I-P CFD Application Examples

CFD APPLICATION EXAMPLES
Supplement to Ch. 13, Indoor Environmental Modeling, of the 2013 ASHRAE HandbookFundamentals
Example 1: Air Distribution in an Exhibition Hall

The Danish Pavilion at the EXPO 92 World Exhibition was equipped with a special air distribution system, which was tested by
two-dimensional CFD predictions (Figure E1A). The pavilion consisted of two main elements: a steel-framed structure facing west,
with a floor area of 148 by 8 ft and a height of 79 ft, and a fiberglass construction facing east, which leaned against the steel structure.
The large room formed between the fiberglass surface and the steel building was enclosed by glass walls to north and south.
The occupied zone design load was 13.6 tons, corresponding to 300 people in the pavilion. Equipment for slides and video
generated another 37 tons, which was expected to rise in convective flows and cause a high temperature in the upper part of the
pavilion.
The ventilation systems premise was to use an exhaust fan in the north top of the exhibition hall (smoke ventilation) and cooling
elements in the south gable (Figure E1B). Air was drawn through the cooling elements, where it was cooled and then sank to the
floor. The downdraft from the 40 ft high diffuser could be estimated using CFD predictions.
(A)
Fig. E1
(B)
(A) Danish Pavilion at World Exposition EXPO 92 in Seville and (B) Cooling Elements in South Gable of Danish
Pavilion
The room had a complicated geometry, but two-dimensional prediction was used to get preliminary results. The focus was
especially aimed at draft in the occupied zone and the ability to obtain stratified flow with a large vertical temperature gradient, which
prevented heated air from the upper part of the room from reaching the occupied zone.
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Figure E2 shows the results of a simulation when the occupied-zone load was 8.56 Btu/hft and the load in the upper part of the
room was 95.1 Btu/hft. Velocity in the occupied zone was restricted to 1.3 to 1.6 fps, which was high compared to that in an ordinary
room, but was acceptable in an exhibition pavilion. Thermal stratification was generated in the room, and heat emission from slides
and video equipment was maintained in the upper part of the room (Nielsen 1995).
ThisfileislicensedtoBrianWong(bwong@blackandmcdonald.com).ASHRAEHandbookOnlinesubscriptionisforindividualuse.CopyrightASHRAE.
CFD Application Examples
Fig. E2 Velocity and Temperature Distribution in Exhibition Pavilion

Velocity is shown by vectors, and temperature by shading. Real dimensions of room are indicated by black-and-white line.
Detailed predictions could have been made at a later stage in the design process, but scale-model experiments were used in
this case. Figure E3 shows that the initial 2D predictions were in sufficient agreement with results from the model experiments in a
detailed model.
Fig. E3
Maximum Velocity in Occupied Zone Given by Two-Dimensional CFD Predictions

and Detailed Scale-Model Experiments
Example 2: Air Distribution in a Library

This example is based on Nielsen and Tryggvasons (1998) work, which combined CFD and building energy performance
simulation (BEPS) programs.
A 170-room library was ventilated partly by a constant-air-volume (CAV) system and partly by a variable-air-volume (VAV)
system. Most rooms were heated by radiators, but the main hall was heated by the air-conditioning system.
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The main library hall was connected with large openings to two other rooms, as shown in Figure E4. Figure E5 shows the library
hall as zone 1 (Z1), and the two other rooms as zones 2 (Z2) and 3 (Z3). Zones 2 and 3 were vertically connected, and zones 1 and 2
and zones 1 and 3 were horizontally connected. All three zones were equipped with supply and return openings for individual air
distribution in the different spaces. Pressure and temperature differences induced an air movement between the three zones, and this
movement was in certain situations supported by thermal flow from radiators in zone 2 below the vertical opening to zone 3.
Fig. E5
Fig. E4
Section Through Library Hall (Z1) and

Two Other Zones (Z2 and Z3)
Library Hall and Openings
The buildings energy consumption was calculated by a BEPS program, which was unable to predict flow between zones 1, 2,
and 3 as a function of the pressure and temperature distribution in the zones. It was assumed, as an initial guess, that energy flow
between the zones was low and therefore unimportant.
Figure E6 shows temperature development in the three zones during a week in June (week 23) when the building was loaded
according to the reference year. The library hall (zone 1) was heated by solar radiation through skylights, and at times the hall
reached a temperature level 14.4F above that in the surrounding zones. This temperature difference induced energy flow between
the zones, making it necessary to extend the program to include information on the air movement in the open connections in the
building.
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Fig. E6
Temperature Development in Zones 1, 2, and 3 During Week 23

