Hydrological Sciences Journal

ISSN: 0262-6667 (Print) 2150-3435 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/thsj20

Hydrogeochemistry and groundwater salinization

in an ephemeral coastal flood plain: Cap Bon,
Tunisia
Anis Chekirbane , Maki Tsujimura , Atsushi Kawachi , Hiroko Isoda , Jamila
Tarhouni & Abdallah Benalaya
To cite this article: Anis Chekirbane , Maki Tsujimura , Atsushi Kawachi , Hiroko Isoda , Jamila
Tarhouni & Abdallah Benalaya (2013) Hydrogeochemistry and groundwater salinization
in an ephemeral coastal flood plain: Cap Bon, Tunisia, Hydrological Sciences Journal, 58:5,
1097-1110, DOI: 10.1080/02626667.2013.800202
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02626667.2013.800202

Published online: 09 Jun 2013.

Submit your article to this journal

Article views: 318

View related articles

Citing articles: 4 View citing articles

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=thsj20
Download by: [180.246.156.239]

Date: 05 September 2016, At: 01:52

Hydrological Sciences Journal Journal des Sciences Hydrologiques, 58 (5) 2013

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02626667.2013.800202

1097

Hydrogeochemistry and groundwater salinization in an ephemeral

coastal flood plain: Cap Bon, Tunisia
Anis Chekirbane1 , Maki Tsujimura2 , Atsushi Kawachi3 , Hiroko Isoda3 , Jamila Tarhouni4 and
Abdallah Benalaya5
1
Doctoral Program of Sustainable Environmental Studies, Faculty of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba
305-8572, Ibaraki, Japan
anischkirbene@gmail.com
2

Faculty of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba 305-8572, Ibaraki, Japan

Alliance for Research of North Africa (ARENA), University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba 305-8572, Ibaraki, Japan

National Institute of Agronomy of Tunisia (INAT), University of Carthage, 43, Avenue Charles Nicolle 1082 Tunis, Mahrajne,
Tunisia

Higher School of Agriculture of Mograne (ESAM), University of Carthage, Mograne 1121, Zaghouan, Tunisia

Received 8 May 2012; accepted 20 November 2012; open for discussion until 1 January 2014
Editor D. Koutsoyiannis; Associate editor S. Faye
Citation Chekirbane, A., Tsujimura, M., Kawachi, A., Isoda, H., Tarhouni, J., and Benalaya, A., 2013. Hydrogeochemistry and
groundwater salinization in an ephemeral coastal flood plain: Cap Bon, Tunisia. Hydrological Sciences Journal, 58 (5), 10971110.

Abstract The Wadi Al Ayn plain is a coastal system on the eastern coast of Cap Bon in northeastern Tunisia.
The area is known for its intensive agriculture, which is based mainly on groundwater exploitation. The aim of
this study is to identify the sources of groundwater salinization in the Wadi Al Ayn aquifer system and deduce
the processes that drive the mineralization. Surface water and groundwater samples were taken and analysed for
major ions and stable isotopes. The geochemical data were used to characterize and classify the water samples
based on a variety of ion plots and diagrams. Stable isotopes are useful tools to help us understand recharge
processes and to differentiate between salinity origins. The oilfield brines infiltrated from the sandy bed of Wadi
Al Ayn comprise the main source of groundwater salinization in the central part of the plain, while seawater
intrusion is mainly responsible for the increased salinity in the groundwater of the coastal part of the plain
(at Daroufa).
Key words hydrogeochemistry; stable isotopes; salinization; ephemeral coastal plain; Cap Bon; Tunisia

