Chapter 2 Bio Honours Outline

The nature of matter

Atoms

Atom- the basic unit of matter

The smallest fragment something could be cut into without changing it

into something else is called an atom

Atoms are made up of subatomic particles

The three subatomic particles that make up an atom are: Electron

neutron and proton

Protons and Neutrons

Nuclease- The center of an atom

Protons and neutrons make up the nucleus

Protons are positive and neutrons are neutral

Electrons

Electron- a negatively charged particle

Remain outside of the nucleus because of their motion

Balance out the atoms by canceling the protons

Elements and isotopes

Element- a pure substance that is made up of 1 type of atom

The atomic number of an element is also the amount of protons it

contains

About 24 elements are commonly found in living things

Isotopes

Isotopes- atoms that have more or less neutrons then protons

Atomic mass measure the mass of the atom depending on how many
neutrons it has

Because they have the same number of electrons, all isotopes of an

element have the same chemical properties

Radioactive isotopes

Some isotopes have unstable nuclei

Important for scientific and practical use

Used by geologist for carbon dating

Chemical compounds

Compound- a substance formed by at least 2 different elements

Scientist show the chemical compound in a chemical formula

The physical and chemical properties of a compound are usually very

different from which it is formed.

Sodium chloride is a good example

Chemical Bonds

Atoms in compounds are held together by multiple types of chemical

bonds

Valence electrons are electrons that are able to form a bond

The main types of chemical bonds are ionic bonds and covalent bonds

Ionic bonds

Ionic bond- formed when one or more electrons are transferred from
one atom to another

Ions- positively and negatively charged atoms

When an atom gains an electron it becomes negative when it loses one

it becomes positive

Covalent bonds

Covalent bond- when electrons are shared by atoms

There are single double and triple bonds depending on how many
electrons they share

Molecule- the smallest unit of most compounds

Van der Waals forces

The sharing in a covalent bond isnt always equal

When molecules get closer slight attractions can happen

Van Der Waals Forces- the unequal sharing of molecules

Properties of water

The water molecule

Polarity

Oxygen molecules share the electrons un evenly

Water has a partially negative charge on one end and two positively on
the other ends

Its called a polar molecule because it has 2 partial charges one

negative and one positive

Hydrogen bonding

Hydrogen bonding- attraction between hydrogen and oxygen or any

negative charges

Because water is a polar molecule, it is able to form multiple hydrogen

bonds, which accounts for many of waters special properties

Cohesion- an attraction between molecules of the same substance

Adhesion- an attraction between molecules of a different substance

Heat capacity is when it can slowly heat up

Solutions and suspensions

Mixture- a material composed of two or more elements or compounds

thats not chemically combined

The two types of mixtures that can be created with water are solutions
and suspensions

Solutions

Solution- evenly distributed throughout the solutions

Solute- the substance that is dissolved

Solvent- the substance in which solute dissolves in

Waters polarity gives it the ability to dissolve both ionic compounds

and other polar molecules

Suspension

Suspensions- non dissolvable materials

Cells are suspensions

The movement of water molecules keeps small particles suspended

Acids bases and pH

Water molecules can split apart to form ions

1/550000000 water molecules become ions

Pure water is neutral

The pH scale

Ph Scale- a measurement system to indicate the concentration of h+

ions in the solution

The range of the pH scale is from 0-14

Acids<7=neutral<bases

Every 1 number of the pH scale represents ten times more so from 5 to

4 it becomes ten times stronger of an acid from 8 to 9 it becomes ten

times stronger of a base

Acids

Acids- any compounds that forms h+ ions in solution

Contain higher concentrate of h+

1-3 are considered strong acids

Bases

Base- a compound that produces hydroxide ions in solution

Contain lower concentrates of h+

Strong bases are 11-14

Buffers

The pH level of most cells must be between 6.5 and 7.5

Buffer- weak acid or base that will react with a strong acid or base to
prevent sharp sudden changes in pH

Buffers dissolved in lifes fluids play an important role in maintaining

homeostasis in organisms

Carbon Compound

The chemistry of carbon

Carbon have 4 valence electrons

Carbon can bond to itself

Carbon can bond with many elements including hydrogen oxygen

phosphorus sulfur and nitrogen to form the molecules of life.

