Solution of the Vibration Equations

It was shown in the preceding chapter that the application of Newton's second

law to study the motion of physical systems leads to second-order ordinary

differential equations. The coefficients of the accelerations, velocities, and
displacements in these differential equations represent physical parameters
such as inertia, damping, and restoring elastic forces. These coefficients not
only have a significant effect on the response of the mechanical and structural
systems, but they also affect the stability as well as the speed of response of
the system to a given excitation. Changes in these coefficients may result in a
stable or unstable system, and/or an oscillatory or nonoscillatory system.
In order to examine, understand, and analyze the behavior of physical
systems, we will attempt first to solve the differential equations that govern the
vibration of these systems. In this chapter the interest will be focused on
solving the following differential equation
(2.1)

In the linear theory of vibration, a 1 , a 2 , and a 3 are constant coefficients that

represent, respectively, the inertia, damping, and stiffness coefficients. The
variable x represents the displacement, xis the velocity, and x is the acceleration. The first and second time derivatives of the variable x are given by
.

dx
dt'

x=-

(2.2)

The right-hand side of Eq. 1, denoted as f(t), represents a forcing function

which may depend on time t. If the forcing functionf(t) is not equal to zero,
Eq. 1 is described as a linear, nonhomogeneous, second-order ordinary differential equation with constant coefficients. The homogeneous differential equations, in which f(t) = 0, correspond to the case of free vibration. In the case
of undamped vibration, the coefficient a2 of the velocity x is identically zero.
In the following sections we present methods for obtaining solutions for both
homogeneous and nonhomogeneous differential equations.

33

34

2. Solution of the Vibration Equations

2.1

HOMOGENEOUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

In this section, techniques for solving linear, homogeneous, second-order

differential equations with constant coefficients are discussed. Whenever the
right-hand side of Eq. 1 is identically zero, that is,
f(t)

(2.3)

0,

the equation is called a homogeneous differential equation. In this case, Eq.

1 reduces to
(2.4)

By a solution to Eq. 4 we mean a function x(t) which, with its derivatives,

satisfies the differential equation. A solution to Eq. 4 can be obtained by trial
and error. A trial solution is to assume the function x(t) in the following form
(2.5)

x(t) = Ae pt

where A and P are constants to be determined. Differentiating Eq. 5 with

respect to time yields
(2.6)
x(t) = pAe pt
x(t)

p2 Ae pt

Substituting Eqs. 5-7 into Eq. 4 leads to

aIP2 Aept

+ a2pAePt + a3 AePt =

(2.7)

that is,
(2.8)

Note that e pt is not equal to zero for all values of time t. Also, if the constant A
is equal to zero, this implies, from Eq. 5, that x(t) is equal to zero, which is the
case of a trivial solution. Therefore, for Eq. 8 to be satisfied for a nontrivial
x(t), one must have
(2.9)

This is called the characteristic equation ofthe second-order differential equation. Equation 9 has two roots PI and P2 which can be determined from the
quadratic formula as
(2.10)

(2.11)

Accordingly, we have the following two independent solutions

xl(t) = A I eP1l

(2.12)

and
(2.13)

2.1. Homogeneous Differential Equations

35

The general solution of the differential equation can then be written as th~
sum of these two independent solutions, provided that the roots of the characteristic equation are not equal, that is,
(2.14)

The complete solution of the second-order ordinary differential equations

contains two arbitrary constants Al and A 2 These arbitrary constants can
be determined from the initial conditions, as discussed in later sections.
Clearly, the solution of the differential equation depends on the roots Pl
and P2 of the characteristic equation. There are three different cases for the
roots Pl and P2' In the first case, in which Pl and P2 are real numbers and
Pl =F P2, one has a~ > 4ala3' In vibration systems, this case corresponds to
the case in which the damping coefficient is relatively high, and for this reason,
the system is said to be overdamped. If a~ = 4a l a3, the roots Pl and P2 are real
numbers and Pl = P2, and the system is said to be critically damped. In the
third case, a~ < 4al a3, and the roots Pl and P2 are complex conjugates. This is
the case in which the damping coefficient is relatively small. In this case, the
system is said to be underdamped. In the following, these three different cases
are discussed in more detail.
Real Distinct Roots This is the case in which the following inequality is

satisfied
(2.15)

In this case, the quantity

distinct, that is,

J a~ -

4a l a3 is real and the roots Pl and P2 are

(2.16)

Therefore, we have two independent solutions and the complete solution is

the sum of two exponential functions and is given by
(2.17)

If both Pl and P2 are positive, the solution x(t) will be exponentially increasing
with time. If both roots are negative, the solution x(t) will be exponentially

decreasing with time, and the rate of decay and growth will depend on the
magnitude of Pl and P2' Another possibility is that one root, say Pl, is
positive and the other root P2 is negative.
Example 2.1

Find the solution of the following homogeneous second-order ordinary differential

equation
x - 4i + 3x = 0
Solution.