Hydrogochimie et salinisation des eaux souterraines dune plaine ctire phmre au Cap Bon,
Tunisie
Rsum La plaine de lOued Al Ayn est un systme ctier appartenant la cte orientale du Cap Bon au Nord-Est
de la Tunisie. La zone est connue pour ses activits agricoles intensives principalement bases sur lexploitation
des eaux souterraines. Lobjectif de ce travail est didentifier les origines de la salinisation des eaux du systme aquifre de la plaine de lOued Al Ayn et dclaircir ses mcanismes et ses processus. Les eaux de surface
ainsi que les eaux souterraines ont t chantillonnes et analyses pour dterminer les teneurs des lments
chimiques majeurs et des isotopes stables. Ces donnes gochimiques ont servi caractriser et classer les eaux
chantillonnes en se basant sur de nombreux diagrammes et illustrations. Les isotopes stables constituent un
outil efficace permettant de comprendre les processus de recharge et didentifier les origines de la salinisation.
Les saumures ptrolifres qui se sont infiltres travers le lit sableux de lOued Al Ayn constituent la cause
majeure da la salinisation des eaux souterraines dans la partie centrale de la plaine, tandis que laugmentation
de la salinit des eaux souterraines dans la zone ctire de la plaine (Daroufa) est principalement due
lintrusion marine.
Mots clefs hydrogochimie; isotopes stables; salinisation; plaine ctire phmre; Cap Bon; Tunisie

2013 IAHS Press

1098

Anis Chekirbane et al.

INTRODUCTION
Generally, aquifers in irrigated agricultural regions
can be salinized by a variety of mechanisms, including naturally occurring salts in the parent aquifer
material, surface water importation, lateral flows from
an adjacent saline aquifer, salt water intrusion and a
lack of sufficient drainage.
Processes and mechanisms of groundwater
salinization in coastal areas have been the subject of research and investigation of several authors
(Sakr 1999, Bear et al. 2001, Das and Datta 2001,
Oude Essink 2001, Grube et al. 2002, Martinez and
Bocanegra 2002, Trabelsi et al. 2007, Kouzana et al.
2010, Lachaal et al. 2011). Most of them studied the
occurrence of seawater intrusion based on modelling
and simulation of the dynamic of interaction between
saltwater and freshwater. The use of geochemical
and isotopic tracers is also a useful tool to study
groundwater salinization. In fact, the isotopic composition of seawater is widely differentiated from that
freshwater and their mixtures. Therefore, the distribution, origin and age of different waters can be
determined by analysing their isotopic composition
and its variation. It is useful to study the recharge
mechanisms as well as the mixing and origin of saline
water by analysing stable isotopes, such as 2 H and
18 O, in a geochemical context.
In coastal areas, the chemical composition of
water extracted from wells is often a non-conservative
mixture of freshwater from an aquifer unit and
saltwater from the sea. However, other anthropogenic
and natural sources, such as the return flow from irrigation or the infiltration of brines and wastewater,
can also contribute to salinization of groundwater in
coastal aquifers (Richter and Kreitler 1993, Cardona
et al. 2004). In semi-arid coastal regions of Tunisia,
such as Cap Bon, the groundwater is usually the
main resource used for irrigation and drinking purposes. Nevertheless, salinization is recently becoming
a common problem affecting groundwater resources
in the whole eastern coastal aquifer of the Cap
Bon peninsula. Reports of increasing salinity of
groundwater supplies have been registered in the area,
prompting a need to define both the sources of salt
water and the salinization mechanisms. In fact, since
the 2000s, a sudden increase in groundwater salinity was registered in the wells exploiting the shallow
aquifer at Wadi Al Ayn and Daroufa plain, located in
Cap Bon, and this was reported and complained about
by local farmers. However, the origin and processes of
groundwater salinization are still poorly understood.
The better management of groundwater resources requires an understanding of hydrogeological

and hydrochemical properties of the aquifer (Umar

et al. 2001). This study investigates the hydrochemistry of the irrigated area of Wadi Al Ayn and
Daroufa plain, Cap Bon, northeastern Tunisia, where
groundwater is accessed mainly through hand-dug
wells and boreholes that are sunk along and around
the ephemeral rivers (wadis) of Al Ayn and Daroufa.
This paper aims to discuss the origin, processes
and mechanisms of groundwater salinization, as well
as the chemical evolution of groundwater in these
sources.

