.
Furthermore, responsibility is not
solely with the project team. Owners
and operators need to express their
requirements unambiguously. They then
need to watch over the emerging design
and construction processes and the extent
to which both measure up to the definition
of an efficient, safe and cost-effective facility.
BSIs new code of practice BS
8536-1:2015 Briefing for design and
construction. Code of practice for facilities
management (Buildings infrastructure)
(BSI, 2015a) is designed to help.
be done to improve the processes that

result in a successful facility.
Incorporating soft landings

Significant changes in the 2015 code
include the concept of soft landings,
an approach leading to a smoother
transition between construction and
operation. Italso sets out the associated
information requirements for level2
BIM. These are based on publicly
available specifications PAS 1192-2 (BSI,
2013) for construction, PAS 1192-3 (BSI,
2014) for operation and PAS 1192-5
(BSI, 2015b) for cyber security.
The new code also includes requirements
for post-occupancy evaluation, including
measuring actual operational performance
against design targets. Theaim is to
strengthen the link between owners,
operators, facility managers and design
and construction teams, ensuring both
design and construction deliver the
required outcomes.
In addition, the new code intends to
play a key role in coordinating the various
Background to the new code

Previously, little guidance existed in the
UK on briefing for design and construction
to assure operability after completion.
The2010 code of practice on facility
management, BS 8536 (BSI, 2010), helped
in part by covering the briefing of designers
on the performance requirements for a
new or refurbished facility.
Its aim was to introduce a more
structured and rigorous approach
to design that, by definition, had to
take account of the needs of owners,
operators and their facility managers in
the operation and use phase.
However, since publication of the
2010 code, it became clear more could
aspects of the project delivery process.

Itaims to improve the focus of the
supply chain on performance in use; to
extend supply chain involvement through
to operations and defined periods of
aftercare; and to involve the operator and
facility manager from the outset.
Broader approach to delivery

All of the changes in the new code
should be seen in the context of a
new, broader approach to delivery.
This means considering operational
requirements throughout design,
construction, testing, commissioning,
handover, start-up operations and
during defined periods of aftercare.
The code does not, however,
provide detailed guidance on design or
construction there are other standards
that do. Itis concerned primarily with
ensuring that the BIM process includes
information and data about the
operability and performance requirements
for new or refurbished facilities.
A companion standard (part 2)
covering asset management of linear
and geographical infrastructure is
currently under development.
References
The new BS 8536-1 sets out how to include

operational requirements with the BIM
design and construction process
BSI (2010) BS 8536:2010: Facility management

briefing. Code of practice. BSI, London, UK.
BSI (2013) PAS 1192-2:2013: Specification for
information management for the capital/delivery
phase of construction projects using building
information modelling. BSI, London, UK.
BSI (2014) PAS 1192-3:2014: Specification for
information management for the operational
phase of assets using building information
modelling. BSI, London, UK.
BSI (2015a) BS 8536-1:2015: Briefing for design
and construction. Code of practice for facilities
management (Buildings infrastructure). BSI,
London, UK.
BSI (2015b) PAS 1192-5:2015: Specification for
security-minded building information modelling,
digital built environments and smart asset
management. BSI, London, UK.
For further information contact: Kasha Van Sant Tel: +4420 89966330 Email: pressoffice@bsigroup.com Web: www.bsigroup.com.
10
Civil Engineering
Civil engineering opportunities abound in

Africas expanding construction market
Ross
BRIEFING: INTERNATIONAL
Civil engineering opportunities abound in

Africas expanding construction market
While lower-key than some of the worlds booming economies, Africa now has a fast-growing and
well-funded construction market. Itdeserves a closer look by international construction firms says
Andrew Ross of Spencon, a leading civil engineering and construction company in East Africa.
With continuing uncertainty in the
European construction market, many
firms have set their sights further afield
to find new opportunities. While the
Middle Eastern construction boom has
been the main focus of attention for the
last decade, international construction
firms are beginning to explore Africa for
potential opportunities.
KPMGs 2013 global construction survey
(KPMG, 2013) found nearly half (47%)
of the worlds construction businesses are
planning to expand geographically with
Africa as the most popular (35%) prospect
due to increased investment in transport,
water supply and power. A2012 report by
Deloitte remarked that, in a short space
of time, the continent suddenly resembles
a massive construction site (Deloitte,
2012: p. 1).
Most of the continent still lacks
access to basic infrastructure such as
adequate roads, sufficient water supply,
functional power grids, formal housing
for its growing population and public
transport networks like rail. Plugging
the infrastructure deficit has provided
ample opportunities for international
construction firms with expertise in
delivering large-scale projects. Indeed,
there is now a surge of interest from
foreign firms, often looking for regional
partners with the necessary knowledge
and local networks.
for example the large Portuguese

construction firm Mota-Engil recently
won a 60million contract to construct
the second phase of the Kampala
northern bypass in east Africa.
As water and waste management
will play a critical role in the future
of the continent and world at large,
international construction firms are well
placed to invest in the sector as it is
expected the number of projects is likely
to grow by two- or three-fold.
My firm Spencon has been involved in
numerous water and sanitation projects
working with international companies
for the design, construction, supply,
installation, testing and commissioning
of water and wastewater treatment
plants. Recently, in consortium with
Degrmont, we completed the design
and construction of a 90000m3/d water
treatment plant in Lower Ruvu, Tanzania.
Power and energy

Over the last 5 years, there has
been a wealth of new power projects
across Africa as the continent seeks to
address its power issues. This includes
the US$684million power-plant in
Tanzania to plug regional energy
shortages, which will be built by China
References
Transport and water

Economic growth in Africa has
increased the need for the continent to
improve its crippled transport network.
Over recent years there has been a surge
in demand for implementing road and
rail projects to improve Africas transport
infrastructure and support a thriving
business environment. Firms across the
world are already taking advantage,
National Machinery & Equipment Import

& Export Corporation (CMEC) and
German engineering group Siemens.
Furthermore, with many of the
projects funded by international
investors or development agencies such
as the World Bank, the requirements
for adequate reporting and corporate
governance are substantial. These are
again aspects that international firms
will be well versed in handling.
As Africa is projected to overtake India
in terms of its middle-class population,
solving its power and energy crisis has
also opened up an array of opportunities
for international firms. Both the
public and private sector are placing
significant focus in power generation
infrastructure to support a thriving
business environment and further
economic growth within the continent.
Asignificant number of power and
energy contracts have been awarded
over the past few years to foreign
construction and engineering firms.
Given our experience in the region
over the past 35 years, Africa is showing
exceptionally promising economic
growth. Asregional integration
continues to provide more opportunities
for expansive cross-border projects,
the time for international firms to get
involved is now.
New roads are being built throughout Africa

to support its thriving economy
Deloitte (2012) Deloitte on Africa: Construction

on the African Continent: Opportunities, Risks
and Trends. Deloitte, Johannesburg, South
Africa. Seehttp://www2.deloitte.com/content/
dam/Deloitte/au/Documents/internationalspecialist/deloitte-au-aas-construction-africancontinent-12.pdf (accessed 04/12/2015).
KPMG (2013) Global Construction Survey
2013: Ready for the Next Big Wave? KPMG
International, Zurich, Switzerland. Seehttp://
www.kpmg.com/AU/en/IssuesAndInsights/
ArticlesPublications/Global-Construction-Survey/
Pages/global-construction-survey-2013.aspx
(accessed 04/12/2015).
For further information contact: Andrew Ross Tel: +25420 2711551 Email: headoffice@spencon.net Web: www.spencon.net
11
Civil Engineering
Monitor: Discussion
MONITOR: DISCUSSION
Discussion
1500011 UK sustainable drainage systems: past, present and future
By Richard Ashley, Louise Walker, Brian DArcy, Steve Wilson, Sue Illman, Paul Shaffer, Bridget Woods Ballard and Phil
Chatfield (August 2015)
Contribution by David Smith
Authors reply
Ashely etal. (2015) look at the cost

of sustainable drainage systems (Suds)
in terms of costbenefit, but I think
cost should be included in the definition
of sustainability. This would drive
inexpensive solutions, which would be
more acceptable in the first place.
Addressing problems at source is
better than treating the symptoms.
TheEnvironment Agency has failed to
raise the profile of the major origins
of significant problems and the public
is still unaware of them. Examples
include the washing machine in the
garage and tipping waste oil into the
road gulley.
In the present adverse climate in
England, perhaps we should welcome
experimental solutions. Swales and
infiltration systems are preferable
to local ponds, which collect debris,
become polluted and children play in
them. Major Suds like flood meadows
and balancing reservoirs are likely to be
better costbenefit, particularly in the
context of retrofits.
Sustainability concepts are revisited

in Cirias recently revised Suds manual
(Woods-Ballard etal., 2015). Though
restated in terms of the governments
core principles, they are not otherwise
prescribed in the guidance. Insome
instances, fewer or no Suds may prove
to be more sustainable as this depends
on the context of use. Traditional piped
drainage may be considered inexpensive
in certain instances, but only where the
global impact on climate, resource use
and missed opportunities are ignored,
as pointed out in Cirias guidance on
benefits of Suds (Horton etal., 2015).
We entirely agree with the need
to address issues at source rather
than deal with symptoms. This is why
the new Suds manual starts from an
opportunity-centred approach rather
than a problem-centred one. Allforms
of water, wherever they first appear,
present opportunities. With the pace of
climate and other changes, much more
strenuous efforts are required to engage
everyone in a better understanding
All forms of water present opportunities for Suds schemes, such as at this multifunctional
roundabout in the USA
12
of the water cycle and how we

can manage it better, especially for
usingSuds.
Innovation will always require
experimental solutions, although Suds
are now way beyond the experimental
stage as demonstrated by numerous
examples on Cirias Susdrain website
(Ciria, 2015). Regarding retrofit, as
stated in the new Suds manual and
earlier retrofit guidance (Digman
etal., 2012) there is a palette of Suds
measures and these cannot be predefined for applicability in any given
situation. Itis the context and specific
application that defines the suitability of
a given Suds option and its role as part
of a train of measures. Forexample, the
award-winning Suds retrofit scheme in
Llanelli, west Wales (Ellis etal., 2016)
required a range of small and microscale installations close to source and
on the surface. Pre-exclusion of Suds
options without considering the context
is not recommended.
References
Ashley R, Walker L, DArcy B etal. (2015) UK

sustainable drainage systems: past, present and
future. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil
Engineers Civil Engineering 168(3): 125130,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/cien.15.00011.
Ciria (2015). Susdrain. Construction Industry
Research and Information Association, London,
UK. Seehttp://www.susdrain.org/ (accessed
30/11/2015).
Digman C, Ashley R, Balmforth D etal. (2012)
Retrofitting to Manage Surface Water.
Construction Industry Research and Information
Association, London, UK, C713. Seehttp://
www.susdrain.org/resources/ciria-guidance.html
(accessed 30/11/2015).
Ellis C, Cripps R, Russ M and Broom S (2016)
Transforming water management in Llanelli, UK.
Civil Engineering 169(1): 2533, http://dx.doi.
org/10.1680/jcien.15.00027.
Horton B, Digman C, Ashley R and Gill E (2015)
BeST (Benefits of SuDS Tool) Technical
Guidance. Construction Industry Research and
Information Association, London, UK, CIRIA
W045c RP993. Seehttp://www.susdrain.org/
resources/best.html (accessed 30/11/2015).
Woods-Ballard B, Wilson S, Udale-Clarke H
etal. (2015) The SuDS Manual. Construction
Industry Research and Information Association,
London, UK, C753. Seehttp://www.susdrain.
org/resources/SuDS_Manual.html (accessed
30/11/2015).
Civil Engineering
Monitor: Books
MONITOR: BOOKS
Books
REVIEWS
NEC3 practical
solutions
by Robert Gerrard
and Stuart Kings,
published by ICE
Publishing, 2015,
3750, reviewed by
Stuart Ross, Arup, UK
This book provides detailed answers
by experienced NEC consultants to
over 240 common questions on NEC3
contracts. Thequestions are based on
real questions posed to the NEC Users
Group helpline over the years, which
guarantees their relevance. NECusers

will find this book extremely helpful in
terms of practical solutions to using the
contracts in challenging situations.
Each set of clauses, such as on
compensation events or testing and
defects, has a dedicated chapter. Each
question has a fully referenced answer,
which not only includes relevant
clause descriptions but also practical
approaches that can be taken. Inaddition,
the responses give useful tips on the
preparation of the contract documentation.
The writing style, as with the NEC3
contracts themselves, is simple and
non-legalistic, which means it is a useful,

easy reference which could be used
quickly on a regular basis. With NEC now
being used widely in the UK, and with
greater uptake in many other countries
throughout the world, this book will
be an invaluable resource for contract
users. Itis aimed towards practitioners of
varying backgrounds including engineers,
supervisors, quantity surveyors and
contractors.
In summary, this is one of the most
easy-to-use references for the everincreasing number of people who
useNEC.
NEW BOOKS
The ICE library maintains one of the most comprehensive collections of civil engineering books in the
world, including all titles from ICE Publishing (shown in bold below). Newbooks received in the past
3months include the following.
Advanced marine structures
S Chandrasekaran
8200
BIM in principle and in practice (2nd ed.)
P Barnes and N Davies
3000
Building information modelling for dummies
S Mordue, P Swaddle and

DPhilp
2199
Building smart cities: analytics, ICT, and design thinking
C Stimmel
5799
Claims, disputes and litigation involving BIM
J Dougherty
8000
Crossrail project: infrastructure design and construction. Volume 2
M Black, C Dodge and J Yu
7500
Deployable structures
E Adrover
Global risk assessment and strategic planning
J McLaughlin, M Ocock,
AOldfield and B Trebes
4000
Highways: the location, design, construction and maintenance of road pavements

(5th ed.)
C OFlaherty and D Hughes
4500
ICE textbook on structural analysis
M Cirulis and P Wicks
3000
Inspection, evaluation and maintenance of suspension bridges
S Alampalli
9500
NEC3 compared and contrasted (2nd ed.)
F Forward
3000
NEC3: the role of the supervisor
B Mitchell and B Trebes
4000
One hundred of the worlds tallest buildings
A Wood / CTBUH
4800
Re-framing urban space: urban design for emerging hybrid and high-density conditions
C K Heng
3999
Securing the outdoor construction site: strategy, prevention, and mitigation
K Craney
3699
Shale gas and fracking: the science behind the controversy
M Stephenson
6099
Smart cities: theory and criticism of a self-fulfilling idea
A Picon
2799
The algae house: about the first building with a bioreactor facade
O Scholz
1074
The BIM management handbook
D Shepherd
4000
Traditional timbering in soft ground tunnelling
C Mackenzie
2000
Wind power projects: theory and practice
T Wizelius
5499
995
All books can be borrowed from the ICE library on the first floor of 1 Great George Street, London, SW1P 3AA from
8.30 am to 6.30 pm, Monday to Friday. ICEPublishing titles can also be purchased from the ICE library or ordered by
calling +441892 832299, emailing orders@icepublishing.com or by visiting www.icevirtuallibrary.com/content/books.
13
Civil Engineering
Monitor: ICE Proceedings

MONITOR: PROCEEDINGS
ICE Proceedings
In addition to Civil Engineering, ICE Proceedings includes 17 specialist journals. Papers and articles
published in the most recent issues are listed here. Summaries of all these and other papers and articles
published can be read free in the ICE Virtual Library at www.icevirtuallibrary.com/content/journals.
Bridge Engineering
168, No. BE4, December 2015,
273350
Adelaides South Road Superway
L.Donnelly and L.Wise
Effective shear width of concrete
slab bridges
E.O.L.Lantsoght, A.deBoer, C.vander Veen and
J.C.Walraven
Design and construction of a launched steel
girder bridge
K.Ahmadi-Kashani
Review of FRP decks: structural and in-service
performance
V.Mara and R.Haghani
Using satellites to monitor Severn Bridge
structure, UK
G.W.Roberts, C.J.Brown, X.Tang and O.Ogundipe
Steel bridge design and construction: a
Southern African experience
M.Dundu
Construction Materials
168, No. CM6, December 2015,
251288
Behaviour of short-fibre-reinforced
composite in bending shear
S.K.Ghosh, S.Bhattacharjya and
S.Chakraborty
The environmental impacts of fibre-reinforced
polymer composites in construction
C.Zhang
Energy
169, No. EN1, February 2016, 146
Tidal energy from the Severn
estuary, UK
C.Binnie
Commercial photovoltaic system
design for Cardiff City Hall
T.K.N.Sweet, K.ElKhatib, N.Bristow, B.Drysdale
and N.Jenkins
Realising a climate-resilient UK electricity and
gas system
A.Metz, G.Darch and M.Workman
Engineering and
Computational Mechanics
Direct methods: part two
168, No. EM4, December 2015,
131185
An upper bound limit analysis
formulation for thin plates
A.Makrodimopoulos
Optimal material layout applied on
reinforced concrete slabs
N.Dollerup, M.S.Jepsen and L.Damkilde
Modelling rotational failure in confined
geometries using DLO
C.C.Smith and M.Gilbert
14
AAR-based decomposition method for lower

bound limit analysis
J.J.Muoz and N.Rabiei
Failure design of high-rise concrete panels
under fire loading
J.Bleyer, D.T.Pham and P.deBuhan
Engineering History and