They can be single double or triple covalent bond

Macromolecules

Macromolecules are giant molecules

Monomers- smaller units that make up polymers

Polymers- larger units made by many monomers

Major 4 macromolecules are lipids carbohydrates nucleic acid and

proteins

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates- compounds made up of hydrogen carbon and oxygen

atoms

Living things use carbohydrates as their main source of energy. Plants,

some animals, and other organisms also use carbohydrates for

structural purposes.

Monosaccharaides- single sugar molecules, monomer of a

carbohydrate

Complex carbohydrates, or polysaccharides are called glycogen,

sometimes animal starch, when glucose level run low in your blood
then glycogen is broken down into glucose to give you energy

What plants used is called starch

Lipids

Lipids- made mostly from carbon and hydrogen atoms

Lipids can be used to store energy. Some lipids are important parts of
biological membranes and waterproof covering

Lipids are often formed when fatty acids and glycerol are combined

Saturated means that the fatty acids have the highest possible amount
of hydrogen atoms

If it has 1 double bond it is called unsaturated and if it has more than 1

double bond then it is called polyunsaturated

Nucleic acids

Nucleic acids- macromolecules containing hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,

carbon, and phosphorus

Nucleotides- consist of three parts: 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group,

and nitrogenous base; they are monomers of nucleic acids

Nucleic acids are responsible for transmitting hereditary genes

There are two types of nucleic acids DNA and RNA

Proteins

Proteins- macromolecules that contain nitrogen as well as carbon,

hydrogen, and oxygen.

Amino acids- are compounds with an amino group on one end and
carboxyl group on the other end

Some proteins control the rate of reactions and regulate cell processes.
Others form important cellular structures, while still others transport
substances into or out of cells or help to fight disease.

There are more than 20 different natural amino acids

Uniformity allows them all to bond

Proteins primary structure is the sequence of its amino acids

Chemical reactions and enzymes

Chemical reactions

Chemical reaction- process that changes one set of chemicals into

another.

Reactant- element or compound that enters into a chemical reaction

Product- element or compound produced by a chemical reaction.

Chemical reaction involve changes in the chemical bonds that join

atoms in compounds

Energy in reactions

Energy changes

A reaction can release or absorb energy

Chemical reactions that release energy often occur on their own, or

spontaneously. Chemical reactions that absorb energy will not occur
without a source of energy

Water can release energy by being turned into water and can consume
energy to split up the water

Energy sources

Organism need to carry out reactions that require energy to stay alive

Plants can get their energy from the sunlight by capturing and storing
it

Animals get their energy from consuming plants or animals

Activation energy

Chemical reactions dont occur spontaneously most of the time

Activation energy- the energy that is needed for a reaction to start

Activation energy is needed weather its an energy absorbing or

releasing reaction

Enzymes

Catalyst- a substance that speeds up the rate of a chemical reaction,

they work by lowering the activation energy

Natures catalysts

Enzymes- proteins that act as a biological catalyst

Enzymes speed up chemical reactions that take place in cells.

Like other catalysts enzymes lower the activation energy

Our bloodstream contains an enzyme call carbonic anhydrase which

speeds up the process of making carbonic acid by 10 million times.

Enzymes are very specific and generally only reacting with a certain
type of material

The Enzyme-Substrate complex

To cause a chemical reactions the reactant must collide with enough

energy so that existing bonds will be broken and new ones will be
formed

Enzymes allow reactants to be brought together and form a reaction

Substrate- reactant of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction

The reactant and substrate have to have complementary shapes that

are very precise

Regulation of enzyme activity

Enzymes are essential for controlling chemical pathway, making

materials that cells need, releasing energy, and transferring
information.

Temperature, pH, and regulatory molecules can affect the activity of

enzymes

Enzymes produced by humans work best at 37c (temp. of human body)