No air exchange between zones was assumed.
Flow between zones 1, 2, and 3 was found from CFD predictions of all three zones. Different situations during the reference
year were selected for this analysis. Boundary conditions for energy flow were obtained by the BEPS program, based on given values
of the heat transfer coefficient. The boundary conditions could also have been given as a temperature distribution, but it was difficult
to make an accurate prediction of the heat transfer coefficient with the wall functions in a CFD program (Chen and Jiang 1992;
Nielsen 1998).
The final solution required iteration between the BEPS and CFD programs, because a change in airflow between the three zones
changed the temperature level and energy flow in the surrounding surfaces.
Figure E7 shows the stages of iteration. The initial BEPS predictions were made without air exchange between the zones 1, 2,
and 3. Then, a CFD computation was used to determine the air exchange values, which were introduced into the BEPS program to
generate new energy flows at the zone surfaces. The CFD program then computed new air exchanges between the three zones
based on the updated energy flow inputs. Iteration continued until the difference in airflows from one iteration to the next was below
5%.
Fig. E7
Flow Chart Showing Iterations Between BEPS and CFD Programs
Figure E8 shows temperature development in the three zones during week 23 when air exchange was considered. Airflow
between the zones decreased both the temperature differences between the zones and the temperature level in the library hall. The
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highest temperature difference between any of the zones was only 5.4F, compared to 14.4F found without air exchange between
the zones. The highest-quality energy consumption calculations must presumably be those obtained by considering air exchange
between the different open zones.
Fig. E8
Temperature Development in Zones 1, 2, and 3 During Week 23

Air exchange between zones obtained by CFD prediction.
Air quality evaluation in the library hall was also based on CFD predictions. The prediction was made for a geometry
corresponding to the halls layout, including bookcases in the occupied zone but without zones 2 and 3. The effect of these zones
was introduced by flow rates and temperatures through vertical surfaces in the hall.
Indoor air quality problems were noticed during winter because the library hall was heated by the ventilation system, and
supply air seemed to bypass the occupied zone because of buoyancy. Figure E9 shows air distribution in the hall on January 8
at 11:00 AM. The heated jets (9662 cfm, 90.5F) rose and generated radial flow below the ceiling. Air moved down in the corners
of the hall because three of the corners were without supply openings. Flow in the bottom left corner of the figure was from zone
2, which in this situation supplied air to the occupied zone at 4386 cfm and 65.5F. Flow in the top left corner of the figure was
partly cold downdraft from a glazed area in this corner, and partly induced flow from the upper part of the building. Velocity was
very low in the main part of the occupied zone, which corresponded to low ventilation efficiency in this area of the hall.
Fig. E9
Air Movement and Concentration Distribution at Floor Level (0.8 ft) in Library Hall
Moreover, a pollutant concentration distribution was predicted for a situation where the low surfaces in the hall were the sources
of a pollutant. The maximum concentration cP/cR in the occupied zone had a level of 2.05, which corresponded to a local ventilation
index p of 0.49 (cP was the concentration in the air and cR was the mean concentration in the return openings). The average
concentration in the occupied zone, coc/cR, was 1.3, which corresponded to a mean ventilation efficiency of 0.77. This was not high,
and it can be reasoned that recirculation in the ventilation system would further decrease the level of fresh air in the occupied zone.
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Example 3: Conference Room Ventilation