Heritage
168, No. EH4, November 2015,
137188
Turkish D-light: accentuating
heritage values with daylight
S.Al-Maiyah and H.Elkadi
Repairs to the Llangollen arm of the
Shropshire Union Canal
T.J.Peters and S.F.Brown
Lime mortar and sacrificial protection of
heritage stonework
A.J.Klemm and D.E.Wiggins
The Iron Bridge: desk study and engineering
assessment
J.Miller
Engineering
Sustainability
168, No. ES6, December 2015,
229264
Australian construction response
to sustainability megaforces
R.Y.J.Siew
The Integrated Renovation Process: application
to family homes
N.Galiotto, P.Heiselberg and M.Knudstrup
Flexural properties of composite gypsum
partition panel
K.Aghaee, M.A.Yazdi and J.Yang
Forensic Engineering
168, No. FE4, November 2015,
153182
Failure case study of reinforced
concrete foundations of wind
turbine towers
X.Zhou, H.Kong and J.S.Dow
Failure of holding down bolt assembly
Y.C.Kog
Assessment of the degree of heating of
lightweight concrete
T.Donchev, N.Petkune, H.Kewand M.L.Ibsen
Geotechnical Engineering
169, No. GE1, February 2016,
194
Resistivity of Irish glacial deposits
S. OConnor, P. OConnor and
M.Long
Comparative research on lower bound depth
of collapse loess
X. Wu, H. Chu and L. Wang
Stability of steel reinforced soil walls after

footing failure
R. J. Bathurst, Y. Miyata, Y. Otani, H. Ohta and
H.Miyatake
Centrifuge tests of axially loaded piles in
consolidating soil
Y. C. Kog
A novel algorithm for slope stability analysis
O. F. Usluogullari
Optimal model for particle size distribution of
granular soil
Z. Zhou, P. G. Ranjith and S. Li
Ground response and grout distribution by
field soil grouting
M. Chang and R.-C. Huang
Ground Improvement
169, No. GI1, February 2016,
178
Field load tests on plastic tube
cast-in-place concrete piles
C.-G.Qi, Y.-H.Chen and M.Iskander
Arresting settlement of clay using lowpressure grouting
S.-H.Chew and S.K.Bharati
Numerical analysis of submerged flows for jet
grouting
G.Modoni, L.Wanik, G.Giovinco, J.Bzwka and
A.Leopardi
Optimising deep mixed soil zones in land
reclamation projects
S.L.Bryson, H.ElNaggar and A.J.Valsangkar
Low-temperature calcite precipitation in sand
using CIPS
A.Palmn, G.Price, M.Axelsson and S.Larsson
A study of soil-nailed wall behaviour at limit
states
M.Hajialilue-Bonab and S.K.Razavi
Management,
Procurement and Law
International perspectives in
construction contracts
168, No. MP6, December 2015,
249301
A contract manager abroad: cultural
awareness in Asia
E.Webb
Construction disputes under UAE law: some
initial considerations
G.Blanke and S.Kotb
The concept of partnering in publicprivate
partnership projects in the United Arab
Emirates
M.Khalifa, P.Farrell and H.Emam
BIM and construction contracts CPC 2013s
approach
D.-J.Gibbs, S.Emmitt, W.Lord and K.Ruikar
The use and abuse of programmes in
construction contracts
A.Kidd, S.Appelbe and A.Morgan
Civil Engineering
Monitor: ICE Proceedings
MONITOR:PROCEEDINGS
Maritime Engineering
168, No. MA4, December 2015, 155193
Sustainable maintenance and
repair of RC coastal structures
E.Bastidas-Arteaga and F.Schoefs
Long-term loss of beach material
from the Eastern English Channel
I.Thomas
Experimental study on behaviour of piles in
berthing structure
P.Premalatha, K.Muthukumaran and P.Jayabalan
Municipal Engineer
Planning policy and urban regeneration
168, No. ME4, December 2015, 207271
Regenerative ideas for urban
roads in South Africa
F.A.Emuze and D.K.Das
Resident satisfaction for sustainable urban
regeneration
Y.Afacan
Public accountability in planning for new
housing areas
V.Kang and W.K.Korthals Altes
Planning for sustainable inner city
regeneration in China
L.Zhuand Y.Huang
Greater Jakarta, the worlds second largest
conurbation part 1
J.S.Younger, D.E.Parry, H.A.Lubis, A.McLernon,
D.J.Wignall, D.Hasan and G.G.Benton
Greater Jakarta, the worlds second largest
conurbation part 2
J.S.Younger, D.E.Parry, H.A.Lubis, A.McLernon,
D.J.Wignall, D.Hasan and G.G.Benton
Structures and Buildings

168, No. SB12, December 2015, 889957
Intelligent active control of a
benchmark cable-stayed bridge
M.He, R.Hu, J.Wang, L.Chen and
C.Chen
Restrained shrinkage cracking of amorphous
metallic fibre-reinforced concrete
K.-K.Choi, G.T.Truong and S.-J.Choi
Structural assessment of a masonry vault in Portugal
P.Lana, P.B.Loureno and B.Ghiassi
Energy absorption of steel hollow tubes under
bending
S.Maduliat, T.D.Ngoand P.Tran
Free vibration of curved thin-walled
rectangular beams
L.Zhang, Z.Zhu, G.Shen and G.Cao
Transport
169, No. TR1, February 2016, 162
Measuring track vertical stiffness
through dynamic monitoring
M.J.Cano, P.M.Fernndez and
R.I.Franco
A novel CPS-based vehicle safety state
evaluation scheme
H.Zhao, D.Sun, M.Zhao, S.Cheng and W.Liu
An index for sight-hidden dips assessment
C.deSantos-Berbel and M.Castro
Estimated passenger car equivalent using

backward wave speed
S.Liand K.Wang
Application of noise abatement procedures at
regional airports
C.Lantieri, L.Mantecchini and V.Vignali
Iterative update of route choice proportions in
OD estimation
M.Yousefikia, A.R.Mamdoohi and M.Noruzoliaee
Urban Design and

Planning
The art of urban design: part two
168, No. DP6, December 2015, 267320
Exploring the art of urban design
as a sensorial experience
S.Smith
Encounters of discrete urban practices
D.N.Baroud
Urban activation in a post-crisis EuroMediterranean scenario
F.Wulff Barreiro and M.Guirnaldos Diaz
Urbane infrastructures: how installations make
a city in Barcelona
M.Munar Bauz and A.Gonzlez Raventos
The art of knowledge exchange in urban design
P.Aelbrecht and Q.Stevens
Art and urban design
A.Madanipour
Waste and Resource

Management
169, No. WR1, February 2015, 153
Improving the management of
construction waste in Qatar
J.M.Reid, K.El-Gamil Hassan,
M.b.S.Al-Kuwari
Waste-derived activated carbons for control of
nitrogen oxides
A.S.S.Al-Rahbi, M.A.Nahil, C.Wuand P.T.Williams
Environmental quality of hardened wood fly
ashcement mixtures
M.Berra, T.Mangialardi and A.E.Paolini
Innovations in Saint Petersburgs 12km siphon
sewer, Russia
V.Vasilyev and F.Vasilyev
Influence of weld slag aggregate in highperformance concrete
A.Ananthi and K.Karthikeyan
Water Management
168, No. WM6, December 2015, 243296
Non-iterative design method for
flexible channels with bends
S.M.Easa, G.Wu, A.E.H.O.AbdEl
Halim and M.Yu
Modelling the dynamic processes of channel
migration
J.Sun, B.Linand H.Kuang
Effect of floated sludge recycling on
phosphorus removal in dissolved air flotation
D.-H.Kwak and K.-C.Lee
Effective parameters for calculating discharge
of radial gates
H.K.Shayan, J.Farhoudi and R.Roshan
In addition to substantial discounts on ICE journal subscriptions, ICE members can also
subscribe to the ICE Virtual Journal, offering access to 15 papers from any volume for
40. Visit www.icevirtuallibrary.com/info/icevirtualjournal for more information
The following is a list of referees

who have reviewed papers for Civil
Engineering between 1 December
2014 and 30 November 2015. The
Institution is very grateful for their
assistance. If you would like to
be considered as a referee, please
contact the editorial coordinator
Ben Ramster on +44 20 7655 2242 or
e-mail ben.ramster@ice.org.uk
T. Abbott
H. Abdalla
A. Aitken
A. Akbari Motlagh
Y. D.Aktas
A. Alder
B. Arkell
T. Ashworth
P. Asteris
H. Azamathulla
R. Bailey
L. Balsamo
V. K. Bansal
E. Barker
A. Beal
D. Blockley
A. Bloodworth
D. Broadbent
S. Buttling
T. Caccavone
J. Calautit
M. Celikag
H. K. K. Chan
W.-S. Chang
T. Cheesebrough
M. Cheetham
S.-E. Chen
D. Clements-Croome
D. Collings
J. Collins
S. Corbet
G. Crighton
D. Crump
L. Cunningham
N. Currie
K. Davies
M. Davison
T. Dere
A. Dey
G. Dienstmann
T. Dyer
K. Eissa
C. Ellis
S. El-Refaie
M. Elshafie
C. Fairfield
N. Francis
W. Frankland
B. Gambrill
N. Gardner
R. Geddes
R. Gerrard
C. Goodier
C. Greed
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J. Hambly
I. Hamilton
W. Hamilton
K. Hares
R. Henry
F. HernandezMartinez
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M. Hobell
A. Horst
N. Hoult
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T. Ireland
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M. Kaloop
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Z. Karaca
H. Kemp
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S. Kim
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K. Kolovos
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P. Miller
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G. Newson
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P. Parikh
J. Parkin
P. Pascall
P. Pennington
P. Perry
E. Peters
L. Polito
D. Powers
R. Radevsky
S. Rajagopalan
M. Ramanathan
R. A. Reed
D. Richards
G. Roberts
S. M. S. Kolbadi
D. Sample
D. Scotney
D. Shilston
I. Shiue
L. Sihombing
T. Stallard
H. Taggart
B. Tan
M. Thorn
N. Thusyanthan
E. Vintzileou
R. Wakefield
A. Wang
B. Ward
M. Wells
A. Willoner
K. Wong
J. Younger
15
Civil Engineering
Monitor: ICE review

MONITOR: ICE REVIEW
ICE review
A review of recent developments at the Institution of Civil Engineers by ICE president John Armitt.
For further information please contact the communications office on +44 20 7665 2107, email
communications@ice.org.uk or visit www.ice.org.uk//news-public-affairs.
Assessing UK infrastructure needs
As announced in my presidential
address (page 6), ICE is leading a
coalition of business, academic,
environment and industry experts to
produce a national needs assessment
for UK infrastructure. Duefor
publication in autumn 2016, it will
setout what the UK is likely to need
from its infrastructure up to the year
2050.
The coalition will draw from data,
analysis, open consultations and
evidence hearings. Wewill consider
factors such as climate change and
population growth, and we will then set
out different options for meeting those
needs. Thedocument will be designed
to inform both national and regional
infrastructure plans.
The work will also feed into
the newly formed UK National
Infrastructure Commission.
Iam delighted to be one of the
commissioners and will be responsible
for examining and gathering evidence
on the UKs long-term infrastructure
needs. ICEs assessment will form a vital
part of this evidence base and has been
welcomed by the commissions chair
Andrew Adonis.
ICE president John Armitt is chairing

an industry coalition to assess the UKs
infrastructure needs
16
Producing new ethics and BIM tools
A total of 85% of the British public

want to see improvements to national
infrastructure
Understanding public attitudes

I was pleased to speak in December
at the launch of an independent survey
on public attitudes to infrastructure,
hosted by ICE.Itfound 87% of the
British public support infrastructure
investment and 85% want to see
improvements. People also want to be
kept informed about infrastructure and
involved in decisions.
Without sufficient political and public
support, important projects simply
cannot proceed. Itis vital for civil
engineers to explain in plain language
what they are trying to achieve
and why, to be prepared to consider
alternative solutions and to see things
from the publics perspective.
I argued in my address that the
profession has become lost in the
what and how when it comes to
infrastructure, and does not spend
long enough considering the why.
Bringing about such a change in our
approach, and achieving a positive shift
in the publics attitudes, will not happen
overnight. Thechallenge for us all
ICE, government and the new National
Infrastructure Commission is to open
up the debate and address the publics
fears and concerns.
ICE has launched an ethics web tool

and app to help civil engineers navigate
difficult ethical problems in the workplace.
Wehave also launched a building
information modelling (BIM) maturity
measurement tool to help members
prepare for the UK governments April
deadline for BIM level 2.
The Say No ethics web tool and app
(http://ice.saynotoolkit.net/), developed
with the Institute of Business Ethics,
provides in the moment practical
guidance on how to handle a range
of situations. These include potential
conflicts of interest, anti-competitive
situations, offers of gifts and requests to
authorise unplanned payments.
The new Excel-based BIM tool
(https://www.ice.org.uk/disciplines-andresources/best-practice), developed jointly
by the ICE BIM action group and Atkins,
is designed to promote a common view
of BIM best practice. Itdemystifies BIM,
drives awareness of what BIM best
practice looks like and helps to raise BIM
capability across design and engineering
disciplines. Itbuilds on a concept
originally developed by Arup as part of
the CIC Research Groups BIM project
execution guide.
ICEs new BIM maturity tool will help

members prepare for the UK governments
April 2016 deadline for BIM level 2
Civil Engineering
Volume 169 Issue CE1

Civil Engineering 169 February 2016 Issue CE1
Pages 1724 http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jcien.15.00055
Paper 1500055
Received 28/08/2015
Accepted 27/10/2015
Keywords: concrete structures/excavation/rail & bus
station
Design and construction of Sai

Ying Pun station, Hong Kong
Tam, Lee and Kwok
Design and construction of Sai Ying

Pun station, Hong Kong
Hon-Wing Tam CEng, MICE, MIStructE, MHKIE
Senior Engineer, Civil & Structural Leader of SYP Project, Ove Arup,
Hong Kong
Ching-Kong Lee CEng, MICE, MHKIE

Associate, Ove Arup, Hong Kong
Roger Kwok CEng, MICE, MIEAust

Associate, Ove Arup, Hong Hong
Completed in March 2015, Sai Ying Pun station is one of three large, new stations on the 13 billion West
Island line project in Hong Kong. Itis a massive, multi-disciplinary construction, with a 228 m long station
cavern connected by way of a 1100 m network of passenger and ventilation adits to four entrance shafts
up to 76 m deep. This paper focuses on the engineering design and construction challenges associated
with delivering the monumental entrances, each of which is unique in its complexity. Theentrances had to
accommodate circulation and evacuation routes, plant, ventilation ducts, launch shafts and re-provisioning
for original land use within a congested, steeply sloping urban environment. Therelation of the entrances
to the station and adit delivery, as well as the impact on existing buildings, is also discussed.
1. Introduction
In 1986, Hong Kong rail operator MTR opened Sheung Wan
station as the western terminus of the Island line on Hong Kong
Island. In December 2014, MTR finally opened the 13 billion
(HK$154 billion) West Island line, which extended the route 3km
to the west with new stations at Sai Ying Pun, HKU and Kennedy
Town (Figure 1). This paper describes some of the engineering
challenges encountered during the design and construction of the
Sai Ying Pun station, which opened in March 2015.
The original alignment of the West Island line envisaged
30 years ago ran along Des Vouex Road West, the main seafront
road to the western district, and was to be built using cut-andcover construction. However, its construction would have created
a significant disturbance to the public such that it was considered
highly undesirable. The new alignment therefore moves inland
towards the hillside, with the station in a deep cavern below the
foundation of existing buildings.
The station is connected by way of adits in rock and soft ground
to four entrance shafts, the locations of which were determined
by MTR through public consultation (Tam, 2010). The entrances
are either in existing parks or small public buildings owned by the
government. With the exception of entrance A1/A2, in which the
tunnel boring machine launching shaft was also located, no land
restoration was required at the entrances. However, availability of
land at each entrance was extremely limited.
A transverse section across the middle part of the station
illustrates three of the four entrances in the hilly terrain around
Sai Ying Pun (Figure2). Entrances A1/A2 and B3 serve the lower
seafront areas, entrance B1/B2 is further up the hill and entrance C
serves the mid-level areas. The station is deep underneath the hill
due to the required West Island line train alignment.
Previous project papers have described design considerations of
the station cavern (Chui et al., 2011, 2012) and ground-freezing
construction of the soft ground adits (Shimizu et al., 2014;
Tam, 2015). This paper focuses more on the entrances and other
essential parts of the project.
2. Entrance A1/A2
Entrance A1/A2 is located at the open space of Sai Woo Lane
playground and is in between Sheung Wan and Sai Yung Pun
stations, directly above the new running tunnels (Figure 3). This
location had least impact on existing buildings in the congested
urban area, but two buildings still had to be demolished for the
construction of entrance A1 serving Queens Road West and the
tunnelling works (Figure3).
The superstructure of entrance A1 is formed by two reinforcedconcrete ventilation towers with a steel canopy structure to cover
the area in between (Figure 4). Entrance A2 integrates with the
existing Health Gate medical centre at its basement floor level of
115 m project datum (mPD) and goes up to Des Voeux Road
West at about +37 mPD.
Entrance A1 contains nine basement floors of plenums,
plant, concourse and track slab. The deepest formation level is
17
Civil Engineering