STUDY AREA
The study area is the plain of Wadi Al Ayn, a
small semi-arid coastal flood plain located in Cap
Bon peninsula, northeastern Tunisia (Fig. 1), which
is known as one of the most agriculturally productive zones in Tunisia, with a contribution of 15% to
the total agricultural production of the whole country
(CCI Cap Bon 2011).
Al Ayn plain comprises the southwestern part
of the eastern coastal aquifer of Cap Bon. It is
characterized by a flat area having a low slope on
its coastal part, with an altitude of 0 m a.s.l. at
the shore line of the Mediterranean Sea, rising to
35 m a.s.l. inland. The upstream part of the study
area has an of altitude between 35 and 125 m a.s.l.
being the continuation of the lower part of the eastern foothills of the Abderrahman Mountains. Lateral
boundaries are created by the Wadi Biyoussef watershed in the northeast and Wadi Ben Ghassir in
the southwest. The area is characterized by a semiarid climate with an average annual precipitation of
369 mm (INM 2010). From the agricultural view
point, Al Ayn plain is characterized by olive trees as
well as market gardening, in particular the rotation
between strawberry, tomato and potato plantations.
Such farming activity requires a huge amount of
irrigation water of relatively good quality that originates mainly from groundwater resources. However,
since the 2000s, farmers claim to have a decrease
in their output due to increased groundwater salinity.
In fact, some water wells were abandoned and, consequently, their owners have stopped farming, leading
to additional job losses and financial problems in
the region.
The study area is in the vicinity of the Zinnia
oilfield, exploited between 1994 and 2009. Oil production was accompanied by water with high salinity (oilfield brine) having a TDS of 146 g/L.
In fact, petroleum-bearing formations usually contain
brine (altered seawater trapped in sediment pores),

Hydrogeochemistry and groundwater salinization in an ephemeral coastal flood plain: Cap Bon, Tunisia

1099

Fig. 1 Geographical location and geological map of the study area (extracted and modified from the agricultural map of
Nabeul).

thus large volumes of brine usually accompany oil

and gas production, and high chloride concentrations commonly characterize oilfield pollution of
groundwater. Brine can be toxic to crops, corrosive
to metal and unsafe to drink (Hudak and Wachal
2001). During the exploitation of the Zinnia oilfield, the separated brine from oil production was
rejected directly into the municipal sewer system and
mixed with untreated wastewater. When this mixture
reached the sandy bed of Wadi Al Ayn, salinity was
almost 70 g/L.
GEOLOGICAL AND HYDROGEOLOGICAL
SETTING
The outcropping formations in the eastern coastal
plain of Cap Bon are mainly Mio-Plio-Quaternary

sediments (Ben Salem 1992). The simplified lithostratigraphic column of Wadi Al Ayn plain is mainly
composed of Quaternary, Upper Miocene and Middle
Miocene rocks. Figure 1 shows a geological map
of the study area. The upstream region of Al Ayn
plain, west of Soma city, is composed of Upper
Miocene rocks, which correspond to the Tortonien
geological age, known in Tunisia as the Soma
formation: detrital continental sediments composed
mainly of an alternation of sand and conglomerates with frequent clay lenses resulting from the
erosion of the top of the anticline of Abderrahmen
Mountains (Colleuil 1976). The lower part of the
Middle Miocene layer is composed of lenticular sandstones and marls with lignite levels belonging to the
Serravalian-Tortonian era, known in Tunisia as the
Saouaf formation (Kouzana et al. 2010). In contrast

1100

Anis Chekirbane et al.

Fig. 2 Geological cross section AA (see Fig. 1).

to the neighbouring northern area, Pliocene outcrops do not exist in the study area and that was
believed to be due to the widespread erosion during
the Miocene orogeny (Ennabli 1980). Sedimentary
discontinuity characterizes the deposit of Quaternary
sediments above the Upper Miocene formation (Ben
Salem 1992). The coastal consolidated sandy dunes
from the Tyrrhenian outcrop in northern Tazarka
city, with a width of 12 km, an altitude of up to
30 m and thickness varying between 10 and 50 m
(Zghibi et al. 2011). However, these dunes disappear near the Daroufa region, where they are buried
beneath the outcropping wadi alluvia and may be
found at a depth of around 100 m b.g.l. (below
ground level), as shown in an established longitudinal
cross-section AA along Wadi Al Ayn and Daroufa
(Fig. 2).
Quaternary outcrops consist mainly of encrusted
limestone, greatly extended and rich in calcite, silica
and sometimes gypsum and alumina, and frequently
coloured by iron salts (Kouzana et al. 2010). They are
also represented by the Holocene deposits, which are
formed by recent alluvia observed near Wadi Al Ayn,
Wadi Daroufa, Sebkha Al Gharbya and current dunes
and beaches.