Assume a solution in the form

x(t) = Ae pt

36

2. Solution of the Vibration Equations

Substituting this solution into the differential equation yields
p2 Ae pt

That is,

+ 3AeP' = 0

4pAe P'

(p2 _ 4p

+ 3)AePt

;=

The characteristic equation can then be defined as

p2 -4p

+3=0

That is,
(p - 1)(P - 3)

=0

The roots PI and P2 are then given by

PI = 1

and

pz

=3

There are two independent solutions Xl (t) and X2(t) given by

Xl (t) = A l e P11 = AIe'

x 2(t)

= A 2e = A 2e
Pzt

31

The solutions Xl (t) and X2(t) are shown in Fig. 1. The complete solution is the sum
of the two solutions, that is,
x(t);= xl(t)

+ Xz(t);=

Ale'

+ A ze 3t

25.0

20.0

'"",

-g 15.0
<'d

e 3'1

. . vv

5.0

---

0.0
0.00

7
e'

~
0.25

0.50

0.75

Time (s)

FIG. 2.1. Independent solutions.

1.00

2.1. Homogeneous Differential Equations

37

5.0

r--0.0

r--

.........

1\

-5.0

-10.0

-15.0
0.00

0.75

0.50

0.25

\
1.00

Time (s)
FIG. 2.2. Complete solution (AI = 3, A2 = -1).

The complete solution depends on the constants Al and A2 which can be determined using the initial conditions. This solution is shown is Fig. 2 for the case
in which Al = 3 and A2 = -1.

Example 2.2

Find the solution of the following second-order differential equation

x+x-6x=O
Solution. We assume a solution in the follwing exponential form

x(t)

Aept

Substituting this solution into the differential equation leads to

p2 Aept

which can be written as

(P2

+ pAePt -

+P_

6Ae pt = 0

6)Aept = 0

The characteristic equation can then be defined as

p2

or

+P_

(p - 2) (p

6= 0

+ 3) =

That is,
PI = 2,

P2 = -3

38

2. Solution of the Vibration Equations

25.0

1//

20.0

15.0

~ 10.0

V
-:L ~=X1+X2
x

5.0

0.0

=A

e2t

'1 ~

x2

-- -- -- -

-5.0
0.00

0.25

= A 2 e- 3t

0.50

0.75

1.00

Time (8)

FIG. 2.3. Distinct real roots (AI = 3, A2 = -1).

The two independent solutions are then given by

XI(t) = A l e 2t
X2(t) = A 2e- 3t

and the complete solution is

x(t) = xl(t)

+ x 2(t) =

A l e 2t

+ A 2e- 3t

The independent solutions x I (t) and x 2(t), as well as the complete solution x(t), are
shown in Fig. 3 in the case in which Al = 3 and A2 = -l.
We observe from this and the preceding example that if the roots PI and P2 are
distinct and real, the solution is not oscillatory, but it can be represented as the sum
of exponential functions which increase or decrease with time.

Repeated Roots If the roots of the characteristic equation are real and
equal,
(2.18)
PI = P2

2.1. Homogeneous Differential Equations

39

This condition will be satisfied if the coefficients of the differential equation

satisfy the following equality
(2.19)

a~=4ala3

In this case, we have only one solution

xl(t)

= Ale P1t

(2.20)

From the theory of differential equations, it is shown that the complete

solution x(t) can be assumed in the following form
x(t)

= Xl (t)u(t)

(2.21)

where u(t) is a function that can be determined by substituting x(t) into the
original differential equation
alx

+ a2x + a3x =

(2.22)

Differentiating Eq. 21 with respect to time yields

x(t) = XI(t)U(t)
= [Plu
x(t)

+ XI(t)U(t) =

PIAlePltu(t)

+ AleP1tu(t)

+ u]Ale P1t

(2.23)

= [PIU + ii]Ale P1t + PI[PIU + u]Ale P1t

= [p~u

+ 2P l u + ii]Ale P1t

(2.24)

Substituting Eqs. 21, 23, and 24 into Eq. 22 yields

al(p~u

+ 2P l u + ii)Ale P1t + a2(Plu + u)Ale P1t + a3uAlePlt = 0

That is,
or
alii

+ (2a1PI + a2)u + (aIP~ + a2PI + a3)u = 0

(2.25)

Using Eqs. 10 and 19, one can verify that the root PI is given by
a2
PI= - 2a l

(2.26)

Substituting this equation into Eq. 25 and using the identity ofEq. 19 one gets
ii=O

which, upon integration, yields

u = A2

+ A3t

(2.27)

where A2 and A3 are constants. The complete solution in the case of repeated
roots then can be written as
x(t) = x(t)u(t) = (A2

+ A3t)AlePlt

which can be rewritten as

(2.28)

40

2. Solution of the Vibration Equations

where the two arbitrary constants C 1 and C z can be determined from the initial
conditions.
Example 2.3

Find the complete solution of the following second-order ordinary differential

equation
x + 6,-( + 9x = 0
Solution.