Tam, Lee and Kwok
Des Voeux Road West

Entrance B3
st
e
W
ad
Entrance B1
ns Ro
Quee
Entrance B2
Entrance A2
Entrance A1
First St
Sheung Wan
station
Entrance C
Bonham Road
Sai Ying Pun

station
HKU station
g
Yin
Sai
Pun
U
HK
n
Wa
ung
She
Kennedy
Town
HONG KONG
ISLAND
200
Figure 1. SaiYing Pun station is the first on the new West Island line,
which veers inland and deeper underground to avoid disrupting the
congested coastal roads
Second Street
+22.00 mPD
Bonham
Entrance C
Road
+60.00 mPD
First Street
+15.00 mPD
Entrance
B1/B2
Queens
Road West
+7.00 mPD
Des Voeux
Road West
+5.50 mPD
Entrance B3
24.95 mPD
25.36 mPD
Sai Ying Pun

station
0
100
Figure 2. Transverse section across Sai Ying Pun station, showing three
of the four entrances and the significant shaft depths and adit lengths
required
18
22.00 mPD
19.00 mPD
Civil Engineering

Tam, Lee and Kwok
(a)
Sai Ying Pun station

entrance A2
(b)
Firefighter access
+13.50 mPD
+11.20 mPD
Queens
Road West
A1
+7.15 mPD
Sai Ying Pun

station entrance
basement
Evacuation
to playground
Sai Woo Lane
playground
+4.00 mPD
To A2
60 m
43 m
To Sai Ying
Pun station
e tunnels
West Island lin
21 m
23.00 mPD

entrance A1
Sai Ying Pun
station adit
36.00 mPD
Figure 3. Plan (a) and vertical section (b) of seafront entrance A1/A2,
the 43m deep shaft for which also provides direct staircases to the
running tunnels for firefighter access (red) and emergency exit (green)
Figure 4. Computer graphic of entrance A1 showing the congested

surroundings
approximately 36 mPD, involving a 26 m deep excavation in

soft ground and 17 m of rock excavation. Escalators and a lift
for disabled access are provided to serve passengers in between
Queens Road West at +7 mPD and the concourse level at 23mPD.
The escalators with 21 m vertical rise are among the deepest in
Hong Kong. Entrance A1 also provides a direct connection to the
running tunnels for firefighter access and passenger escape by way
of a complicated scissor staircase system, with a pressurisation
system provided for each route in the scissor staircase.
A tunnel ventilation system with a minimum 15 m2 sectional
area for each tunnel is provided from ground level by way of the
fan room down to the tunnels. The ventilation systems have to

meander their way down to avoid clashing with the main passenger
circulation and evacuation systems. The deep basement entrance
has an extremely complicated spatial geometry which significantly
affected the structural frame of the basement. Staggered circular
struts with high headroom requirements above the escalators were
used to prop the external lining walls, resulting in many structural
members having big eccentric loads due to offset. Transfer
structures in vertical and horizontal directions had to be considered
in the design.
Equipment such as fans for tunnel ventilation and escalator truss
frames were delivered by train to the station and carried through the
adits to this entrance. Large temporary and permanent openings and
lifting devices for delivery in different stages were provided at the
slabs and walls. Good coordination with the system-wide disciplines
was needed to ensure all space requirements for the delivery route,
future maintenance and operation safety were satisfied.
The cofferdam located at the tunnel alignment also facilitated
the launching of the tunnel boring machine towards Sheung Wan
station and the segmental tunnel lining delivery. Further details are
covered in the articles by Bolton (2013a, 2013b).
3. Entrance B1/B2
Entrance B1/B2 occupies the location of an old two-storey block
between First Street and Second Street, which was demolished for
the entrance construction. Second Street, at level +225 mPD, is
about 7 m higher than First Street, and the level difference was
retained by a line of existing 2 m dia. caisson walls along the
boundary of Second Street with toe level approximately +2 mPD
(Figure 5). The entrance has seven levels of basements and four
levels of superstructure.
19
Civil Engineering

Tam, Lee and Kwok
The shaft includes separate vent ducts for fresh air intake,
exhaust, smoke extraction and staircase pressurisation mingling
with long paths from the concourse level up to the superstructure.
This resulted in a very complicated internal geometry, in which
every design change was likely to affect other disciplines and
required thorough coordination works between all disciplines.
The rectangular site is entirely surrounded by tall buildings up

to 32 storeys high. Thesurcharge loading from buildings combined
with the 7 m street-level difference resulted in large unbalanced
lateral soil and water pressures. With a shaft excavation of over
40m below First Street in soft ground, reduction of the movement
of surrounding buildings was a priority. A Plaxis finite-element
model of the ground was developed (Figure 6), resulting in the
adoption of a perimeter of bored piles up to 22 m in diameter
to resist surcharge loading on the shaft and to control building
movement. While the piles are not designed as tension piles, they
effectively hang on the capping beams to help resist floatation
forces on the shaft.
Bored piles were chosen over a diaphragm wall due to
preliminary site investigation data indicating the presence of
boulders. However, boulder obstruction turned out to be more
serious during construction, resulting in piling taking 8 months
longer than programmed. To catch up construction time, the
contractor proposed to change the engineers design of bottomup construction to a mixture of bottom-up and top-down.
Atransfer plate supported by temporary pre-bored H piles and
a hanger wall was introduced between the fifth and sixth basement
levels (Figure7). Construction could then begin bottom-up from
the transfer plate, while excavation below the transfer plate could
(a)
Adit to
entrance B3
20.70 m
24.45 m
Adit to
station
24.45 m
(b)
Roof level
+23.350 mPD
Second Street
Ground level
+16.200 mPD
B2
Level 1
+21.650 mPD
B1
First Street
Figure 6. Plaxis finite-element modelling of the buildings and sloping

ground around the 40 m deep shaft for entrance B1/B2 was used to
calculate lateral loading and building movement
24.45 m
Transfer plate
12.850 mPD
Adit to station
(behind)
20.70 m
Concourse level
22.100 mPD
Hanger
wall
Adit to
entrance B3
Transfer plate
Figure 5. Concourse-level plan (a) and vertical section (b) of intermediate

entrance shaft B1/B2, the 40 m deep shaft for which was surrounded by
bored piles up to 22 m in diameter
20
King posts
Figure 7. Plan of transfer plate in entrance B1/B2 shaft, showing

temporary supporting king posts and hanger wall, and large openings
also start at the same time, saving the time taken to break out
rocksbelow.
However, a large opening had to be left in the transfer plate for
mucking out. Together with openings for staircases, ventilation
ducts and services, the transfer plate only covered about two-thirds
of the floor area. Theremaining one-third needed to be constructed
bottom-up, but overall the transfer plate solution resulted in some
improvement to the construction programme.
The lack of space meant the shaft structure was pared down
to a minimum possible, requiring great care in the checking of
member sizes and details. For example, the external shaft walls
are only 900 mm thick to resist the high external water pressure.
Furthermore, as the shaft is 40 m deep, the surrounding pile
tolerance of 1 in 200 meant piles could encroach up to 200 mm
into the external wall, leaving a minimum of just 700mm effective
wall thickness.
In addition, the central core walls for the four high-speed lifts
were limited to 300 mm thickness, but they also have to resist
large propping forces from each intermediate floor diaphragm.
Thebearing stress at the contact area between the vertical wall and
the horizontal floor is particularly high. So as not to obstruct the
circulation at concourse level from the station towards entrance
B3, the entire lobby in front of the high-speed lifts is designed as
column-free.

Tam, Lee and Kwok
(a)
34 m
Void
Void
Steel frame
of lift
Void
Cranked
waler beam
(b)
34 m
Ground level
+5.650 mPD
B3
4. Entrance B3
Entrance B3 is located in the Ki Ling Lane childrens
playground at about +55 mPD to +7 mPD, and surrounded by
existing buildings. This entrance is an underground box around 34
m long, 18 m wide and 28 m deep in soft ground (Figure8).
Unlike most underground structures that use intermediate floors
for propping, it has an uncommon atrium form. Escalators are
located near the two side walls and the central void space has an
open staircase with glass parapet and a glass lift of 25 m height
bringing passengers from ground level down to the concourse at
19 mPD. With a small atrium space, it allows natural light to be
brought down to every level from ground to concourse.
There are 1 m 1 m waler beams around the perimeter of the
11m thick lining wall at each floor level, and these are propped by
08m dia. circular struts. Thebiggest horizontal span of the waler
beams is 21 m. Thewhole box with the roof slab, lining walls, base
slab, waler beams and struts form a three-dimensional structure to
resist external ground water pressure, earth pressure and the large
adjacent building surcharge.
The 3 m thick base slab raft is designed for two critical load
conditions. During construction, dewatering was carried out
such that water was below the formation level. As bottomup construction reached the top, the base slab supported the
biggest dead load, resulting in the biggest bearing pressure in
the soil underneath. The dewatering then stopped, allowing
water to rise back to ground level and put the base slab under
uplift pressure.
The original engineers design had diaphragm walls. These were
changed to 800 mm dia. secant pile walls with in situ lining walls
to suit the contractors preference. Thesecant piles were not used as
permanent structural elements, except to serve as ballast hanging
Cranked
waler beam
Void
18 m
Civil Engineering
Basement level 3
19.100 mPD
Figure 8. Plan (a) and vertical section (b) of seafront entrance B3,
showing the atrium void that brings natural light to the concourse level
on the capping beams to counter flotation. Tension piles were not

required.
5. Entrance C
The mid-levels entrance C is located in the sloping area
previously occupied by the old David Trench rehabilitation centre,
which was demolished. The site is at +50 mPD and bounded by
Eastern Street in the east and West End Path in the west, with
Bonham Road to the south some 10 m higher (Figure9). Access to
the entrance is at the Bonham Road level.
The entrance houses the main plant for smoke extraction
and ventilation for the station. It is also the deepest of all
entrances on the West Island line, a 76 m deep and 165 m
internal diameter shaft below ground. Therock head level is at
about +22 mPD. A drainage system is provided to drain away
groundwater outside the shaft at about 20 m below the rock
head down to formation level, such that there are no flotation
problems for the shaft.
The size of the circular shaft, which houses the four highspeed lifts, emergency stairs and about 20 ventilation ducts, was
21
Civil Engineering

Tam, Lee and Kwok
26.15 m
25.95 m
(a)
26.15 m
(b)
Roof level 2
+73.470 mPD
Bonham
Road level
Upper ground 2
+61.700 mPD
Upper ground 1
+55.400 mPD
West End
Path
Eastern Street
Ground level
+49.800 mPD
Existing
retaining wall
Grout
curtain
Existing
retaining wall
Grout
curtain
Undrained
Undrained
Drained
Drained
To station
24.950 mPD
Figure 9. Plan (a) and vertical section (b) of mid-levels entrance C the
76 m deep circular shaft supports vertical load from the 24 m high
superstructure and horizontal loads due to 10 m ground level difference
22
minimised to reduce the amount of rock excavation. Ontop of the

circular shaft is the 24 m height four-storey superstructure which
houses the plant room. Theshaft resists the huge unbalanced lateral
earth and water pressure load due to ground level difference. Atthe
end of construction, the gaps between existing retaining walls and
the external walls of the entrance were backfilled such that all
lateral loads are transferred to the shaft.
The superstructure is supported on pre-bored H piles. Toavoid
clashing with existing retaining wall footings, the perimeter piles
were set back so that the superstructure around the perimeter
is cantilevered out. The bottom of the shaft is connected to the
two ends and central part of the station through ventilation adits.
Together with the passenger adit, the lower part of the shaft is filled
with openings on all four sides, leaving local wall pillars to support
the shaft. Local stresses around the openings were checked to
ensure the pillars were not overstressed (Figure10).
The original engineers design had a slightly bigger diameter
diaphragm wall shaft in the top soil zone, an in situ concrete lining
Figure 10. Finite-element modelling of the 76 m deep shaft at entranceC

was carried out to check loading around the four adit openings
Civil Engineering

Tam, Lee and Kwok
wall within the rock zone and a ring beam at the junction joining
the two shafts (Yau etal., 2010). Thealternative design proposed
by the contractor deleted the diaphragm wall and extended the
lower in situ wall shaft all the way to ground level. While the
contractor preferred this construction method, the ground floor
which was partially supported on the circular shaft could not be
built until bottom-up construction of the whole shaft was complete.
Since part of the ground floor required early hand-over for plant
installation, construction progress would have been delayed.
Additional piles to support the ground structure were not desirable
as it was rather late at that construction stage. Asolution was found
which involved rearrangement of the plant rooms, with the part
required for early delivery relocated further away from the shaft to
enable early construction.
The adits required the use of ground-freezing for construction

further details of this are provided by Tam (2015) and Shimizu
etal.(2014).
Most of the adits in rock were designed as drained. Where the
rock cover is not deep enough (A-1, A-2, B2-1 and B2-2) or where
the surrounding areas are sensitive to water drawdown (C-8 to
C-10), the adits were designed for the undrained condition. Rock
tunnels are generally of horseshoe cross-section to make use of
the arch action to reduce bending moment and a flat base slab for
circulation. Some large-section ventilation adits were designed
to have vertical walls to minimise the extent of excavation and
optimise internal space for building services.
Apart from at junctions, the crowns of rock adits are generally
unreinforced to avoid extensive scaffolding required to erect
top reinforcement in the concrete lining. One of the difficulties
in the adit design was the complicated shape at junctions due to
difference in adit widths and heights. The geometry at interfaces
had to be clearly defined and the connections analysed using threedimensional models (Figure12).
6. Adits
There are a total of 1100 m of passenger, ventilation and
construction adits forming a network to link the entrances to the
station (Figure11).
Soft ground adits were designed as undrained, with a circular
cross-section of 53 m internal diameter. The circular shape
was considered to be the most effective for resisting external
pressures due to water, soil and surcharge. The alignments, with
two straight sections and a sharp turn, were governed by the
location of the entrances and the foundations of existing buildings.
Undrained adit
7. Station cavern
The station cavern is approximately 228 m long, 22 m wide
and 15 m high. The station position was shifted 18 m west from
its originally planned position, taking it to just before the tunnel
alignment turns, to achieve better rock cover. At the west end of
Entrance B3
B3-1
Drained adit
B3-2
100
Entrance B1/B2
B2-1
Primary fire
fighter access
B2-2
Entrance A1/A2
C-12
C-8
B2-3
A-4
C-4
Construction adit
C-2
C-5
C-13
C-1
A-3
C-14
C-6
A-2
C-7
C-3
A-1
C-9
C-10
KGV construction
shaft and construction
adit
Secondary access
Construction adit C11

(for information only)
Entrance C
Figure 11. Plan of the 1100 m network of passenger and ventilation adits
those in soft ground were designed as undrained (shown in orange)
23
Civil Engineering
Figure 12. Three-dimensional model of adit junction (C-6, C-7 and

C-13) to study on the spatial geometry of the connection
the cavern the rock cover is approximately 47 m, while at the east

end it is only about 14 m. The station concourse length was also
made shorter and mini caverns or finger platforms introduced
for a 39m long section at the east end to ensure better rock cover.
Further details are given by Chui etal. (2012).
Mucking out was by way of the HKU station site towards
temporary shafts in Praya and at Hill Road. ThePraya shaft was
also connected with high-level conveyors to barging facilities.
Another temporary shaft at King George V Memorial Park
was provided for construction material delivery, access and
ventilation.
8. Impact on existing buildings

Minimising the impacts of construction on existing buildings
required lot of effort due to the stations large footprint.
All buildings directly above or adjacent to Sai Ying Pun station
and its associated structures were reviewed and their surcharge
included in the design. Movements on the buildings were assessed
and monitored to ensure no adverse impacts resulted.
9. Conclusions
A lot of engineering effort has been made to achieve the
success of this project. With hilly terrain, an urban site
surrounded by buildings, many functions fitting together into
tight spaces and the determination to minimise disturbance to
the community, the project had to satisfy a lot of challenges.
Design changes to suit construction needs were numerous,
with every change affecting others and requiring thorough
coordination within limited time.
The completion of the West Island line has been awaited for
almost three decades. With the opening of Sai Ying Pun station
(Figure 13), through-train access to all communities along
the northern corridor of Hong Kong Island from Chaiwan
to Kennedy Town has been made available. Different areas,
from the seafront to the mid-levels are well served with the four
monumental underground entrances connecting to the new station.
24

Tam, Lee and Kwok
Figure 13. Completed entrance B1 on First Street, showing the

sloping site closely surrounded by tall buildings
The living quality of the western district, in particular Sai Ying