The regional hydrogeology of the eastern coastal

aquifer of Cap Bon has been studied by numerous
previous researchers. Several studies focused mainly
on understanding the flow and hydrological budget
of the regional groundwater flow system (Rouatbi
1968, Ennabli 1980, Rekaya 1989, Khlaifi 1998,
Paniconi et al. 2001, Chattouti 2006, Kerrou 2008,
Zghibi 2011). Some others have dealt with characterizing the qualitative degradation of the aquifer caused
by seawater intrusion (Kouzana et al. 2009, Ben
Hammouda et al. 2011). All the above-mentioned
authors focused exclusively on regional groundwater
flow; there is no previous work that has studied
small-scale groundwater flow and contamination. The
groundwater flow system of Wadi Al Ayn comprises
a sub-basin of 20 km2 located in the southwest of the
large coastal plain of Cap Bon (total area of around
400 km2 ).
In Al Ayn plain, the Quaternary sediments and
the top layers of the Upper Miocene host a significant shallow aquifer used principally for irrigation
and drinking water purposes. The main deposits are
composed mainly of wadi alluvia consisting of Soma
formation with sand and conglomerate. In some locations, the frequency of clay lenses contained in the

Hydrogeochemistry and groundwater salinization in an ephemeral coastal flood plain: Cap Bon, Tunisia

Soma formation turns the aquifer into a multilayered system.

SAMPLING AND ANALYTICAL

TECHNIQUES
Groundwater samples were collected from five wadi
water locations and 55 existing dug and deep wells
during a sampling campaign carried out in April
2011. These water samples were collected in clean
polyethylene bottles. After sufficient time allowing
the stabilization of the water electrical conductivity,
the bottles were thoroughly rinsed 23 times with
the sample water to be taken before the water was
sampled. The non-conservative and physical parameters (pH, temperature, electrical conductivity and
groundwater level) were measured in situ. Wadi water
velocity was measured using a field current meter
(Yokogawa, Model 3631). Bicarbonate (HCO3 - ) was
analysed using the titration method with sulphuric
acid. Major anions (Cl- , SO4 2- and NO3 - ) were
analysed by ion liquid chromatography (Shimadzu,
Co. Ltd., HIC-SP/VP Super) at the Laboratory of
Hydrological Sciences in the University of Tsukuba,
and major cations (Na+ , Ca2+ , Mg2+ and K+ )

1101

were analysed by ICP-MS (PerkinElmer Optima

7000 DV) at the Chemical Analysis Center of the
University of Tsukuba, Japan. Stable isotopes (18 O
and 2 H) were analysed using an isotopic liquid
water and vapour water analyser (Picarro L1102-i)
at the Terrestrial Environmental Research Center of
Tsukuba University, Japan. Stable isotopic compositions are reported in the usual notation, in which
is equal to (Rsample /Rstandard 1) 1000, where
Rsample and Rstandard represent the ratio of heavy to
light isotopes of the sample and standard, respectively.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Piezometric behaviour
The groundwater level map of Wadi Al Ayn plain was
established based on data recorded at 34 observation
wells in April 2011 (Fig. 3).
Groundwater in the study area is characterized
by a shallow flowing type mostly controlled by topographical changes, as is shown, for example, in
contours 10 m and 35 m following changes in topographical contours 25 m and 50 m, respectively (Fig.
3). In the upstream region near Soma city, the
groundwater table depth does not exceed 10 m b.g.l. in

Fig. 3 Groundwater contour map of the study area. Underflow type following under the wadi bed; recharged area from
the wadi water; and negative groundwater head = seawater intrusion.