Use CFD to compare displacement and mixed ventilation for ventilating a conference room for design conditions of 75F at 5 ft
above the floor.
The conference room (Figure E10) was 14 by 20 ft with a 10 ft ceiling. Ten occupants were positioned around a 5 by 10 ft
conference table, giving a total heat source of 850 W. The lighting load was 384 W, and total supply airflow rate for each design was
300 cfm. The room was in the interior of a building, and the door was closed.
Fig. E10
Conference Room Layout (Walls and Ceiling Hidden for Clarity)
For mixed ventilation, air was supplied by a single 2 by 2 ft square diffuser with a circular throw pattern and a 8 in. supply duct.
For displacement ventilation, air was supplied by two identical corner displacement diffusers that were 9 by 9 by 30 in. Both diffusers
were modeled using the momentum method summarized in ASHRAE Research Project RP-1009 (Chen and Srebric 2000).
Modeling Decisions
Symmetry was not used because the mixed ventilation case was asymmetric (because of the position of the return), and the
displacement ventilation case was symmetric only about the diagonal.
The incompressible Navier-Stokes equations were solved using the Boussinesq approximation that accounted for density variations
with temperature.
Direct heating of the air by lighting was assumed to be 50% of the total heat load, and was added uniformly to the air immediately
below the lights. The remaining reradiated heat load was added uniformly to the air immediately above the floor and table.
The LVEL k- turbulence model was used. This model uses an algebraic model (LVEL) to estimate the enhanced heat and
momentum transport near solid objects and the standard k- model in the bulk fluid.
The mixed and displacement ventilation cases contained 256,000 and 171,000 total grid cells, respectively (Figure E11). A
Cartesian grid was used, with several localized regions of finer grid located in regions of greater geometrical detail and/or steep
gradients. (The mixed-ventilation case included two nested grid regions around the diffuser.)
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Fig. E11
Computational Grids (Some Objects Hidden for Clarity)
Radiation heat transfer was not accounted for; this can cause overprediction of buoyant thermal plume strength from occupants and
the amount of temperature stratification from floor to ceiling, because radiative exchange between the cool floor and the surrounding
walls is neglected. However, the example is still useful in showing many aspects of typical CFD analysis.
Results. Airflow patterns (Figure E12) reveal the fundamental differences between the two ventilation schemes. The
displacement system supplied relatively low-velocity air over a much greater area. Thus, airflow was driven primarily by buoyancy
forces associated with heat sources in the room. In contrast, the mixed ventilation system supplied relatively high-momentum airflow,
resulting in several distinct jets along the ceiling and good mixing in the room.
Fig. E12
Airflow Patterns
Because the heat load and air volume were identical in each case, the temperature difference between supply and extract was
identical (13F) as well. With iteration, the supply air temperatures required to meet the design condition were found to be 62 and
66F. Displacement ventilation produced a more stratified temperature distribution (Figure F13) and a higher return temperature,
which would have possibly yielded a higher efficiency from the air handler. Mixed ventilation produced more uniform temperatures
throughout the room.
The predicted percentage dissatisfied (PPD) (Fanger 1972; Lin et al. 1992) (Figure E14) further highlights the differences between
the two schemes. The mixed ventilation system yielded a more uniformly conditioned space, whereas the displacement ventilation
system delivered a comfortable environment only in the occupied portion of the room.
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Fig. E13
Fig. E14
Temperature
Predicted Percent Dissatisfied
Figures E15 to E17 show a similar procedure for a collegiate ice rink. Figures E18 to E20 present ventilation for a
pharmaceutical laboratory. Natural ventilation for fire and smoke management is modeled in Figures E21 to E23. Figures E24 to E27
illustrate airflow paths, velocity vectors, and relative humidity for an auditorium.
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Fig. E15
Fig. E16
Computational Mesh for Ice Rink
Plan View of Airflow Patterns from Supply Diffusers on Either Side of Arena in Ice Rink
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Fig. E17
Contours of Local Air Temperature and Predicted Percent Dissatisfied (PPD) on Vertical Plane in Ice Rink
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Fig. E18
Fig. E19
Plan View of Laboratory and Ventilation Flow Rates
Three-Dimensional Iso Surface Showing Regions in Laboratory Where Ventilation

Effectiveness Is Less Than 0.8
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Fig. E20
Flow Pathlines from Supply Diffuser and Plane Immediately in Front of Fume Hood
Fig. E21
End View of Unstructured Hexahedral Computational Mesh on Vertical Plane
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Fig. E22
Flow Paths from Fire Region and Contours of Smoke Concentration on Vertical Plane
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Fig. E23 Transient Contours of Smoke Concentration Along Tunnel Centerline

Initial bidirectional smoke spreading eventually became unidirectional because of tunnel grade.
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Fig. E24
Fig. E25
Computational Mesh for Auditorium
Flow Pathlines from Displacement Diffusers Shaded by Local Air Temperature in Auditorium
15
Fig. E26
Local Airflow Velocity Vectors on Vertical Plane Through Center of Auditorium
Fig. E27
Contours of Relative Humidity on Vertical Plane Through Center of Auditorium
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CFD APPLICATION EXAMPLES

Example 1: Air Distribution in an Exhibition Hall

CFD Application Examples

Fig. E2 Velocity and Temperature Distribution in Exhibition Pavilion

Maximum Velocity in Occupied Zone Given by Two-Dimensional CFD Predictions

Example 2: Air Distribution in a Library

CFD Application Examples

Section Through Library Hall (Z1) and

Library Hall and Openings

CFD Application Examples

Temperature Development in Zones 1, 2, and 3 During Week 23

Flow Chart Showing Iterations Between BEPS and CFD Programs

CFD Application Examples

Temperature Development in Zones 1, 2, and 3 During Week 23

CFD Application Examples

Example 3: Conference Room Ventilation

Conference Room Layout (Walls and Ceiling Hidden for Clarity)

CFD Application Examples

Computational Grids (Some Objects Hidden for Clarity)

CFD Application Examples

Predicted Percent Dissatisfied

CFD Application Examples

Computational Mesh for Ice Rink

CFD Application Examples

CFD Application Examples

Plan View of Laboratory and Ventilation Flow Rates

Three-Dimensional Iso Surface Showing Regions in Laboratory Where Ventilation

CFD Application Examples

End View of Unstructured Hexahedral Computational Mesh on Vertical Plane

CFD Application Examples

CFD Application Examples

Fig. E23 Transient Contours of Smoke Concentration Along Tunnel Centerline

CFD Application Examples

Computational Mesh for Auditorium

CFD Application Examples

Local Airflow Velocity Vectors on Vertical Plane Through Center of Auditorium

Contours of Relative Humidity on Vertical Plane Through Center of Auditorium

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