Pun, has been greatly enhanced through the provision of this new
transport facility.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank client MTR for permission to
publish this paper and their Arup colleague Colin Wade for his kind
offer to take the photograph in Figure13. Detailed design was by
a joint venture of Arup and Atkins, the architect was Aedas and
the contractor was a joint venture of Gammon Construction and
Nishimatsu Construction.
References
Bolton A (2013a) Network connection. European Foundations, Summer:
pp.1012; attached with Ground Engineering 46(6).
Bolton A (2013b) Team tunnel West Island Line. NewCivil Engineer,
24January: p. 10.
Chui E, Lee P and Mackean R (2011) The design of rock caverns for
University and Sai Ying Pun stations. InProceedings of the Joint HKIEHKIP Conference on Planning and Development of Underground Space.
TheHong Kong Institution of Engineers and The Hong Kong Institute of
Planners, Hong Kong, PR China, pp. 125132.
Chui E, Lee P and Mackean R (2012) Rock cavern design on the West
Island Line. Tunnels and Tunnelling International, April: pp. 5054.
Shimizu T, Saito T, Tam CK etal. (2014) The use of ground freezing for adit
construction for the Hong Kong Mass Transit Railway Corporation West
Island line. Proceedings of Underground Singapore 2014, Singapore.
Tam A (2010) On the underground drive towards Old Western. Hong Kong
Engineers 38(1): 812.
Tam A (2015) Making the connection for Western District. Hong Kong
Engineers 43(3): 813.
Yau SKM, Tam HW and Lee EYF (2010) Design for a deep shaft under
unbalanced loads in mid-levels scheduled area of Hong Kong.
InGeotechnical Aspects of Deep Excavation Proceedings of the
30th Annual Seminar Geotechnical Division, Hong Kong Institution of
Engineers. Hong Kong Institution of Engineers, Hong Kong, PR China,
pp.93104.
Civil Engineering

Paper 1500027
Received 24/06/2015
Accepted 21/10/2015
Keywords: floods & floodworks/sustainability/urban
regeneration
Transforming water management

in Llanelli, UK
Ellis, Cripps, Russ and Broom
Transforming water management

in Llanelli, UK
Christopher Ellis BEng, MSc
Rosemary Cripps BSc
Water Engineer, Arup, Cardiff, UK
Michelle Russ ACMI

RainScape Regulation Manager, Dwr Cymru Welsh Water, Newport, UK
Water Engineer, Arup, Cardiff, UK
Simon Broom BEng, CEng, CEnv, FICE, MInstLM

Senior Engineering Manager, Morgan Sindall, Newport, UK
In Llanelli, South Wales, high volumes of surface water have led to excess discharges from combined sewer
overflows into designated shellfish waters and the risk of widespread property flooding. Acomprehensive
catchment-wide modelling assessment was undertaken to develop a pioneering, community-focused
strategy based on retrofitting sustainable drainage systems. This paper outlines the approach taken to
develop and compare catchment strategy options; describes the journey through delivery and performance
evaluation; and explores the social, environmental and economic constraints and opportunities. Theproject
is a blueprint for integrated catchment management and water-sensitive urban design, promoting best
practice in flooding mitigation and climate-change resilience across the UK.
1. Introduction
Sewerage infrastructure in the UK traditionally consists of
combined networks whereby foul and surface water are mixed and
conveyed to wastewater treatment works. This method of flow and
treatment originates from the Victorian era, and the infrastructure
was sized accordingly. In recent times, however, urbanisation has
led to a considerable increase in impermeable area, increasing
demand beyond the original design capacity. Inmany urban areas
this is causing flooding and pollution-related issues.
Llanelli, a town situated on the northern coastline of the
Loughor Estuary in South Wales, demonstrates a common UK
issue associated with combined sewer networks. Thepopulation of
Llanelli increased by 63% between 2001 and 2011 (ONS, 2011),
and is projected to rise by a further 152% before 2036 (Welsh
Government, 2011). Furthermore, the impacts of climate change
are predicted to increase the frequency and intensity of rainfall,
putting additional strain on an already overloaded network.
Traditionally, combined sewer overflows have been added to
sewer networks to protect public health by reducing sewer flood
risk which has resulted from population growth, urban creep and
infiltration. Acombined sewer overflow typically consists of a dryweather flow channel, with a restriction placed on pass-forward
flow by means of an appropriately sized downstream pipe or flow
control device. Diluted combined sewage that exceeds this passforward flow during rainfall flows over a weir and is screened
before discharging to a watercourse. There are approximately
30000 combined sewer overflows in the UK, many of which were
constructed during times of limited design guidance or without due

assessment of environmental impact.
Llanelli consists of five main sub-catchments, each serviced
by a series of sewage pumping stations which feed into Llanellis
wastewater treatment works. A total of 29 main combined sewer
overflows located strategically around the catchment reduce
flood risk, eventually discharging to the Loughor Estuary, which
includes two designated shellfish waters Burry Inlet North
and South. Some of these combined sewer overflows were found
to discharge frequently, in one case up to 140 times annually;
collectively discharging around 376 million m annually into the
environment.
There were 115 properties known to be at risk of sewer flooding
in the Llanelli catchment as a result of excess surface water
entering the public sewer network. This has left little scope for
additional much-needed growth. The towns employment rate is
below the Welsh average, and 12% of areas in the town fall in the
10% most deprived in Wales (NAW, 2010). With no intervention,
these problems are set to worsen, stifling the towns development
as infrastructure becomes unable to cater for future investment.
Theflooding issues are not isolated to Llanelli; it is predicted that
32 million people in the UK will be at risk of flooding from similar
urban drainage issues by 2050 (Houston etal., 2011).
The primary driver for this project was to limit the frequency and
volume of combined sewer overflow discharges to sensitive water
bodies. In achieving this, the strategy also sets out to alleviate
flooding caused by hydraulic overload of the sewer network, while
making the town more resilient to climate change.
25
Civil Engineering

Since 2007, Dr Cymru Welsh Water has been developing

its approach to sustainably managing the amount of surface
water entering the public sewer network. The strategy draws on
a number of well-established techniques, such as sustainable
drainage systems and water-sensitive urban design, and has been as
RainScape. Itseeks to address surface water issues at root cause
rather than storing flows further down in the catchment.
In 2010 Welsh Water committed to developing the strategy to
sustainably address the drivers in Llanelli. Reducing the amount of
surface water entering the sewer network would reduce the number
of combined sewer overflow discharges in the catchment, tackle
sewer flooding issues in the area and also make the network more
resilient to climate change.
The success of the Llanelli strategy lies predominantly within five
elements of strategy development, each of which are continually
being reviewed and advanced through a cycle incorporating key
components (see Figure 1). Two strategy options were initially
investigated through this process: a traditional storage solution and
a suite of individual intervention schemes based on the RainScape
initiative.
survey information and as-built data. The model was verified for
dry weather and storm events using sewer flooding records and
combined sewer overflow discharge data, along with short-term
detailed flow surveys consisting of 308 flow monitors in place for
an 8 week period. A long-term flow survey of 50 flow monitors
in place for 6 months was used to assess seasonal variation in
infiltration and base flow and highlighted a variation in base flow of
250% between summer and winter months. River-level gauges were
placed in local watercourses to assess sewerriver interactions,
during which several direct river inflows were also located.
During solution development a key requirement of the model
was to replicate the impact of retrofitting sustainable drainage
systems and the removal of surface water from the combined sewer.
Themodel therefore needed accurately to reflect impermeable areas
and infiltration throughout the catchment. To achieve this, targeted
impermeable area surveys were undertaken and supplemented by
flexible flow surveys that tracked inflow and infiltration within the
sewer network. Network maps were also used to highlight potential
surface water connections, areas of potential mass infiltration and
large steep sewers capable of conveying excessive flows within the
sewer network. Theresult of the process was a calibrated model which
accurately reflected observed combined sewer overflow discharge
counts as well as flooding. Itreflected the large impermeable rainfall
response of the Llanelli catchment and the tendency of the network
to exhibit long drain-down periods after prolonged wet periods.
The outputs of combined sewer overflow discharge frequencies,
durations and volumes from the hydraulic model were transferred to
a coastal dispersion model to assess the relative impact of discharges
from each combined sewer overflow on the Loughor Estuary. This
modelling and evaluation exercise, carried out by Intertek, helped
identify key contributors to shellfish water quality exceedance and
later informed the development of targeted solutions.
2. Data collection and modelling

Understanding how an existing sewer system operates is
fundamental to developing appropriate and effective solutions.
In 2010 an extensive data-collection exercise was commissioned.
Data were pooled from key stakeholders through monthly workshops,
subsequently verified and bolstered by site survey and flow-monitoring
data. Knowledge sharing between Welsh Water, Carmarthenshire
County Council, Natural Resources Wales and the Welsh government
resulted in comprehensive catchment understanding.
Data collection was carried out in parallel with a model build
exercise undertaken using Infoworks Collection Systems software.
Geographic information system asset data and ground model data
were used to generate a base model, which was then refined with
Planning
Learning
Community
1. Data collection and
modelling
2. Solution development
3. Delivery
4. Performance
5. Feedback and design
development
Cost
Maintenance
and operation
Low carbon
dioxide
Risk
Stakeholders
Figure 1. Model showing the cyclical process adopted to implement

the long-term strategy in Llanelli (courtesy Arup)
26
3. Solution development
Traditional strategies for reducing combined sewer overflow
discharges and sewer flood risk in urban catchments include
providing hard infrastructure, such as storage tanks, and increasing
the capacity of pipes and treatment works to manage excess
flows. This method of water management can be appealing as
it is a recognised technology to water companies, operators and
environmental bodies with easily quantifiable results. However, there
can be associated risks: future development, the onset of climate
change and urban creep can significantly reduce the effectiveness
of the storage and the interventions can lead to increased operating
costs, especially in pumped catchments such as Llanelli.
As an alternative to hard engineering techniques, non-traditional
solutions were developed centred on the use of sustainable drainage
systems techniques in conjunction with asset optimisation. While
sustainable drainage systems technology is tried and tested on
new developments in the UK, the concept of retrofitting schemes
into urban settings is relatively new. Anelement of this approach,
incorporating green infrastructure as storm-water management,
presented an opportunity to integrate multiple social and
environmental benefits within local communities.
A range of targeted traditional and non-traditional solutions were
subjected to a multi-criteria analysis to assess potential benefit
against cost (see Figure 2). Additional criteria such as embodied
Civil Engineering

carbon dioxide and society benefit were assessed up front and used
to rank options. When compared with traditional solutions, the
retrofitting of sustainable drainage systems to many areas in Llanelli
was shown to be the most effective means to overcome the issues
associated with network capacity.
It was demonstrated that traditional solutions alone were not
an affordable or effective means of delivering the initial target for
reduction in combined sewer overflow discharges and flood risk.
In total, 269000 m of storage volume would be needed for the
Llanelli catchment, costing 377 million. This storage volume,
while hypothetically providing a reduction in combined sewer
overflow discharges, relies on tanks emptying between storms.
Within a catchment such as Llanelli, where the sewer network
exhibits exceptionally long drain-down times, it was clear that
storage alone could not offer this assurance. In addition the
complex treatment processes at Llanelli wastewater treatment
works (which is designed to denitrify, remove phosphorus and
disinfect final effluent) cannot operate reliably with the range and
variability of biological load implied if such large tanks were to
operate.
Adopting a non-traditional surface-water-management approach
will have a much lower capital cost of 98 million to deliver the
same initial target reduction in combined sewer overflow discharges
and flooding within the Llanelli catchment. Sustainable drainage
schemes, such as the use of green infrastructure, could also offer
community benefits absent from traditional engineering solutions.
Inaddition, the solutions are resilient; green infrastructure matures
to become more effective at removing surface water and additional
green infrastructure can be incorporated over time to deliver
additional flow removal when it is needed.
The final strategy was developed collaboratively with scheme
partners and key stakeholders. As a result of the multi-criteria
analysis, and through various risk and value exercises, an
innovative, non-traditional approach was agreed. The adopted
strategy consists of a number of individual schemes prioritised
based on the results of the multi-criteria analysis. Welsh Water has
committed 26 million towards the delivery of a selection of these
schemes in Llanelli by 2020.
4. Delivery
Environmental
benefit
Society benefit
Carbon dioxide cost
Cost
Flooding
prevention
377 Traditional
million solutions
96 Non-traditional
million solutions
Peak flow
reduction
Buildability
Figure 2. Piechart showing the criteria and weighting used in

developing the strategy to compare traditional and non-traditional
engineering solutions, and subsequently to prioritise individual
solutions in the resulting strategy (courtesy Arup)
The strategy being implemented in Llanelli involves maximising

the use and efficiency of existing assets while implementing a
range of strategically located retrofitted surface-water-management
schemes to manage surface water sustainably at source. To date,
ten schemes have been constructed within the Llanelli catchment
(see Figure3).
4.1 Objectives
Defining targets for individual schemes involved building upon
existing data captured during the modelling phase. Adetailed model
of each of the sites was calibrated and verified with flow and depth
survey data and was tested using a series of designed rainfall events
generated using the Flood Estimation Handbook (CEH, 1999).
Green infrastructure solutions were then added and optimised to
best manage peak flows, maximise volume removal and provide the
greatest benefit in terms of flood alleviation and combined sewer
overflow discharge reduction. Some of the key hydraulic design
requirements for the systems, developed through evaluation of
hydraulic modelling predictions and related design codes in parallel
with key stakeholder requirements, included the following
retaining levels of service within highway drainage

emptying within 24 h following rainfall
aim to attenuate a 1 in 5 year event
attenuate a minimum of 5 mm rainfall
prevent property flooding during a 1 in 30 year event
manage exceedance events greater than 1 in 30.
4.2 Methodology
Intercepting surface water run-off and directing it into new
planted elements is integral to the green infrastructure schemes.
Aflow-reduction target specific to each of the schemes dictated the
hydraulic characteristics of each green infrastructure element. These
elements were subsequently shaped around the multiple social,
environmental and economic opportunities and constraints present
in varying degrees at different sites across the catchment. Early
contractor involvement was fundamental to the design process,
with a close working relationship between Welsh Water (client),
Morgan Sindall (contractor) and Arup (designer), leading to a set of
solutions that were buildable, maintainable and affordable.
Innovative basins and planters use specially selected soils, plants
and trees to slow the flow while improving water quality and
encouraging evapotranspiration. The placement of these bespoke
attenuation units has been carefully considered to complement
and enhance the existing local built environment, the desire being
to provide wider community benefits which go beyond flood
alleviation through incorporating open green spaces, improving
local air quality, encouraging local biodiversity enhancement and
promoting health and well-being.
Traditional drainage solutions are often hidden from the public,
resulting in a limited understanding of how they function and
perform and how they interact with the natural and built environment.
Creating visible features to capture rain water not only provides watermanagement benefits, but improves public understanding, involvement
and the sense of ownership when communicated effectively.
27
Civil Engineering

Figure 3. Mapof Llanelli showing location of the ten priority schemes

constructed between 2010 and 2015, plus possible future schemes to
be completed as part of the long-term strategy for Llanelli (courtesy
Arup, Ordnance Survey mapping courtesy Welsh Water, map copyright
2015 Her Majestys Stationery Office, licence number WU298565)
4.3 Case study Glevering Street