1102

Anis Chekirbane et al.

the alluvial deposits of Wadi Al Ayn where it constitutes an underflow aquifer. The main flow direction is
southeast following the shape of the wadi. In the middle part of the plain, near the sites AYR2 and AYR3
(Fig. 3), the major flow directions are southeast and
northeast, respectively, with a hydraulic gradient of
nearly 5%. In these locations, the aquifer is hydraulically connected to the hydrological network; the wadi
water, mainly composed of non-treated wastewater
and oilfield brine, is infiltrated and spread according
to the main flow direction which can explain the high
salinity measured in some wells in the wadi vicinity. The downstream region, near Wadi Daroufa, is
characterized by a lower hydraulic gradient because
of the flat topography. However, an inversion of the
groundwater flow gradient is registered and the contour zero appears at 2 km inland. Closer to the
shore line, the groundwater contour becomes negative; probable seawater intrusion is occurring in this
area, which can explain the high salinity of some
neighbouring wells. This phenomenon has occurred
frequently in the eastern coastal aquifer of Cap Bon
since the 1990s and has been reported by several
authors. In fact, seawater intrusion has been reported
in Korba area, 10 km to the northeast of Wadi Al Ayn
watershed (Paniconi et al. 2004, Kouzana et al. 2010,
Zghibi et al. 2011).
Physico-chemical parameters
The physico-chemical parameters and chemical composition of the wadi water and groundwater samples
are presented in Table 1.
The temperature of the groundwater samples
ranges from 17.1 C to 22.3 C, pH values from 7 to
8.07 and electrical conductivity (EC) varies from
1297 to 15 710 S/cm. The spatial distribution of
EC is heterogeneous. In fact, both upstream shallow
wells and the deep wells are characterized by relatively low EC of less than 2.5 S/cm. Shallow wells
near AYR2 have higher EC, ranging from 2.5 to 6.5
S/cm. The coastal shallow wells and wells located
in the vicinity of AYR3 and AYR5 have the highest
EC values, which can be as much as 15.71 S/cm.
When overlain on the groundwater contour map,
the highest EC values are found in the vicinity of
Wadi Al Ayn (near AYR3 and AYR5), where the
role of the wadi in aquifer recharge is evident. This
suggests that the previously discharged oilfield brine
from the Zinnia oilfield is the principal origin of
salinity in these locations. Closer to the shoreline,
near Daroufa, a negative groundwater contour (5 m)

appears, where high EC values are measured in some

neighbouring wells. This can be explained by the
seawater intrusion effect caused by the groundwater
level drawdown due to overexploitation.
Water types
The distinction between water types and the classification of samples into groups are necessary to discern
regional trends and to identify chemical processes
(Stuyfzand 1999). Presentation of geochemical data
in the form of a graphical chart, e.g. a Piper diagram,
is helpful to recognize and differentiate various water
facies (Piper 1994). The major ions of water analyses are depicted in the Piper trilinear equivalence
diagram (Fig. 4). Based on this diagram, three groups
of water samples can be classified according to their
geochemical facies:
(a) wadi water: (Na-Ca-Mg-HCO3 ) type;
(b) deep wells and some upstream shallow wells:
(Ca-Mg-Cl-SO4 ) type; and
(c) saline shallow wells (located in the vicinity of
Wadi Al Ayn and near the shore line), as well as
the discharged oilfield brine: (Na-Cl) type.
Focusing on the ternary diagram of cations, a
clear migration tendency from the calcium pole to
the sodium pole is evident, which may indicate that
cation exchange is the main salinization process.
Concerning the ternary diagram of anions, a straight
line migration shape towards the chloride-nitrate pole
is observed, suggesting the mixing phenomena as a
process to explain the salinity evolution from fresh to
saline groundwater.
The ionic composition of groundwater samples
can be represented by another type of water quality
diagramthe Stiff diagram. Stiff diagrams are used
to compare the ionic composition of water samples
between different locations, depths, or aquifers. The
Stiff diagram is a polygon created from three horizontal axes extended on both sides of a vertical axis.
Cations (in meq/L) are plotted on the left-hand side of
the axis and anions on the right-hand side. A greater
distance from the vertical axis represents larger ionic
concentration. The cation and anion concentrations
are connected to form an asymmetric polygonthe
Stiff diagramwhere the size is a relative indication
of the dissolved-solids concentration (Chkirbene et al.
2009).
Based on the Piper diagram, the water samples in Wadi Al Ayn plain were mostly classified in
three groups: wadi water, shallow aquifer and deep