We assume a solution in the form

x(t) = AeP'

Substituting this solution into the ordinary differential equation we obtain

+ 6pAeP' + 9AeP' = 0

pZ AeP'

or

+ 6p + 9)AeP' = 0

(pZ

The characteristic equation can then be defined as

pZ

+ 6p + 9 = 0

which can be written as

+ 3) (p + 3) = 0

(p

that is,
Pi = pz = -3

which is the case of repeated roots. In this case, the complete solution can be written

as
x(t)

= (c 1 + c zt)e- 3'

This solution is shown in Fig. 4. As in the case of real distinct roots, the solution is
not of oscillatory nature.

0.4

0.2

0.0

(\.

I \

0.0

1.0

'"

t'--

2.0

3.0

Time (8)

FIG. 2.4. Repeated roots (c i = 0, Cz > 0).

4.0

2.1. Homogeneous Differential Equations

41

Complex Conjugate Roots This is the case in which the coefficients of

the differential equation satisfy the inequality

(2.29)

In this case, we can write

Ja~ - 4a Ia 3

J -(4a Ia 3

aD

iJ4a Ia3

a~

where i is the imaginary operator defined as

i =

J-=l

Let
(2.30)
Then the roots of Eqs. 10 and 11 can be written as
a2
1
PI = --2 + -2
ai
ai

J a2 2

4a Ia3 =

IX

.
+ zf3

(2.31)
(2.32)

That is, PI and P2 are complex conjugates. Since PI is not equal to P2' the
complete solution is the sum of two independent solutions and can be expressed as follows
(2.33)
where Al and A2 are constants.
Substituting Eqs. 31 and 32 into Eq. 33, one gets
x(t) = A Ie(a+i Pl t + A 2e(a-iPlt
=

eat(AleiPt

+ A 2e- iPt )

(2.34)

The complex exponential functions eiPt and e- iPt can be written in terms of
trigonometric functions using Euler's formulas which are given by

e i9

cos 0

+ i sin 0

(2.35)

e- iO

cos 0 - i sin 0

(2.36)

Using these identities with Eq. 34, one obtains

x(t)

+ i sinf3t) + A2(COSf3t - i sinf3t)]

+ A 2) cosf3t + i(AI - A 2) sinf3t]

eat[A I (cosf3t

e at [(AI

(2.37)

Since the displacement x(t) must be real, the coefficients of the sine and cosine
functions in the above equations must be real. This will be the case if and only

42

2. Solution of the Vibration Equations

if Al and A2 are complex conjugates. In this case,

+ A2 =

C1

i(AI - A 2 ) =

C2

Al

where C1 and
written as

C2

are constants. The complete solution of Eq. 37 can then be

x(t) = e"'t[cl cospt

+ C2 sinptJ

(2.38)

The constants C 1 and C2 can be determined from the initial conditions. Note
that the solution x(t) is of an oscillatory nature, since it is the product of the
exponential function e"'t and the harmonic functions cos pt and sin pt.
The solution x(t) given by Eq. 38 can also be expressed in another simple
form. To this end, let

x = Jci + c~

One can write x(t) as

x(t) = Xe"'t [ CxcosPt

1

2
]
+ cxsmpt

(2.39)

As shown in Fig. 5, we define the angle t/J such that

t/J=tan
It follows that

sint/J =

i,

-1 C 1

(2.40)

c2
C2

(2.41)

cost/J = X

Substituting Eq. 41 into Eq. 39 yields

x(t) = Xe"'t[sint/J cospt

+ cost/J sinptJ

(2.42)

Recall the following trigonometric identity

sin t/J cos pt

FIG.