The Glevering Street scheme showcases many of the
constraints and opportunities present within the Llanelli
catchment (see Figure 4). The scheme involves the retrofitting
of green infrastructure into several highly urbanised streets
where existing surface water entered a combined sewer system.
Peak flows in excess of 800 l/s from this area during a 1 in 5
annual exceedance probability event were a major contributor
to sewage discharges, and seven properties in the immediate
vicinity of this scheme were on Welsh Waters definitive flood
list. The construction of this scheme was part funded by the
European Regional Development Fund via Welsh Government
due to the volume of highway runoff entering the public sewer
network.
The design principle adopted at Glevering Street is based
on the conveyance of surface water using overland routing and
kerb drainage; directing run-off towards a network of roadside
basins and planters. This network incorporates a range of
products, many of which have been adapted to form innovative
water-management systems. Collectively these are capable of
28
reducing peak storm flows by 330 l/s (1 in 5 annual exceedance

probability).
Trees present a major opportunity to generate multiple benefits.
InLlanelli they are being used as landscape and ecological features
as well as for surface-water management (see Figure5). Thedesign
of tree root cell systems has been adapted to facilitate storm-water
attenuation while also maximising the health of the tree. This has
involved revising standard tree installation details from suppliers,
incorporating improved soil drainage, soil specifications and
appropriate tree and planting species (see Figure 6). The tree pits
contain a high sand content (up to 70% by weight) to facilitate
drainage while providing a preferable void ratio (20% by volume)
for attenuation of flows. Many studies have suggested that trees
can significantly improve soil permeability and infiltration rates
(Skorobogatov etal., 2013). Post-construction results support these
suggestions; the roadside tree planters are performing as intended
through all four seasons and continue to improve as the trees and
plants mature.
Planters incorporating trees have been constructed where
constraints, such as space, dictate. Where non-tree planters
Civil Engineering

are spatially constrained, geocellular storage has been used to

supplement the storage volume provided at the surface (see
Figure7). Geocellular storage of this form provides a lightweight
structure of 95% void volume, allowing attenuation potential to be
maximised while limiting geometry requirements at the surface
(see Figure 8). Flows that enter the planter percolate through the
soil media and granular layer before entering a series of belowground cells. During larger events flow can bypass the planter and
fill the below-ground cells by way of an overflow gully. Avortex
flow-control or similar flow-control device is used to ensure a limit
is set on flow returned back into the sewer network.
Where space is less constrained, larger basins have been used
to showcase water management, typically using existing free
space at road junctions and improving road safety. Gradients have

been used to create features, whereby, through the use of weirs
and channels, the flow of water becomes visible from separated
pedestrian areas (see Figure9). While demonstrating the principle
Figure 4. Benefits of the Glevering Street scheme, one of the early

green infrastructure schemes now constructed as part of the Llanelli
strategy (courtesy Arup, map courtesy Bing Maps, copyright 2010
Microsoft Corporation and data suppliers)
Figure 5. Newurban tree constructed as part of the Glevering Street

scheme to manage surface water (courtesy Welsh Water)
Stormwater
storage at surface
New tree and

surrounding shrubs
Top of existing tarmac
New kerb
Haunching
Top of existing kerb
Root cells filled

with approved
soil media
Flexible road
surface reinstated
Top soil
Root zone
/soil fill
Impermeable
liner
Rodding chamber
~3800 mm (varies)
~3500 mm (varies)
~3800 mm (varies)
Connection to
existing sewer
Figure 6. Construction detail for urban trees in Glevering Street. The

image is adapted from a construction drawing (courtesy Arup and
Welsh Water)
29
Civil Engineering

of water management, the separation and cascading effect creates a

treatment train whereby sedimentation and settlement take place,
followed by a gradual improvement in water quality as flow travels
through vegetation and soil media.
Welsh Water through the contractor as part of an agreed maintenance

period, with assets being adopted as part of the highway drainage
network by Carmarthenshire County Council. This agreement to
adopt the assets has resulted from a close working relationship from
the project inception stage. Discussions and agreements started
up front during the overall strategy development, and progressed
into the construction phase. Incorporating industry-recognised
details into the green infrastructure elements, such as standard
gully units in easily accessible locations, provides the adopter with
an asset that is maintainable alongside the existing, traditional
infrastructure. Scheme-specific maintenance schedules have been
drawn up to ensure that the assets are properly maintained to
guarantee the long-term operation of the system.
A major design constraint across Llanelli is limited potential for
flows to be infiltrated into the ground and underlying bedrock. This
is a result of historical mining activities, contamination and the
presence of a clay-rich glacial till within the vicinity of many of the
schemes. Tomitigate the risk of local subsidence and contaminant
mobilisation, an impermeable liner, such as a geosynthetic clay
liner, has been used where geotechnical investigations have
highlighted poor ground conditions. Toallow each of the elements
to fully drain, a sub-surface perforated drain is used, preventing the
systems from becoming frequently waterlogged.
A common challenge encountered in retrofitting sustainable
drainage systems into an urban environment is the presence of
existing below-ground infrastructure. Utility plans provided
by statutory undertakers offer approximate locations of major
infrastructure; however, undertaking large-scale surveys to accurately
distinguish location, condition and depth often proves heavily
disruptive and uneconomical. In Llanelli, a balance was struck in
locating elements in less utility heavy areas, carrying out surveys
at key locations while building a degree of flexibility in design;
allowing for significant on-site modifications to suit local conditions
where required. These factors were especially important in dense
urban areas such as Glevering Street, where the close proximity of
residential properties resulted in a network of major utilities and
service laterals (see Figure 10). In this instance, agreements were
reached with regard to easements or diversion of major utilities prior
to construction. Agreements regarding minor utilities and service
4.4 Challenges
Many of the challenges faced in Llanelli can be attributed to
the relative infancy of retrofitting green infrastructure in the UK.
Limited design guidance and few example schemes have resulted
in a learning process which continues to evolve and develop.
Newways of thinking can present new risks. Therisk-management
approach adopted has been pivotal to the success of this strategy
thus far. In working for a common goal, all parties have taken
ownership of risk and mitigation, and when confronted with
challenges have worked collectively to resolve them.
Adoption can be a critical barrier for many sustainable
drainage systems projects with cost, long-term responsibility
and maintenance often the three key obstacles. These are being
overcome in Llanelli on a scheme-specific basis. Many of the
schemes involve the modification to existing highway assets, such
as Glevering Street, and are being maintained in the short term by
Existing
footpath
2000 mm
Existing
highway
Geocellular
storage cells
150 mm dia. subsoil
drainage pipe connected
to downstream sewer
network
Geocomposite vent
300 mm dia. perforated
distribution pipe
Figure 7. Construction detail for a roadside planter in Glevering

Street. Theimage is adapted from a construction drawing (courtesy
Arup and Welsh Water)
Figure 8. Newroadside planter with storage cells constructed as part

of the Glevering Street scheme to manage surface water (courtesy
Welsh Water)
30
Figure 9. Newbio-retention basin constructed as part of the

Glevering Street scheme to manage surface water, showing the use of
a weir to provide a cascading water feature while dividing the basin to
form a treatment train (courtesy Welsh Water)
Civil Engineering

Figure 10. Utilities encountered during the construction of a roadside

planter with storage cells in Glevering Street while key utilities were
picked up during an initial site survey, the presence of additional
utilities and laterals present a construction challenge (courtesy of
Welsh Water)
laterals were often made on site, with easements and diversions

agreed with the utility provider on a case-by-case basis.
The experience of the contractor in working with local
authorities and private utility companies played an important role
in overcoming challenges posed on site. While working with Welsh
Water offered improved ability to work around existing clean- and
wastewater assets, keeping other service providers informed of
construction programme and the interface of green infrastructure
with their assets has helped to speed up the construction process
and reduce the risk of lengthy delays. The contractor undertook
monthly meetings with Carmarthenshire County Council and
utility providers. This allowed other programmed construction
work within the highway to take place simultaneously, providing
benefit to all parties involved while also minimising disruption to
the local community.
Community engagement has formed a vital role in the
success of scheme implementation in Llanelli. Keeping the local
community informed from an early stage allowed concerns with
the design to be addressed more easily, but also provided the
community with an insight into the importance of sustainable
water management. The success of community engagement was
well demonstrated through implementing a green infrastructure
scheme within a local school, whereby students contributed
directly towards the design.
Welsh Water led on the communication of the works in Llanelli
and used a number of methods to contact their customers and also
to address any concerns throughout the design and construction
of the schemes, and beyond. Some of the activities undertaken
include
direct liaison with around 3000 customers

six public exhibitions and four drop-in sessions
11500 letters and newsletters sent out
35 home visits to customers
1500 doors knocked on
responding to over 100 customer letters and emails

opening an information station in the town centre.
Welsh Water will be undertaking a customer feedback exercise

to understand how customers feel about the scheme postconstruction, and how the features constructed have been accepted
by the community.
Welsh Water has also managed the relationships with a plethora
of political stakeholders in the area, including town councillors,
county councillors, assembly members and members of parliament.
By keeping these prominent figures in the community informed
of scheme progression, expectations have been managed and
complaints minimised.
Another key element to ensuring community buy-in was the
facilitation group that had been set up to share information and
discuss issues with the local authority. Chaired by Welsh Water,
the group has provided a platform whereby local knowledge of
issues has been shared, including in relation to traffic management,
and has also developed a partnership relationship across multiple
organisations and multiple disciplines. As a result of this group,
the local authority has invaluably supported scheme development
and delivery, and has also agreed to relax parking restrictions to
minimise disruption to residents.
A challenge faced in the design of this scheme, recognised
through engagement with the local community, was the potential
loss of parking caused by roadside green infrastructure. Thesolution
was to place the planters and basins strategically in locations less
frequently used for parking, such as side streets, re-engineered
junctions and in areas with existing parking restrictions in place.
As with the design phase, the delivery of each of the green
infrastructure schemes has involved a close working relationship
between the client, the contractor and the designer. Lessons learned
from all schemes are being fed back into the planning and design
phases of subsequent schemes.
Delivering these solutions in an existing urban community differs
significantly from the delivery of traditional drainage techniques.
Dueto the complex nature of the construction works and potential for
disruption to customers, programmes have been phased accordingly.
Streamlining the construction process has involved the design
and construction team working closely with the supply chain.
In combination with an informative, customer-focused approach
from the contractors site teams this has resulted in quicker and less
disruptive installations a process that is again being refined in a
feedback loop.
Some key lessons have been learnt in Llanelli in relation to
landscaping. The selection of appropriate soil mixes, shrubs and
planting affects the long-term appearance, performance and
maintenance of green infrastructure. Managing public expectation
with regard to the planting selection and appearance of freshly
planted areas is important and now forms a key part of public
engagement. Furthermore, in response to public feedback, planting
selections are now focused on providing seasonal interest and yearround structure with the use of evergreen plants.
The quality and density of planting was carefully considered
during the design stage. Ensuring this attention to detail is reflected
on site requires a close working relationship between designers and
the landscape contractor with regard to implementing the design
to specification, the selection of plants and trees and ongoing
maintenance.
31
Civil Engineering

5. Performance
(St Michaels Church combined sewer overflow). Further to this,

Welsh Water is working closely with Natural Resources Wales to
establish a target operating frequency for combined sewer overflows
by the end of the current investment period (20152020) that will
improve shellfish water quality and help deliver Water Framework
Directive (EC, 2000) improvements in the area.
Data collected over an 18 month period since the commissioning
of the Queen Marys Walk bioswale, used in combination with
hydraulic modelling, are indicating that, as green infrastructure
systems mature their ability to manage surface water improves (see
Figure14). While maintenance forms a key role in ensuring these
green infrastructure assets continue to function into the future,
hard engineering solutions such as storage tanks have more defined
life cycles, and their ability to manage surface water generally
deteriorates over time, from effects such as the onset of infiltration.
Highway
Stebonheath School
53
329a
Trostre Road b
26
10
Bryngwyn Road
12
Berwick Road
22
18
Glyncoed Terrace
26
Glevering Street b
Bynea transfer
192a
Cambrian
524
Asda (phase 1) including

Pottery Street b
88a
Highway
0
10
Target flow reduction

The construction of this scheme part funded by the European Regional
Development Fund via Welsh Government
0.10
0.08
120
Pre-construction flows
Post-construction (predicted)
Post-construction (observed)
Rainfall
100
80
0.06
60
0.04
40
0.02
20
Rainfall: mm
125
14
:5
2:
48
Queen Marys Walk
0.12
14
:3
8:
24
Number of
properties
protected from
sewer flooding
14
:2
4:
00
Peak flow
reduction: l/s (1 in 5
annual exceedance
probability)
Flow: m3/s
Scheme name
Figure 11. Queen Marys Walk bioswale during operation another

priority scheme that has been constructed in Llanelli (courtesy Welsh
Water)
14
:0
9:
36
The hydraulic benefit of each of the schemes continues to be

assessed through flow and depth monitoring. These data, downloaded
on a weekly basis by the contractor, are fed back into verified
hydraulic models to compare the betterment brought about during
recorded storm events pre- and post-construction. Theresults thus far
have shown excellent performance of each of the initial sustainable
drainage systems schemes during 2013/2014s wettest winter on
record (Met Office, 2014).
The impact of the retrofitted green infrastructure elements
on peak flow reduction, which is summarised in Table 1, is well
demonstrated by the Queen Marys Walk bioswale (see Figure11).
Here, during a 1 in 1 annual exceedance probability event, design
phase model predictions indicated a 62% flow reduction would
be achieved given the volume of attenuation provided. Postconstruction monitoring indicates an additional 25% reduction in
peak flow has been achieved during some storms (see Figure12).
Similar observations are being made at other sites including
Glevering Street and Stebonheath School.
The green infrastructure elements in Llanelli, through the natural
processes of interception, evaporation and evapotranspiration are
making a significant contribution with regard to flow reduction.
Theschemes at Queen Marys Walk and Stebonheath School alone
are removing 13250 m of surface water from the combined sewer
network annually, drastically reducing sewer flooding incidents and
minimising discharges from combined sewer overflows while also
providing an operational cost benefit to Welsh Water.
As individual schemes are completed, a quantifiable benefit to the
combined sewer network is realised by way of fewer combined sewer
overflow discharges. Hydraulic modelling has initially been used to
assess this benefit, with rain gauge data used to compare before and
after discharge-frequency scenarios over the previous investment
period (see Figure13). This shows that with the investment of 15
million in Llanelli between 2010 and 2015 there is a reduction in
annual combined sewer overflow discharge frequencies of up to 39%
Time: h:min:s
Table 1. Summary of benefits of constructed schemes in Llanelli
32
Figure 12. Flow reduction achieved from Queen Marys Walk

compared with predicted design flow reduction, based on results of a
calibrated hydraulic model using rain gauge data and flow monitoring
data (courtesy Arup and Welsh Water)
Civil Engineering
120
100
Baseline (0 investment)
20102015 (15 million investment)
110
100
80
60
40
75
50
25
0
20
0
Flow reduction: %
Annual discharge frequency
140

Halfway
sewage
pumping
station
Northumberland St Michaels Station Road

Llanelli
sewage
Church
combined waster water
pumping
combined
sewer
treatment
station
sewer overflow overflow
works
Figure 13. Predicted annual discharge frequencies for key combined

sewage overflows over the previous strategy investment period
(courtesy Arup and Welsh Water)
6. Conclusions
Catchment-wide hydraulic modelling and detailed solution
design in the Welsh town of Llanelli has resulted in an innovative
retrofit sustainable drainage systems strategy. Developed
alongside Welsh Waters RainScape initiative, the strategy
is reducing combined sewer overflow discharges and flood
risk resulting from common UK issues relating to ageing and
overwhelmed sewer networks. Thepioneering approach not only
provides a capital cost saving when compared with traditional
hard engineering solutions, but green infrastructure schemes
delivered as part of the strategy provide a range of environmental
and social benefits.
Although the concepts behind sustainable drainage systems design
are not complex, delivering a strategy on this scale has encountered
challenges, particularly with regard to green infrastructure. These
schemes are visible, in the public realm and impact upon the
local community; hence planning and constructing them involves
engaging with multiple stakeholders while satisfying a broad set
of aspirations. Construction within an existing urban environment
presents logistical challenges in dealing with existing infrastructure,
public services and businesses. Inmany cases these challenges are
being overcome through extensive planning and communication,
with the lessons learnt at each stage of strategy being fed back into
the development and planning of subsequent schemes.
The strategy demonstrates that the retrofitting of sustainable
drainage systems in the form of green infrastructure can achieve
considerable flow reductions which have surpassed expectations.
While many of the systems constructed in Llanelli cannot use
preferable green infrastructure processes, such as infiltration into the
underlying ground, natural water management linked to the addition
of trees and planting is actively preventing water from entering the
sewer network. Furthermore, as these green elements mature, their
ability to intercept surface water improves.
The complex task of retrofitting green infrastructure and other
sustainable drainage systems technology in the centre of Llanelli
is helping to regenerate historically deprived areas. While freeing
up capacity within the sewer network is providing a platform for
new housing and business development, the presence of green
100
200
300
Day
Figure 14. Flow reduction achieved during recorded storm events in

2014 at Queen Marys Walk a linear line of best fit plot suggests the
new green infrastructure element is improving with time (courtesy
Arup and Welsh Water)
infrastructure is improving the appeal of the town and acting as an

engagement and education opportunity.
The catchment-wide strategy to manage surface water is the first
of this scale in the UK. The successful implementation of early
schemes has drawn attention from many stakeholders throughout
the UK and abroad. In addition, lessons learned and results are
helping to shape new design guidance and drive a more integrated
approach to sustainable infrastructure. Theauthors believe that the
steps made in Llanelli will encourage a new way of thinking to
make towns and cities better, more resilient places.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank their colleagues at Welsh Water,
Morgan Sindall and Arup for the information and support they
have provided for this paper.
References
CEH (Centre for Ecology & Hydrology) (1999) Flood Estimation Handbook.
Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, Wallingford, UK.
EC (European Community) (2000) Directive 2000/60/EC of the European
Parliament and of the Council of 23 October establishing a framework
for Community action in the field of water policy. Official Journal of the
European Communities L327/1.
Houston D, Werritty A, Bassett D etal. (2011) Pluvial (Rain-related) Flooding in
Urban Areas: the Invisible Hazard. Joseph Rowntree Foundation, York, UK.
Met Office (2014) Wettest Winter for England and Wales Since 1766.
MetOffice, Exeter, UK. Seehttp://www.metoffice.gov.uk/news/releases/
archive/2014/early-winter-stats (accessed 10/04/2015).
NAW (National Assembly for Wales) (2010) Key Statistics for Llanelli May
2010. National Assembly for Wales, Cardiff, UK.
ONS (Office for National Statistics) (2011) 2011 Census. Office for National
Statistics, Newport, UK.
Skorobogatov A, Thorne W and Amell B (2013) Biological elements in
rain garden design. Proceedings of the 2013 International Low Impact
Development Symposium, St Paul, MN, USA.
Welsh Government (2011) Variant 2011-based Local Authority Population
Projections for Wales, 2011 to 2036. Welsh Goverment, Cardiff, UK.
Seehttps://statswales.wales.gov.uk/Catalogue/Population-and-Migration/
Population/Projections/Local-Authority/2011-Based/PopulationProjectionsby-LocalAuthority-Variant-Year (accessed 16/11/2015).
33
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Civil Engineering
Adding value: how to develop a
servitisation strategy in civil engineering
Galera-Zarco, Bustinza and Fernandez-Perez