Min.
Max.
Ave
SD
Min.
Max.
Ave
SD
Min.
Max.
Ave
SD
Min.
Max.
Ave
SD
Min.
Max.
Ave
SD

Wadi water
(5 samples)

20.90
24.00
22.10
1.21
17.4
22.3
20.12
1.367
17.1
22.6
19.93
1.513
17.4
19.1
18.6
0.572
17.7
21.6
19.51
1.358

T
( C)

7.75
2920
8.02
3580
7.88
3184
0.10
259
7.26
1297
7.9
4380
7.52
2069
0.15
617
7.17
1455
8.07
3970
7.51
2532
0.18
607
7.17
2690
7.98
4980
7.47
3977
0.31
819
7
6380
8.02 15 710
7.29 10 163
0.35
3751

12.10
14.04
12.71
0.83
5.65
18.77
8.73
3.19
4.10
15.65
10.00
3.41
10.85
25.42
19.30
5.20
36.57
153.30
74.83
44.95

0.76
1.31
1.01
0.26
0.04
2.58
0.71
0.68
0.07
0.53
0.29
0.14
0.13
6.35
1.73
2.29
0.13
0.41
0.28
0.11

5.28
7.59
6.28
0.90
3.60
10.62
6.39
1.96
4.32
12.07
7.55
1.54
8.99
14.86
12.08
2.10
10.29
22.80
17.14
4.58

2.36
3.49
2.85
0.48
1.69
4.42
2.92
0.81
0.00
4.54
2.48
1.02
3.48
6.84
4.73
1.16
2.92
9.70
6.40
2.18

10.61
11.38
10.97
0.27
3.26
26.47
9.13
4.61
4.49
19.21
11.88
3.74
15.74
24.62
21.63
3.00
42.99
106.61
72.01
26.08

12.20
20.06
16.35
3.05
3.68
5.52
4.78
0.52
3.78
8.68
4.83
1.07
4.04
9.50
5.46
1.91
5.02
15.36
7.88
3.96

1.24
3.63
2.13
0.92
1.51
3.94
2.58
0.71
2.00
6.01
3.29
0.86
3.80
8.69
6.31
1.97
3.41
8.63
6.24
1.60

0.00
0.34
0.19
0.17
0.00
5.49
1.55
1.33
0.00
5.38
2.71
1.42
0.00
6.07
3.36
2.10
1.46
5.61
3.01
1.64

1.13
1.56
1.36
0.18
0.28
0.80
0.43
0.13
0.24
1.22
0.51
0.21
0.25
1.44
0.62
0.43
0.34
1.41
0.62
0.40

1.57
1.14
1.39
0.17
1.48
0.91
1.25
0.19
1.33
0.68
1.08
0.14
0.94
0.52
0.69
0.18
0.93
0.40
0.68
0.18

pH EC
Na+
K+
Ca2+
Mg2+
ClHCO3SO4 2NO3 SICal SIGyp
(S/cm) (meq/L) (meq/L) (meq/L) (meq/L) (meq/L) (meq/L) (meq/L) (meq/L)

Note: T, temperature; EC, electrical conductivity; SI, saturation index.

Shallow wells
(3)
(7 samples)

Shallow wells
(2)
(7 samples)

Shallow wells
(1)
(21 samples)

Deep wells
(21 samples)

Stat.

Class

Table 1 Physical and chemical parameters of the sampled water in Wadi Al Ayn and Daroufa plain.

1.80
1.37
1.61
0.17
1.71
1.15
1.49
0.19
1.57
0.92
1.32
0.14
1.18
0.77
0.94
0.17
1.17
0.63
0.91
0.18

SIAn

4.38
4.02
4.22
0.13
5.56
4.65
5.18
0.23
5.40
3.59
4.99
0.35
5.05
3.28
4.45
0.58
4.45
2.64
3.86
0.69

27.46
25.29
26.24
0.82
32.71
29.20
30.51
1.14
31.62
23.10
30.20
1.74
29.70
20.04
27.27
3.33
29.90
24.95
27.43
2.05

18 O
D
( VSMOW ) ( VSMOW )

Hydrogeochemistry and groundwater salinization in an ephemeral coastal flood plain: Cap Bon, Tunisia
1103

1104

Anis Chekirbane et al.