+ cos t/J sin pt =

sin(pt

+ t/J)

2.5. Definition of the phase angle 1/>.

(2.43)

2.1. Homogeneous Differential Equations

43

By using this identity, Eq. 42 can be written as

x(t)

X eat sin(fJt

+ rjJ)

(2.44)

This form of the solution is useful in the analysis of the free vibration of
mechanical systems, and as in the preceding two cases, there are two arbitrary
constants, X and rjJ, which can be determined from the initial conditions. The
constant X is called the amplitude of displacement and the constant rjJ is called
the phase angle. Note that IX and fJ are known since they are functions of the
coefficients ai' a2 , and a 3 of the differential equation (see Eqs. 31 and 32).
Example 2.4

Find the complete solution of the following second-order ordinary differential

equation
5x + 2x + 50x = 0
We assume a solution in the form

Solution.

Substituting this solution into the differential equation we obtain

(5pZ

+ 2p + 50)Ae Pt = 0

The characteristic equation is then given by

5pz + 2p + 50

=0

which has the following roots

_

PI -

PZ

-az+)a~-4ala3_ -2+)4-4(5)(50)_ -02

-

2a l
-az -

)a~

- 4a 1a 3

2(5)

-2 -)4 - 4(5)(50)

2a l

3156'
+.
I

-0.2 _ 3.l56i

2(5)

The two roots, PI and pz, are complex conjugates, and the constants 0( and f3 can be
recognized as
0(

-0.2,

f3 = 3.156'

The complete solution is then given by Eq. 38 as

x(t)

= e-o.Zt[c l cos 3.156t + C z sin 3.1 56t]

or, equivalently, by Eq. 44 as

x(t)

= Xe- o.Zt sin(3.156t + 1/

where the constants C I and C2 or X and I/> can be determined from the initial
conditions. As shown in Fig. 6, the solution is of oscillatory nature with an amplitude that decreases with time. A system with this type of solution is said to be a
stable system.

44

2. Solution of the Vibration Equations

1.0

r\

0.0

-1.0
0.0

I~

\ I \ I 1\ / ~ . . . r-...."\ 7 '\ 7 '\ J ."V

IJ
1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

6.0

7.0

8.0

9.0

Time(s)

FIG. 2.6. Complex conjugate roots with negative real part.

Example 2.5

Find the complete solution of the following second-order differential equation

5x - 2.i

+ 50x =

Solution. This differential equation is the same as the one given in the preceding
example, except the coefficient a 2 of.i becomes negative. In this case, the characteristic equation is
5p2 - 2p + 50 = 0

The roots of this characteristic equation are

= -a2
P1

=
P2

+ Ja~

2a 1

- 4a1a3 = 2

+ J4 - 4(5)(50) = 02
2(5)

3156

+.

-a2-Ja~-4a1a3=2-J4-4(5)(50)=02_31

6.

2(5) 5

2a 1

The constants IX and f3 of Eqs. 31 and 32 are, respectively, given by

IX

= 0.2

and

f3 = 3.156

The complete solution is then given by

x(t) = eO. 2t [c 1 cos 3.156t

or, equivalently, as

+ C2 sin 3.156t]

x(t) = XeO. 2t sin(3.156t

+ l/J)

The solution x(t) is shown in Fig. 7. The solution is of oscillatory nature with
increasing amplitude. A physical system with this type of solution is said to be an
unstable system.

Example 2.6

Find the complete solution of the following second-order differential equation

5x

+ 50x =

2.1. Homogeneous Differential Equations

45

6.0
5.0

f\

4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0

0.0

-2.0

'\

/\

f\

I\ I \
\/ \ I \ I
\j \ 1
J

-1.0

-3.0

1J

-4.0
-5.0
-6.0
0.0

1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

6.0

7.0

8.0

9.0

Time (s)
FIG.

2.7. Complex conjugate roots with positive real part.

Solution. This is, the same equation as in the preceding example, except that
the coefficient a 2 of x is equal to zero. In this case, the characteristic equation is
given by
5p2 + 50 = 0

or

p2

+ 10 =

= 3.l62i,

P2

the roots of this equation are

PI

-3.162i

The roots PI and P2 are complex conjugates with the real parts equal to zero. In this
case.
and
f3 = 3.162
and the solution can be written as
x(t) =

or, equivalently,

CI

cos 3.162t

+ C2 sin 3.l62t

x(t) = X sin(3.162t

+ t/J)

This solution is a harmonic function which has a constant amplitude, as shown in

46

2. Solution of the Vibration Equations

1.0
0.5
'0:'

>i' 0.0

-0.5
-1.0
0.0

\)
1.0

2.0

\)
3.0

I
4.0

\
5.0

/
6.0

\i
7.0

8.0

9.0

Time (s)

FIG. 2.8. Complex conjugate roots with zero real parts.

Fig. 8. If the response of a physical system has a similar nature, the system is said
to be critically stable or to have sustained oscillation. This case of free vibration in
which the damping coefficient is equal to zero will be studied in more detail in
Chapter 3.