Paper 1500023
Received 08/06/2015
Accepted 16/10/2015
Keywords: business/knowledge management/project
management
Adding value: how to develop

a servitisation strategy in civil
engineering
Carlos Galera-Zarco MEng, MSc
Research Fellow, Department of Management, Faculty of Economics,

University of Granada, Granada, Spain
Virginia Fernandez-Perez PhD

Associate Professor, Department of Management, Faculty of
Economics, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
Oscar Bustinza PhD
Associate Professor, Department of Management, Faculty of

Economics, University of Granada, Granada, Spain and ??, Aston
Centre for Servitisation Research and Practice, Birmingham, UK
The provision of added-value services is becoming increasingly important to winning work on civil
engineering projects. This paper reports on a study into the adoption of servitisation strategies
by civil engineering firms, particularly through the use of smart technology. It focuses on factors
that can lead to successful adoption of a servitisation strategy in an organisation, and then reviews
how the adoption of smart technology can help to deliver added-value services during the various
phases of a civil engineering project. The information generated by the technology can also lead
to the development of new and improved services, further improving an organisations competitive
advantage.
1. Introduction
Many businesses today seek differentiation and competitive

advantage through a servitisation strategy, in which they offer
additional services to complement their core product or service.
Theterm servitisation was first coined by Vandermerwe and Rada
(1988) for describing a process by which manufacturers add a
service component to increase the value of their products.
As has happened in the manufacturing sector (Baines et al.,
2009), the incorporation of additional services in the business
model is now increasing in organisations which deliver projects
rather than products (Artto and Kujala, 2008) such as civil
engineering consultants, contractors and suppliers. Furthermore,
the inclusion of services in project-based firms is not limited
to providing additional services during project delivery; they
can also offer solutions that optimise control, operation, repair
and maintenance (Ivory et al., 2003) of the completed project.
These solutions, aimed at increasing or optimising the life
cycle of a project, allow supplier organisations to maximise
their income by capturing a greater portion of the overall
project value.
There are several of arguments in favour of servitisation.
Servitisation is increasingly supported by technological

innovations, especially those that enable monitoring and data
collection on projects. However, research on the use of smart
technologies for servitisation is still in its early stage and more
knowledge is needed in this area, especially given the significant
potential of smart technology for adding services and generating
innovative business models within the civil engineering sector.
The main objective of this paper is to increase knowledge within
the civil engineering sector on some of the options for developing
servitisation strategies based on new technologies. Itdiscusses the use of
innovative applications for developing additional services and outlines
the competitive advantages that can flow from their implementation.
Economic factors: additional services can offer a higher profit

margin than the core service and can provide significant extra
income, especially for projects with a long life cycle.
Client satisfaction: clients have increasingly high demands
that can only be satisfied through additional services (Bustinza
etal., 2015).
Obtaining competitive advantage: additional services are more
difficult for competitors to replicate and implement (Gebauer etal.,
2006), making them more exclusive to the supplier (Figure1).
35
Civil Engineering
Adding value: how to develop a servitisation

strategy in civil engineering
Economic factors
Higher profit margins
Client satisfaction
Higher demand (requirements) levels can be satisfied
Services are more complicated to imitate and implement

Competitive advantages
Value of data from monitoring services
Figure 1. Arguments in favour of servitisation
2. Literature review
2.1 Project-based firms
Project-based firms are defined as those whose primary
activity is carried out through temporary organisations that aim
to develop a project (Wikstrm et al., 2009). These companies
have characteristics that differ from manufacturers because of
the different ways in delivering value, the degree of uncertainty,
the close relationship with the context in which the project is
developed and the low possibility of standardisation (Mutka and
Aaltonen, 2013).
On the other hand, the role that services play in the business
models of project-based firms is shifting. The importance of
services is increasingly growing and a continued evolution towards
servitisation business strategies is being observed (Galera-Zarco
etal., 2014) (Figure2).
Currently, engineering consultants, contractors and suppliers seek
to complement their traditional offering with the addition of services
and delivering comprehensive client solutions ranging from design,
testing, setting up, maintenance and optimisation during a project life
cycle (Kujala etal., 2013). That is, project-based firms try to adapt
their offering to cover all the specific needs of their client through
the incorporation of services associated with the development of
the project (Kujala etal., 2011). Services can be introduced in the
project through different delivery channels: delivery of a subproject,
delivering a complete subsystem, consulting, supervision, turnkey
deliveries and so on (Brady etal., 2005).
Furthermore, it should be noted that clients are increasingly
interested in the behaviour of their long-term investments
(Stremersch et al., 2001). This fact encourages the inclusion of
services which favour cost optimisation over the life cycle of the
delivered project. Theinclusion of services to improve the operation
and functionality of the project during its life cycle can certainly be
a source of competitive advantages (Kujala etal., 2013).
Project
Basic value generation

Design
Advanced value generation
Execution
Project
Delivery of services
throughout each project phase
Figure 2. Evolution towards a servitisation strategy
36
Today, the high competitiveness between project-based firms

makes them seek innovation and the creation of sophisticated
projects that compete not only on economic value. Inthis context,
servitisation becomes an increasingly important strategy in the
search for a constant contact with the client. Innovation plays a key
role in the introduction of services, hence the importance of the
adoption of new technologies to develop new and better services.
2.2 Smart technologies and monitoring technology
Smart technologies are recognised as an important enabler in
servitisation strategies and an incentive for innovation in additional
services. However, there is little literature on their contribution,
potential and future challenges as a tool for a servitisation strategy.
Monitoring technology can be defined as a combination of
hardware (infrastructure, wireless technology, sensors etc.) and
software (transmission technologies, algorithm technologies,
data acquisition etc.) that allows remote data collection about
components and processes to determine their performance and
predict their condition and state (Grubic, 2014). Both reactive
and proactive use of smart technology can be observed in civil
engineering. Reactive applications include the minimisation of
down time due to a greater speed in detecting and solving problems,
while proactive applications include preventing failures before they
occur (Grubic, 2014). Smart technologies therefore enable firms to
make a more attractive offer to their clients.
According to the literature there are several benefits for firms
supplying additional services based on new technologies. These
include improvement of the design and the performance of projects,
improvement of operational efficiency, cost reduction, differentiation
from competitors, better understanding of client needs and information
about operation that helps to improve research and development.
Finally, significant growth is observed in the literature on
innovative concepts such as the internet of things and smart
objects (Miorandi et al., 2012) that will become familiar in the
near future. These new concepts offer technologies that can supply
real-time information in the challenging and highly dynamic
environments of civil engineering sites. Theinternet of things will
allow people to transform any element present in a construction
site (from construction machinery to a beam) into an intelligent
object by integration of sensors and connectivity technology.
Materials and different structural elements will be able to supply
data about their behaviour, becoming part of an emerging smart
infrastructure. The internet of things will therefore enable early
detection of structural problems; real-time measurement of
corrosion, settlements and deformations; and smart management
of traffic, water and electrical networks (Figure3).
Civil Engineering

3. Enablers for servitisation strategy in civil

engineering sector
complete satisfaction of new needs expressed by clients, enabling

civil engineering firms to offer better services and solutions.
A model has been developed that proposes additional services based
on smart technologies that can be included during the various phases
of a project. Through this model and examples it can be seen how a
servitisation strategy can lead to competitive advantage (Figure4).
The provision of additional services in the civil engineering

sector has begun to be seen as a key element of business models
for enhancing the offer to clients. However, understanding the trend
towards greater servitisation requires a more detailed analysis of the
different contexts surrounding both civil engineering suppliers and
the projects themselves (Wikstrm etal., 2009). Theobject of this
analysis will be to identify factors that can potentially encourage
the inclusion of additional services in project-based firms.
A review of the relevant literature has identified several factors
that play a key role in the introduction of additional services within
the business models in civil engineering firms (Table1).
4. Servitisation strategy in civil engineering firms

During all project phases, civil engineering firms should be
attentive to the wishes of the client. A service-based strategy to
increase communication and information flow between firm and
the client may be essential.
Information technology acts as an enabler for new services based
on innovation. Thedevelopment of smart technologies can achieve
4.1 Pre-project delivery phase

4.1.1 Visualisation
The use of new tools for project visualisation can now provide
clients with a virtual reality of all phases of a project. They enable
clients to become more involved with the design process; to see
immediately how design changes will affect the outcome; to have
a greater understanding of inherent financial and technical risks.
Todays building information models (BIM) provide a virtual
equivalent of all construction elements used in the design, construction
and operation of building or civil engineering project work. Thedigital
prototype has all the characteristics (physical and logical) of the real
project, allowing the project team to simulate and understand its
behaviour before actual construction and operation begins.
Examples of virtual design software in the civil engineering
sector include Power Civil by Bentley, which allows designers
to visualise the complete development of a project including
reducing visual impact and facilitating planning approval. It is
Figure 3. Modern highway network management is now heavily based

on smart technology
37
Civil Engineering

Enabler
Conditions favourable to servitisation
Complexity
High quantity of subsystems and components

Variety of skills and engineering outputs
Variety of distinct knowledge bases
Feedback loops from later to earlier stages
Quantity of alternative component design paths
Customisation
High possibilities of co-creation activities

Degree of customisation of components
Degree of customisation of project itself
Duration of project delivery
Long term
Life span of project
Long term
Client
Trusting and strong relationship with the client

Credibility of the client
Ability to respond to clients expectations
Intensity of user involvement
Innovation
Degree of technological novelties

Ability to supply smart technologies
Extent of embedded software in the project
Ability to innovate with process and equipment
Visibility of technological innovations
Risks
Medium-high risks in design, execution,

operation and maintenance
Ability to identify and manage risks
Ability to manage risks
Supplier
Strong relationship with their own suppliers
Contract
Flexibility
Enough duration
Availability of finance from third parties
Table 1. Enablers for a servitisation strategy in civil engineering companies
also possible to export data directly from the model for automatic
guidance of construction machinery.
Similarly, Aecom has developed a tool that can determine the
energy behaviour of a proposed building or facility. ItsSustainable
systems integration model energy module (Ssime) tool determines
energy-conservation measures that could be taken to improve energy
efficiency. Themeasures evaluated by the tool include, in particular,
heating, ventilation and air-conditioning systems, lighting systems
and renewable energy solutions. Itis therefore possible to assess the
energy savings to be gained and to develop an energy programme
associated with the project life cycle. These virtual design tools
have been already used on the San Ysidro Land Port of Entry in the
USA and Nasas Ames campus in Moffett Field, USA.
4.1.2 Project monitoring study
Developing a study during the pre-project delivery phase about
how to monitor the civil work will be a key to controlling its
operation and to introducing better services on diagnosis, repair
and maintenance. Thedevelopment of a sub-project on monitoring
is thus proposed as a useful associated service. The civil work
would be studied from the perspective of which critical elements,
structures or systems should be monitored.
The sub-project could include an analysis about which
dimensions (wear, deformation, settlement etc.) and which
elements should be measured and which not. This service could
also provide information on what kind of sensors and technology
would be applicable; how to perform the embedding of different
sensors in the elements; which type of data will be obtained; and
how to manage and analyse the data. Thephilosophy of this service
is that from the time a building or facility is being designed, its
execution and future operation should also be considered.
4.2 Project delivery phase
It is well known that during execution of a project the amount
of information and documentation generated can be enormous.
Accurate information about the progress of a project is an important
factor for all stakeholders. The multi-party structure of a project
means success largely depends on adequate transfer of information
between all those involved: project managers, contractors, designers
and so on.
However, at present, clients are sometimes not given access to realtime information about their project, despite this information being
vitally important to them. Delivery delays, problems in certain phases
or even bad weather can cause changes to the programme which can
generate significant planning and financial problems for the client.
Itis therefore important to start sharing information in real time with
clients, helping to involve them in decision-making and providing
information about the actual status of the project at any time.
To implement the service, there are different models for the
collection, organisation and sharing of information generated
during the execution of a project. There are also various software
systems that allow real-time dialogue between all parties involved.
Clients should be included in these systems, giving them access
Phases
Added services
Data management
Pre-project delivery
Virtual design; monitoring project
Project delivery
Monitoring of execution process
Post-project delivery
Monitoring of operation and

maintenance; repairing, prognosis
and diagnosis
Key information
Improvement process
Creating new services
Knowledge
Data gathering
Data mining
Figure 4. Amodel of servitisation in civil engineering companies
38
Sale of data
to third parties
Civil Engineering

to information they need or as required under the contract.

Examples include Basecamp, Trello, Blimp, Asana, Ganttproject or
Redbooth. Most of them are cloud-based and could provide this
kind of service for the client during the execution phase.
The service can be seen as a very positive factor for the client
and as a competitive advantage for the contracted organisation.
Clients and public administrations should seek companies that offer
this service of real-time monitoring because poor coordination and
inaccurate, delayed or insufficient information are serious and very
common problems for clients during project execution.
On the other hand, during the execution of the project, the
monitoring of particularly complex tasks can also be offered as
interesting added-value service. For example, the monitoring of
certain structures allows verification in real time of calculation
hypotheses, or as a trigger to make changes in the execution phase
if necessary. Anexample of the use of this kind of technology is
being carried out by a team of engineers from the Centre for Smart
Infrastructure and Construction at the University of Cambridge.
During construction of Crossrail in London, engineers are
studying for the first time the impact of excavation in nearby
structures in real time by using sensors and information systems.
In particular, they are employing new sensing technologies to
monitor a 30 m stretch of the Royal Mail tunnel beneath Liverpool
Street station, this stretch being located only a few metres above
the excavation of one of Crossrails new stations.
Three technologies are being used in parallel: optical fibre
to measure stresses; long-life and low-power consumption
wireless sensors for recording movements, vibrations, humidity
and temperature; and photogrammetry techniques that allow
reconstruction of the shape and position of an object from
photographs. These technologies are able to provide massive
amounts of information, which are very useful to understand the
ageing of infrastructure and how best to maintain and protect it.
4.4 Getting information and the importance of data

management
Monitoring project activities generates a remarkable quantity of
data. Accurate use of these data can create new services based on new
knowledge derived from data mining. This can open new markets and
creates new value propositions for clients in civil engineering works.
First of all, one must be aware that data analysis allows the
discovery of patterns about the behaviour of infrastructure and
it should help identify potential and most usual failures linked
to these patterns. It means that data collection connects the
infrastructure behaviour with its design, construction process and
its surrounding environment. The information generated makes it
possible to learn from the actual behaviour of the infrastructure in
a given context, and to extrapolate the results to projects which will
be developed in similar contexts.
The process of implementing information gathering could follow
the following model (Opresnik etal., 2013).
4.3 Post-project delivery phase

During the post-project delivery phase, servitisation options include
monitoring all components able to supply data about the operation
and maintenance of an infrastructure facility. Most clients will have
a need for such information, especially with regard to the operation,
maintenance, diagnosis and repairs of the delivered project.
During the post-project delivery stage, it would be important to
offer services able to provide real-time information. Through this
monitoring process, different services can be offered: performance
optimisation, preventive maintenance, diagnosis, spare part service,
facilitating services and so on (Kujala etal., 2013).
One example is the participation of Indra in the Panama
Canal expansion project. The company is implementing different
technologies to offer several services for operation and maintenance
of the canal infrastructure. These include integrated control of
access and security, vessel-detection systems, traffic control, lock
gates control, fire detection and evacuation systems, and a network
of environmental sensors to control the third set of canal locks.
All such services are based on the use of new technologies and
try to add intelligence to infrastructure and make it more efficient
as well as ecologically and economically more sustainable. These
intelligent technologies provide real-time information for decisionmaking and can offer added value, increasing the levels of safety,
efficiency and respect for the environment.
Creation of smart items or installation of sensors in essential

elements of the infrastructure.
Implementation of technological applications that allow data
collection and storage.
Conducting a thorough analysis of the data in accordance with
the objectives set by the developer of the project.
The use of a servitisation strategy, together with data gathering,

enables civil engineering firms to obtain potential competitive
advantages in the following ways.
Improvements in the design, implementation, execution,
operation and maintenance of a civil engineering project as a
consequence of an objective and realistic knowledge about all
processes around the construction and operation of the new
infrastructure.
Create new services from knowledge obtained through data
management that could be useful for the client. Examples
include traffic-control services or maintenance services based
on structural health monitoring (Figure5).
Sale of data on behavioural patterns of infrastructure itself
and users to third parties who are interested because they will
undertake similar projects.
Finally it should be emphasised how data management facilitates

a feedback process that affects all phases of a project. Data collection
will vary depending on the operation and the environment in which
the project operates. This will detect problems and will relate them
to the use and context of the project, starting an iterative process in
which all phases of the project may be improved. Continuous data
management can also help to recognise what kinds of data are most
useful so as to offer better services to clients.
5. Management implications and conclusions

Add-on services in traditional project-based firms had been
considered in the past as an activity that brought little value to
this type of business (Marceau et al., 2002). However, a change
is happening and civil engineering firms are now revaluing their
business models towards finding associated services.
39
Civil Engineering
Smart sensor network