Origin of groundwater mineralization in Wadi Al

Ayn plain
In order to understand the origin of groundwater mineralization in Wadi Al Ayn plain, the saturation index
(SI) was calculated. Mineral saturation states with
respect to solid phases of CaCO3 , NaCl and CaSO4
were computed by (Garrels and Christ 1965):
SI = log10 (KIAP /KSP )

Fig. 4 Piper diagram for wadi water and groundwater samples. Wadi water: Na-Ca-Mg-HCO3 ; deep/shallow
wells: Ca-Mg-Cl-SO4 ; and shallow wells and oilfield
brine: Na-Cl.

aquifer. However, the shallow aquifer samples can be

classified into a further three sub-groups:
Shallow wells (1) have a similar chemical composition to deep wells, relatively low TDS and are
enriched in Ca-Mg-Cl-HCO3 ;
Shallow wells (2) are characterized by higher TDS
than (1) and are basically Na-Ca-Cl type; and
Shallow wells (3) have extremely high TDS and
are Na-Cl type.
The above classification suggests the presence
of salt intrusion controlling the groundwater quality
change in Wadi Al Ayn plain.

Fig. 5 Plot of (Ca + HCO3 ) vs SICalcite .

(1)

where SI is the saturation index, K IAP is the ion activity product of a particular solid phase and K SP is the
solubility product of that phase. Based on the value of
the SI, the saturation states are recognized as saturation (equilibrium: SI = 0), unsaturation (dissolution:
SI < 0) and oversaturation (precipitation: SI > 0).
The positive values of the calculated SI with
respect to calcite for all wadi and groundwater samples suggest their oversaturation in respect to this
mineral, which has a geological origin mainly derived
from the abundant limestone outcrops in the wadi
plain (Fig. 5).
Thus, calcite is the origin of Ca2+ and HCO3 - in
these samples, as described by (Appelo and Postma
2005):
CaCO3 + CO2 + H2 O Ca2+ + 2HCO-3

(2)

However, focusing on bicarbonate content, we

notice the higher concentration registered in wadi
water and some rarely-used shallow saline wells (NaCl type). The scatter plot of bicarbonate vs sulphate
applied to the water samples shows considerable negative correlation (Fig. 6).
In fact, the higher the bicarbonate content,
the lower the sulphate concentration. This may be
explained by the sulphate reduction phenomenon,

Hydrogeochemistry and groundwater salinization in an ephemeral coastal flood plain: Cap Bon, Tunisia

1105

Fig. 6 Plot of bicarbonate (HCO3 - ) vs sulphate (SO4 2- ).

which is the result of the microbial decomposition of

sulphate, as described by (Andersen 2001):
SO24 + 2CH2 O 2HCO3 + H2 S

(3)

The organic matter-enriched wastewater flowing

in Wadi Al Ayn, together with the Na-Cl type of
rarely-used shallow wells, may be the basis of sulphate reduction in anoxic conditions that produces
bicarbonate and hydrogen sulphide, with its characteristic odour. This phenomenon happens only in some
point locations in the study area with anoxic conditions, such as the abandoned or rarely pumped wells,
or some locations of stagnant wastewater along the
Wadi Al Ayn.
The plot of SIGypsum and SIAnhydrite vs (Ca + SO4 )
exhibits a proportional and parabolic shape evolution
with negative values of the saturation indexes (Fig. 7).
Thus, both calcium and sulphate are derived from
the same origin, which is the dissolution of gypsum
and anhydrite, frequently found in the Quaternary
formations.
A bivariate diagram of sodium vs chloride
(Fig. 8) reveals two main groups: the first shows a
perfect correlation between Na and Cl, in which samples of wadi water, deep aquifer and some shallow
aquifer samples (especially Ca-Mg-Cl-HCO3 type)
are close to the 1:1 line, suggesting halite dissolution as the source of these two elements. The second group includes the high-salinity samples (Na-Cl
type), which do not follow the halite dissolution line.
Another phenomenon other than geological effect is
controlling their salinization, and this may be the salt
intrusion.
The evolution from fresh groundwater (Ca-MgCl-HCO3 type) to salty groundwater dominated by

sodium and chloride ions provides evidence of mixing with an external salinity source, which could be
the previously infiltrated oilfield brine from Wadi Al
Ayn near location AYR3, or seawater from the coastal
part of the aquifer. Cation exchange is the process
responsible for controlling such salt intrusion and is
described as follows:
1/ Ca2+
2