Data acquisition
Cloud computing
and data analytics
010
101
001
Delivery of services
Access to information for
decision-making
Alarms
Repairing and maintenance
Figure 5. Example of services from knowledge obtained through data

management
Through the outputs of this paper, different implications may be

observed. First, an effort has been made to study the factors that
favour the offer of additional services by civil engineering firms
(Table1). Theproposed factors studied as enablers are complexity,
customisation, duration of the project, life span, client, innovation,
risks, supplier and contract. A good knowledge of these enablers
will allow more successful implementation of a servitisation
strategy in this type of business.
Second, a model for a servitisation strategy in civil engineering firms
has been proposed (Figure4).This implementation model relies on the
use of smart technologies. Thestudy of this model can inspire in the
introduction of new services during different project phases so as to obtain
new competitive advantage. Following this study, three types of benefits
that encourage investment in additional services can be identified
financial, providing increase and greater stability of income
strategic, providing advantages in terms of value, differentiation
and quality
marketing, providing increased client satisfaction, improved client
proposals and an increase in credibility (Kujala etal., 2013).
On the other hand, the development of new technologies must

be seen as a facilitating tool of a servitisation strategy. Ithas been
observed that through these technologies it is possible to create
new and attractive additional services.
The use of services based on smart technologies provides a
wealth of data on the performance of a delivered project. In this
research, the importance of proper data management has been
emphasised. Based on this knowledge it is possible to obtain
competitive advantage, such as a continuous improvement of the
different phases of the project and the creation of new services
better tailored to the project environment and client needs.
To sum up, companies should redouble their efforts to obtain
knowledge to understand better the behaviour of infrastructure both
during execution and over its life cycle. Byfollowing this approach, civil
engineering firms should be able to build a database of different projects,
clients and environments. Byhaving the appropriate information, firms
would then have the possibility of comparing different clients, settings
and contexts for the development of better-tailored project management.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge financial support from
ECO2014-58472-R and P11-SEJ-7294, which collectively funded
this project.
40
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Civil Engineering

Paper 1500029
Received 26/06/2015
Accepted 21/10/2015
Keywords: buildings, structures & design/geotechnical
engineering/research & development
The future of geotechnical and

structural engineering research
Clarke, Middleton and Rogers
The future of geotechnical and

structural engineering research
Barry Clarke Eur Ing, BSc, PhD, CEng, FICE, FGS
Professor of Civil Engineering Geotechnics, University of Leeds,

Leeds, UK
Christopher Rogers Eur Ing, BSc, PhD, CEng, MICE, MIHT

Professor of Geotechnical Engineering, University of Birmingham,
Birmingham, UK
Cam Middleton BE(Hons), MSc, DIC, PhD, CPEng, FICE, MIE(Aust)
Laing ORourke Professor of Construction Engineering, University of

Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
A review of publicly funded UK structural and geotechnical research showed it was among the best in the
world, but incremental rather than transformational. Furthermore, public research investment in this area
is less than in other sectors despite significant investment in construction and infrastructure generally. This
is also at a time of rapid change driven by population growth, resource scarcity and security, developments
in technology, societys expectations and aspirations, and climate. A major review of the purpose of
infrastructure and construction was thus undertaken by representatives from academia, industry, research
organisations, clients and government. They concluded that, if transformational research is to take
place, the research themes to address are hazards, understanding material behaviour, paradigm shift in
design, construction processes, building performance, smart buildings, asset management, intervention,
decarbonisation and adaption.
1. Introduction
In 2009, the UK Engineering and Physical Science Research
Council (EPSRC) published a review (EPSRC, 2009) of academic
research into geotechnical and structural engineering. This was
part of EPSRCs ongoing theme of shaping capability of and
building capacity in the UK academic base. The review reached
the conclusion that the ranking of UK research in this area was
world-leading in a number of niche areas, especially numerical
modelling, fire engineering, vibration engineering, geotechnical
engineering and earthquake engineering, but it was incremental
not transformational, relatively short term in vision, predominantly
industry led and with little interaction with other disciplines.
The construction industry, prime recipient of the research and
therefore the sector with the most to gain, is not as engaged in
publicly funded research as other sectors. This may be due to the
facts that all new construction, particularly buildings, are prototypes
so industry does not have time and resources to refine the design,
unlike other areas of engineering and manufacturing; the inability
to create and maintain some form of competitive advantage in
a project-led industry where project teams are assembled from
many companies; manufacturing is typically technology-intensive,
construction is service-based and inherently labour-intensive;
most research on innovation has been focused on large enterprises,

neglecting the small and medium enterprise (SME) sector which
dominates construction; and SMEs tend to be more focused on
survival and solving immediate project-related problems rather than
investing in research.
It should also be noted that indicators of research may not be so
prevalent in the construction sector as other sectors for example,
the lack of patents will underestimate innovation activity within the
sector. This is unlikely to change because of the fragmented nature
of the industry and the reliance on clients to invest in construction
that is, construction industry is often perceived as providing a
service. Therefore, privately funded construction is particularly
susceptible to economic cycles; publicly funded construction
is more sensitive to political cycles; and managing national
infrastructure assets (e.g. water, rail and road) is affected by the
5year control periods used in the UK.
Given the scale of construction projects, particularly infrastructure
projects that can involve significant public funding, the lack of
national strategic planning also makes it difficult for the industry to
plan and invest. Theintroduction of a national infrastructure plan in
the UK has provided an indication of future requirements, although
it is still susceptible to political will. Themost visible aspect of this
is the current skills shortage that has resulted from the increasing
41
Civil Engineering

volume of construction. There are some exceptions. For example,

research into high-speed railways is underway as the government
has highlighted its intention to develop such networks that is, longterm planning facilitates investment in research.
There are several barriers to implementing geotechnical
and structural engineering research when compared to other
disciplinary areas which have higher short-term impact.
Two research networks were formed, Future Infrastructure

Forum led by Cambridge University (Middleton, 2010) and
Limesnet led by the University of Bath (Walker, 2010), to develop
a vision for the future of research into geotechnical and structural
engineering. The Institution of Civil Engineers took this forward,
involving delegates from universities, contractors and consultants
from the industry, client organisations, research organisations and
government. This paper is a summary of the recommended areas
of research developed from these activities, placing them in the
context of global challenges, national strategic planning, sustainable
economic growth and the vision of the future of civil engineering.
The output of research in this area has a clear route to transfer

knowledge through codes and standards, but the pace of change
is slow.
Public safety is a critical factor because of the scale and
lifespan of projects.
The industry is risk-averse, which makes it difficult to
implement research outcomes.
Research tends to be incremental rather than transformational,
which means that it is difficult to demonstrate the benefit of
research in the short term.
However, the challenges of urbanisation, resource scarcity

and security, climate change and population growth are placing
greater demands on the urban environment, giving rise to the
need to realise the benefits of research. Figure 1 shows that the
construction industry uses some 50% of all the worlds resources
(Minerals Education Coalition, 2015), and it has been suggested
that the construction industry can influence 47% of the required
reduction in carbon dioxide by 2050 (BIS, 2010) it therefore
impacts greatly on all aspects of society. This implies that the
industry has the opportunity to make a significant contribution to
enhance the resilience and sustainability of society.
The EPSRC review identified four research themes as being
dominant
sustainable construction and infrastructure

resilient infrastructure
monitoring and field investigation
novel materials and their use.
Zinc
Lead
Copper
Bauxite
Clay
Phosphate
Salt
Iron ore
Cement
Others
Gas
Stone, sand
and gravel
Concrete
Oil
Energy
Coal
Construction fill
Figure 1. Arelative comparison of the global use of minerals

highlighting the proportion used in the construction industry (Minerals
Education Coalition, 2015)
42
2. Background
Geotechnical and structural engineering are two themes in
EPSRCs portfolio of activity which account for approximately
4% of the total expenditure on engineering and physical science
research. Itis characterised by individual responsive mode grants,
though there are some more strategic grants (large multidisciplinary
grants for example those led by Powrie (2010), Mair (2011),
Rogers (2012), Collins (2013) and Dawson (2013)). Associated
themes include energy, water, transport and environmental
engineering which, collectively, define the economic infrastructure
of an urban environment (Table1).
Also published in 2009 was the UK Council for Science
and Technology report A National Infrastructure for the 21st
Century (CST, 2009) and in 2010 the UK Infrastructure Planning
Commission report (IPC, 2010), both of which highlighted the
need for a high-quality national infrastructure to support economic
growth and social well-being.
Much of the existing national economic infrastructure began over
100 years ago (Table 1), creating a substantial asset. Maintaining
this asset has presented a number of challenges in terms of renewing
around a patchwork of adjacent assets in tight time scales. Meeting
these challenges in a commercially economic manner has meant that
output of construction on existing assets has focused on keeping the
asset running, without considering the longer-term strategy. It has
also given rise to subsystem specialists who have progressed in their
careers without broader systems knowledge. It has been adapted
Social infrastructure
(post-1950)
Economic infrastructure
Housing
Healthcare
Leisure
Sport
Government
Retail
Offices
Manufacturing
Emergency services
Education
Roads (Roman, turnpikes)

Drainage (sixteenth century)
Defences (coast, waterways) (seventeenth century)
Ports (seventeenth century)
Railways (nineteenth century)
Water (nineteenth century)
Waste (solid, liquid) (nineteenth century)
Energy (gas, electricity, heat) (post-1950)
National strategic highways (post-1950)
Air (post-1950)
Communications (late twentieth century)
Table 1. Social and economic infrastructure sectors and the significant

eras of development of current infrastructure to highlight the
longevity of construction output and the need to adapt to cater for
changes in technology, regulations, environment and demand
Civil Engineering

to cope with changes in technology, regulations, environment

and demand. Over the last 50 years, there has been a shift from
a series of unconnected networks to an interconnected system.
Theeconomic infrastructure is primarily owned and operated by the
private sector embedded within a regulatory framework.
Importantly, the infrastructure is ageing; resilience is reducing;
it is susceptible to the effects of climate change; and there is
increasing demand. The cost of replacing ageing infrastructure,
the need to decarbonise existing infrastructure by adapting its
use to reduce carbon dioxide emissions and the need to create new,
carbon-neutral infrastructure that is adaptable and more resilient,
have placed the industry in a position that it has never experienced
before. This is at a time when the construction industry is
embracing the benefits of the digital world.
In 2009, Infrastructure UK, a national body, was created,
leading in 2010 to a national infrastructure plan (IUK, 2014). This
set out the challenges facing the nations infrastructure and the
governments strategy to deliver the UKs economic infrastructure.
Theplan focuses on a 460 billion pipeline of projects that meet the
governments overall strategy (Table2). Given the scale and life of
infrastructure projects, it is inevitable that any investment is based
on uncertain projected demands, has to be adaptable to changes in
technology and adaptable to changes in the environment, and must
be increasingly more resilient as it degrades.
Investment in economic infrastructure is a global challenge
(OECD, 2007). For example, the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) suggests that air passenger
traffic could double over the next 15 years, air freight triple in 20
years and port handling quadruple by 2030. This in turn suggests
that by 2030, US$53 trillion of investment is needed; this is about
25% of the global gross domestic product (GDP). This would rise
to 35% of GDP if energy investment is included.
The OECD report also highlights the concept of green
growth, an objective additional to those of economic and social
advantage. The greening of infrastructure is consistent with the
UK governments strategy for sustainable construction (BIS, 2008)
to provide a better quality of life using long-term solutions that
will benefit everyone. The UK construction sector encompasses
economic and social infrastructure, accounts for about 8% GDP
employing 3 million people and is worth over 100 billion a year
(BIS, 2008). Importantly, it uses about 300 Mt of material per

year, or about 6 t per person, while construction, operation and
maintenance of infrastructure account for nearly 50% of the UKs
emissions.
The construction industry makes a significant contribution to the
five guiding principles of sustainable development (Defra, 2005),
particularly that relating to living within environmental limits.
In2013, the areas for improvement included (BIS, 2013)
Sector
Projectsa
Programmesb
Pipeline value:
billion
Communications
110
Energy
77
70
2749
Flood
21
37
Science and Research
18
14
Transport
141
129
1423
Waste
20
20
Water
59
309
Total
263
288
4660
Projects fund an activity in one of the strategic research themes.

b
Programme grants provide flexible funding to support a variety of activities
focusing on one strategic research theme.
a
Table 2. The 2014 UK infrastructure pipeline by sector 20142015

onwards (after IUK, 2014)
establishing effective construction programmes (e.g. national

infrastructure plans)
focused and capable public sector clients
whole-life value
appropriate procurement and construction strategies
collaborative working through fully integrated teams
evaluating performance and embedding project learning.
In 2013, the UK government published a construction industry

strategy (BIS, 2013), one of 11 industrial strategies to create
a partnership between the industry and government, to set out
the long-term directions. The aims are to reduce costs (by 33%),
reduce time for delivery (by 50%), reduce emissions (by 50%) and
improve exports.
The industry will be smart and sustainable, underpinning a
growing economy. Thestrategy has 43 recommendations, including
five covering research. In 2014, it was estimated that EPSRCfunded research into construction-related topics amounted to 188
million (i.e. 02% of the annual construction expenditure) with
80% supported, mostly in kind, by industry, although the uptake of
the research output and development was limited. This compares to
the total expenditure in the UK of 172% of gross domestic product
(GDP) on research (ONS, 2012). Thechallenges are to disseminate
the research knowledge more widely, make greater use of existing
technology, remove barriers that inhibit innovation and anticipate
future research needs. Ithighlighted research in green construction,
smart construction and digital design funded by EPSRC and
Innovate UK as examples of industry-relevant research.
The national infrastructure and construction strategies emphasise
the need for the government to have a long-term plan for investment
to allow businesses to build capacity to deliver. They also provide
a commitment that enables research to flourish. Thestrategic aims
of reducing costs, emissions and time for delivery, increasing
investment for growth, and tackling the priorities of the digital
economy and green growth, all provide a means of aligning the
research agenda with the needs of society.
3. The future of civil engineering

Construction is a transformational process. It produces an
outcome that transforms peoples lives; therefore, the views
of the users, operators and owners are important. Historically,
construction has had an output focus, relying on experience,
regulation and guidelines to create something that had value.
The evolution of design for construction is similar to that for
research. It has been an incremental process, starting with an
empirical approach based on observation of actual behaviour.
Gradually, a more scientific approach developed as testing of
materials and elements became possible. This led, at the beginning
43
Civil Engineering

of the twentieth century, to the development of standards and

regulations which, over time, have been updated to recognise
practice and research findings.
Towards the end of the twentieth century, numerical modelling
became a reality and, more recently, the ability to monitor
performance of buildings a possibility. This is now leading to the
realisation of the concept of the built environment as a system.
This aligns with the concept of convergence, which is a cross-,
inter- and multi-disciplinary systems approach informed by social
science research and underpinned by the natural and physical
sciences (Figure 2). It requires a different approach to research,
and this has been both encouraged and manifestly advanced by
the UK research councils, and EPSRC in particular by way of its
pioneering Sustainable urban environments programme.
There are now programmes of research that are exploring the far
future needs of cities and their citizens, and the research is having
impact in spheres such as the UK governments Foresight future
of cities project and by way of the Future cities and transport
catapults project. Thus, there is a hierarchy of research (Figure2)
addressing the challenges at different scales. A challenge for the
research community is to demonstrate the impact of their research
outside of the pockets of excellence where this is happening,
and specifically in the construction industry rather than the
organisations and structures within which the community works.
Thehierarchy and key themes provide a means to do just that.
In 2007, the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE)
held a summit to create a vision for civil engineering in 2025
(ASCE, 2007) in which civil engineers will help society achieve
a sustainable world and raise the quality of life, a sentiment
conveyed by the UKs infrastructure and construction strategies.
They suggest that civil engineers, as a body of professionals, will
be leaders as builders, stewards of the environment, innovators,
managers of risk and leaders in public policy. The drivers for

change that is, resources and the environment are similar for all
global and national strategies.
It will require highly multi-disciplinary collaboration on projects,
research and development, taking advantage of developments in
information technology, smart infrastructure and digital simulation.
The ASCE envisaged that the profession would take a more
preventative approach rather than a remedial approach, and conduct
clinical trials in the natural and built environment to create
information that reduces risk and enhances design, construction
and operation. Developments in sensors, biotechnology and
nanotechnology will impact on construction materials and
processes, thus enhancing the industry and its outcome.
Most of the built environment in the UK has been built over
the last 200 years (Table 1), although in some cases its history
can be traced back over 2000 years. Itis continually upgraded or
replaced because of changes in use, regulations or technology and
because of degradation. For example, the UK has over 150000
bridges which are essential components of road, rail and waterway
networks. Natural degradation and changes in loading conditions
mean that their capacity relative to the increasing requirements is
in decline. This requires considerable ongoing investment.
In future, however, changes to the environment will have a
greater impact on performance. For example, increased rainfall
intensity will lead to more infrastructure failures, particularly road
and rail embankments. Most rail embankments were constructed
prior to the implementation of codes for construction and, given
the equipment available at the time, would not meet current
compaction criteria. These are potentially at risk because of
the relatively basic level of engineering at the time. Yet modern
engineered embankments, which are optimised for performance
rather than redundancy, are also increasingly susceptible because
climate change will affect the pore pressure regime.
Well-being
Wealth
Health
Outcome
Integrated systems
Processes
Whole life
Interdependency
Material science
Adapt/maintain
Socio-technical
Policy
Resilience
New build
Design science
Geological sciences
Computer science
Monitoring
Sustainability
Economics
Social science
Mathematics
Retrofit
Value
Adaptive learning
Underlying science
Systems science
Physical science
Modelling
Natural science
Figure 2. Thesystem of construction underpinned by fundamental

science leading to improvements in societys health, wealth and wellbeing
44
4. Key issues
The EPSRC-supported Future Infrastructure Forum held five
2-day workshops involving representatives from academia, industry
and clients, including government. The forum started with a
review of research currently taking place. Asexpected, it included
materials, instrumentation, design, processes, modelling and civil
engineering as a system. Given the context in which the challenge
was set, it suggests that the research activity was addressing many
of the emerging issues, but not necessarily in a structured or
collaborative manner. The link between research projects and the
issues was not clear in all cases, and the research outcomes were
not necessarily impacting on the industry. Thefocus of the research
community, which has become increasingly scientific, was not
necessarily aligned with that of industry, which is more commercial.
It was recognised that establishing a strong research base in
geotechnical and structural engineering is important to provide
underpinning knowledge for industry, as well as maintaining
an academic base necessary to deliver the next generation of
engineers. Thekey drivers identified in the workshops were climate
change, urbanisation, ageing infrastructure and resource scarcity,
with cross-cutting drivers of low-carbon engineering, adaptable
infrastructure and sustainability and energy/water footprints
(Figure3).
Civil Engineering

A number of messages emerged from the workshops.

Home is more than a shelter it is a workplace, an energy
store, a communications centre and it cares for you.
A sustainable city state will produce its own energy and food,
and communicate with other city states.
Infrastructure has a value and an infinite life.
The construction industry is an industry that can adopt
manufacturing processes.
According to the participants, by 2050 the construction industry,

through research and practice, will have the following
an understanding of behaviour of materials through life; critical
aspects of structures; resilience and its implications; risk and
its implications; and the performance of existing infrastructure,
how it degrades and its remaining value
tools to undertake holistic diagnostic analysis and design for
performance
an ability to manage demand; minimise both the need for
intervention and the impact of any interventions; realise the
true capacity of the ground; create zero-carbon buildings; and
use the ground and buildings as a source and store of energy.
5. Themes
The output from the workshops can be summarised in ten
themes, but these themes should not be considered in isolation, as
indicated in Figure3. Table3 lists the activities under each of the
research themes.
5.1 Hazards
Increased urbanisation, development in marginal land and
land under threat, particularly along coasts and waterways, and
increasing vulnerability of society because of its reliance on fully
functioning infrastructure are leading to a greater focus on design
for resilience. This requires a multi-scale approach integrating all
those involved in designing, building, operating and using the built
environment. Itrequires a systems approach at all levels because of the
interdependency of the networks within the built environment, whether
it is national major infrastructure such as the transport networks, local
infrastructures or community-scale domestic buildings.
Hazard assessment and risk, seismic design, flood management,
and response, recovery and rebuild are routinely undertaken. They
can focus on preventing economic and social loss, minimising
such losses, minimising the time to recover fully or increasing the
resilience of the environment to make communities less vulnerable
to catastrophic events. There is a need to share good practice and
learn from experience, because the impacts of these increasingly
frequent events are leading to greater damage and loss, and this is
likely to continue as the worlds population increases and becomes
more concentrated through urbanisation.
5.2 Understanding material behaviour
Material behaviour is a key science that underpins all engineering
projects. The process of testing materials to study their physical
and natural characteristics and modelling those characteristics in
design are understood. Thus, there is an established process when
new materials are introduced to determine their characteristics and
establish their performance. However, the performance of materials
in situ has not received as much attention. Material behaviour in
W
at
er
/e
ne
rg
yc
rit
er
ia
Su
sta
in
ab
ilit
y
ca
rb
on
Lo
w
ge
an
ch
y
rit
cu
se
re
tu
uc
str
fra
in
e
at
im
Cl
g
ein
Ag
ce
ur
so
Re
n
tio
sa
ni
ba
Ur
Ad
ap
tio
n
Drivers
Adaption
Decarbonisation
Intervention
Asset management
Smart structures
Design
Material behaviour
Research themes
Hazards
Figure 3. Theresearch drivers and themes identified by experts from

across the construction and infrastructure sectors
45
Civil Engineering
Theme
Topic
Hazards
Database of the impact of catastrophic events on the built

environment and the response, recovery and rebuild
phases
Interpretation of that database to establish key lessons
Scenario analyses to assess impact of future events to
existing built environment and relevance of codes
Understand the effect of cascading failures
Identify emerging risks because of developments in
technology and their impact on the built environment
Understand the impact of the planetary boundaries on the
built environment
Understanding
material
behaviour
Intrinsic properties of new materials

Performance of materials in situ
Capacity of materials in situ throughout life
Paradigm shift
in design
Assessing the value of infrastructure

Identify appropriate performance indicators that take a
holistic view of the lifetime of a design
Identify failure characteristics, pre-failure and the
characteristics of the probability of failure
Create a life quality index to be used in design
Create a process to assess future design requirements to
allow existing designs to be validated against those
criteria
Establish the emerging design approaches and their impact
on the built environment
Construction
processes
Three-dimensional printing of complex shapes to facilitate

assembly and reduce resources
Optimisation of structural elements
Methods of assembly
Structural form
Building
performance
Development of instrumentation to monitor reliably the

behaviour of structures including load distribution,
capacity and function
Database of structural performance
Interpretation of that database to improve numerical
models and future design
Smart buildings
Development of autogenous materials and elements

Multi-functioning structural elements to make full use of
intrinsic properties
Identify value of structures, their capacity and life
Asset
management
Identify the value of the built environment and how it can

be valued
Means of identifying client requirement
Decision-making criteria
Retain national memory of construction processes and
material performance
Development of diagnostic tools and data acquisition
techniques
Predicting capacity and capability throughout life
Intervention
Development of early warning systems to predict failure

Optimisation of planned interventions
Diagnostic tools to assess impact of interventions
Development of imaging techniques
Decarbonisation
Introduce energy, water and carbon dioxide emissions as

design criteria
Multi-functioning structures
Refurbishment to minimise carbon dioxide emissions
Adaption
Design for adaptation

Understanding the relationship between over-engineering,
optimisation and future use
Table 3. Suggested research themes and topics
46

situ is affected by the environment, the loading regime and the

constraints imposed by the assembly, and these are different from
those conditions experienced in the laboratory.
Materials degrade with time for a variety of reasons, yet this
degradation and how it impacts on their performance is not fully
understood. This is especially important when considering building
elements where materials are acting in conjunction with other
materials, something that is not necessarily considered in design.
Forexample, the degradation of underground utilities and the ground
within which they sit is the subject of a major research project
(Rogers, 2013) to improve the management of this fundamental asset.
New materials for example, biomimetic (mimicking nature)
materials, smart (responding to the environment) materials,
composites and autogenous (self-healing) materials are being
introduced. The process of integration into the industry is
understood, yet the risk-averse nature of industry and the lack of
understanding of material performance in situ may prevent the
value of these materials being fully realised.
5.3 Paradigm shift in design
Design is supported by guidelines and experience, restricted
by codes and enhanced by analysis. Itis continually evolving but
the pace of technological change, the environment and societys
expectations means that the current codified approach to design
may be increasing the risk to the built environment as the pace
of change accelerates. Thebuilt environment is continually being
maintained, updated and adapted. This will accelerate to minimise
environmental impact.
The number and impact of catastrophic events are increasing.
For example, increase in rainfall intensity, failure to adhere to
planning guidance and rising sea levels are engendering increasing
economic loss. In 2007, worldwide, there were 200 major floods
affecting 180 million people and causing US$40 billion of damage
(Pitt, 2008). The UK was ranked first in the world for economic
loss due to flooding as the summer rains in 2008 in the UK flooded
55000 properties leading to 3 billion of insurance claims.
Swiss Re (2013) identified 616 urban environments, home to
17 billion people (25% of the global population), which generate
US$34 trillion (40% of the global GDP). They have characterised
catastrophic events in these environments as: major, such as
earthquakes, which require response, recovery and rebuild phases
to re-establish the norm; medium, which can be dealt with by
design and operation; and local, which can be dealt with through
design and the support of the community.
Codified design is current practice, but scenario modelling,
risk-based design and design for flexibility (adaptive design)
are emerging because current codes may no longer be relevant.
Examples of the limitation of current codes are those used prior
to 2010 in New Zealand. Following the Christchurch earthquake,
buildings are being reassessed, and strengthened if necessary,
using more stringent criteria. Dealing with local and medium
catastrophes is introducing the concept of designing for resilience.
5.4 Construction processes
Quality control and workmanship are key risks to any
construction. Factors can be applied in design to compensate
for these risks, but increasingly complex structures will require
improvements in assembly to overcome human error. Off-site
Civil Engineering

manufacturing, three-dimensional printing and robots have

developed to an extent where application in the construction
industry is feasible. This is primarily driven by commercial
investment, skills shortages, reduced transport costs and concerns
over health and safety. However, it does offer an opportunity
to undertake research into the expected enhancement in the
improvements to the structures. Optimisation becomes feasible.
For example, producing beams shaped to optimise material use
leading to material reduction is now feasible provided the building
performance is fully understood.
Construction is a manufacturing process in which most projects
are prototypes, even though they are assembled from elements that
have been optimised both in design and manufacture because of
their repeatability. Off-site manufacture has the potential to improve
quality, reduce times for construction and improve safety because it
is possible to implement optimised manufacturing processes. These
processes, together with lean construction, could be applied to onsite construction.
to be more resilient and multi-functional. Through observation

and intervention, the concept of infinite life performance can be
realised to cope with degradation, adaption and reuse.
5.5 Building performance

A building is a system; therefore, to truly capitalise on its
components it should be considered as a whole the structure, the
fabric, the utilities as well as the function. This is currently subdivided
such that components of a building are often considered in isolation.
For example, the foundation provides a stable base upon which
to build a structure, yet the foundation and structure interact.
The distribution of loads within a structure, the response of the
structure to movement of the foundations and the impact of the
load on the foundations are not fully understood. Therefore,
greater use of instrumentation to monitor actual performance,
leading to a database which can be interrogated for future
projects, should lead to improvements in design. This will be
facilitated by building information modelling (BIM), although
an understanding of the risks associated with this has yet to be
resolved. Instrumentation and data capture are now a commercial
reality such that project instrumentation could become standard,
although, unless there is some direct benefit to the industry,
it may prove impossible unless made mandatory through the
specification or law.
Thus, instrumentation in itself will become a commercial tool,
allowing research to focus on the interpretation of the data leading
to improved modelling and enhanced design. Evidence of this is
emerging from the EPSRC/TSB IKC grant held by Cambridge
(Mair, 2011) and programme grants held by Birmingham
(Rogers,2013).
5.6 Smart buildings
The impact of the digital world in the built environment is
increasingly being recognised as an opportunity to realise fully
the capacity and capability of the environment, to improve its
operation, to minimise interventions, to focus interventions and to
improve future design. Thecost and design of sensors is such that it
is now possible to install them during construction, thus providing
greater insight into how the built environment performs at all levels
and how it impacts on human behaviour and life.
Further, the built environment can be seen as a living organism
that adapts to its environment, and makes greater use of the intrinsic
properties of the materials and elements that create the environment
5.7 Asset management

The built environment has a value which is continuously being
updated through maintenance and adaption. It can last several
generations and is fundamentally important for the health, wealth
and well-being of society. Therefore, in addition to its capital value,
it also has cultural and economic value. Inorder to realise the true
value of the built environment it is necessary to appreciate current
capacity and capability, and establish the remaining life at that
capacity and capability.
Extending the capacity and capability is feasible through
maintenance and adaption. Changes in regulations, use, technology and
the environment require a reassessment of capacity and capability if the
value of the existing built environment is going to be fully realised.
Building performance is inextricably linked to asset management
which aims to extend the life of the asset, intervene before failure
occurs and realise the full value of the asset. Therefore, performance
monitoring extends to predicting lifetime performance and capacity
remaining at the end of life for re-use.
5.8 Intervention
Interventions, either planned (e.g. change of use) or unplanned
(e.g. minor catastrophes leading to reduced capacity), inevitably
affect the structural performance and the value of the structure.
Unplanned interventions occur when materials or elements fail to
function. Treating the structure as a system enables preventative
measures to be in place through an early warning system.
Planned interventions can be optimised to achieve change and
add value while minimising cost, carbon and impact. This clinical
approach to manage the asset, enhance the asset and repair the asset
should lead to a reduction in costs and carbon. Further, a reduction
in the number of interventions leads to improved benefit from the
existing structure and a reduction of risk in altering the structures
performance unnecessarily.
5.9 Decarbonisation
In order to meet the 2050 carbon dioxide emissions targets (an
80% reduction from 1990 levels), much of the built environment
has to be adapted. Hence, adaption not only applies to change of use
and dealing with environmental changes, but also decarbonisation.
In order to decarbonise existing buildings, it will be necessary
to change the buildings operating environment. This requires
modification to the building structure and the environment in which
the building functions. Forexample, increasing insulation can lead
to thermal stresses across building elements; adding solar collectors
on roofs adds structural load. Therefore, studies into retrofit
(upgrading) as well as refurbishment (renovation) are required.
Changes to infrastructure to reduce energy use will require
changes to the operating systems, but may also require a change
to the underlying structure. Therefore, decarbonising the existing
environment will focus on energy reduction, increased use and
retrofit. Reducing the carbon dioxide emissions of new construction
will focus on materials, optimisation, form, energy and water
demand in construction and operation. Carbon dioxide emissions,
energy and water requirements will become design criteria.
47
Civil Engineering
Buildings and infrastructure can generate and store energy in

a variety of ways. They are solar collectors, heat exchangers and
moving objects. For example, a road surface is a solar collector
which can store energy in the underlying subgrade. Therefore,
using existing and new structures as energy generators and stores
reduces the imported energy requirement.
5.10 Adaption
Changes in technology, regulations, user requirements and
degradation set against the design life of the built environment have
led to a continuing need to adapt the built environment. UKtransport
infrastructure, for example, has gone through a number of phases
from tracks to waterways to railways to modern highways driven
by user requirements and technology. These networks having been
adapted to cope with change. Therefore, realising the value of the
existing built environment, decarbonisation and climate change
require the existing environment to be adapted and new build to be
adaptable.
6. Conclusions
The EPSRC review of geotechnical and structural engineering
occurred at the same time as the political recognition of the
value of economic infrastructure. The commercial realisation of
instrumentation, data capture and interpretation and modelling
are occurring at the same time as the grand challenges of climate
change, resource security and scarcity, a growing population
combined with a changing demographic, and growing urbanisation
are impacting on the built environment.
It is the background to a partnership created with the support of
EPSRC to identify the research that the geotechnical and structural
engineering academic community needs to address. A series of
workshops involving delegates from consultants, contractors,
clients, research organisations and universities led to ten themes:
hazards, understanding material behaviour, paradigm shift in design,
construction processes, building performance, smart buildings,
asset management, intervention, decarbonisation and adaption.
One parallel outcome of these discussions was the
announcement in March 2015 by the UK government of a 138
million investment in the UK Collaboratorium for Research in
Infrastructure and Cities. This is to provide leadership and support
for the development and growth of a coordinated and coherent,
world-class, UK-based national infrastructure research community.
It will engage academia, industry and citizens in a joint venture
that drives innovation and value creation. This demonstrates the
increasing importance of the need for research in infrastructure and
construction.
Acknowledgements
This paper could not have been produced without the
contribution of over 100 experts from academia, industry, research
organisations and clients including government. The authors are
extremely grateful for the time and effort that their organisations
contributed, recognising the importance of this fundamental
question.
48

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CIVIL ENGINEERING EDITORIAL PANEL

Andrew Martin, BEng, MSt, CEng, MICE,MIStructE, COWI A/S,

ICE Specialist Engineering Journals

EDITORIAL: FEBRUARY 2016

Welcome to the February issue of Civil Engineering, the

With ongoing advances in computing power, monitoring

Civil engineers: shaping ourselves and our world

ICE Publishing: All rights reserved

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS: JOHN ARMITT

Civil engineers: shaping

innovated and collaborated to create a

nineteenth century. It was initially

Learning from the past

Civil engineers: shaping ourselves and our world

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS: JOHN ARMITT

Meeting societys challenges

members. The application of knowledge

be funded, built and operated by the

Civil engineers: shaping ourselves and our world

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS: JOHN ARMITT

Gaining political support

Figure 3. Olympic Delivery Authority

ICE can play an important role in

decommission the systems. They have a

Civil engineers: shaping ourselves and our world

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS: JOHN ARMITT

Establishing the commission was a bold

and their profession include opening

Civil engineers: shaping ourselves and our world

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS: JOHN ARMITT

housing. If the traditional professions

Strive to ensure that procurement

As designers and contractors, civil

Civil engineers: shaping ourselves and our world

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS: JOHN ARMITT

The civil engineering industry needs

Shaping the world

leaders that I believe illustrates my

New IET president calls for engineering

ICE Publishing: All rights reserved

Civil engineers: shaping ourselves and our world