+ Na X Na+ + 1/2Ca X2

(4)

In an aquifer containing clayey sediments, natural softening or ion exchange may occur (Hounslow
1995). In the above reaction (equation (4)), Ca2+ is
adsorbed by the exchanger X, while Na+ is released
and Na-Cl type water results.
Isotopic data and salinity origins
The delta diagram of oxygen and hydrogen isotopes
(18 O and 2 H) is plotted in Fig. 9. The regional meteoric water line (RMWL) is a fractionation line that
represents the relationship between 18 O and 2 H in
local rainwater. It was calculated from the weighed
annual mean of precipitation at Tunis-Carthage station (no. 6071500), the nearest GNIP (global network
for isotopes in precipitation) station. The RMWL follows a linear regression: 2 H = 818 O + 12.4 (Maliki
et al. 2000, Ben Moussa et al. 2010). The 18 O
and 2 H contents of wadi water and groundwater in
Wadi Al Ayn plain vary from 5.56 to 2.63
and from 32.71 to 20.04, respectively. The
deep groundwater samples and the fresh shallow
groundwater samples (Ca-Mg-Cl-HCO3 type) fall
between the RMWL and the global meteoric water
line (GMWL), according to the relationship: 2 H =
818 O + 10 (Craig 1961). This may be explained by

1106

Anis Chekirbane et al.

(a)

(b)

Fig. 7 Plots of (Ca + SO4 ) vs (a) SIGypsum and (b) SIAnhydrite .

Fig. 8 Plot of Na+ vs Cl- .

the fact that the origin of these waters is meteoric

and non-evaporated water is rapidly infiltrated to the
saturated zone.
The remainder of the water samples, including
wadi water and saline groundwater (basically NaCl type), falls under the GMWL, according to a
trendline with the equation: 2 H = 5.9718 O 1.05

(R2 = 0.92). This deviation is assumed to result

from non-equilibrium fractionation during evaporation. The low slope in this equation might be an
indicator for evaporation of the recharge water before
its infiltration to the aquifer. In order to confirm this
hypothesis, the deuterium excess (d-excess) was calculated: d-excess = 2 H 818 O. This reflects the

Hydrogeochemistry and groundwater salinization in an ephemeral coastal flood plain: Cap Bon, Tunisia

1107

Fig. 9 Delta digram (D vs 18 O).

Fig. 10 Plot of d-excess vs 18 O.

conditions that lead to kinetic isotope fractionation

between water and vapour during primary evaporation in the oceans. It is a useful proxy to identify
secondary processes that influence the atmospheric
vapour content in the evaporationcondensation cycle
in nature (Craig 1961, Dansgaad 1964). The d-excess
plotted against 18 O shows a negative correlation for
the whole set of samples (Fig. 10).
Several previous studies in arid and semi-arid
regions found the same result (Tsujimura et al.
2007, Ben Moussa et al. 2010, Diaw et al. 2012):
a decrease in d-excess is an indication that evaporation has occurred during the recharge process.

Therefore, the decreasing values of d-excess for NaCl type shallow groundwater in Wadi Al Ayn plain
suggest the role of wadi water in aquifer recharge,
which again confirms the infiltrated oilfield brine in
the groundwater near location AYR3. Furthermore,
return flow from irrigation water also seems to contribute notably to the recharge process. In fact, before
it reaches the saturated zone, irrigation water is subject to excessive evaporation in irrigated parcels, and
it may even be a salinization source. Many studies have demonstrated that groundwater salinization
in intensively exploited agricultural fields is due
to either evaporation during diffuse recharge, or

1108

Anis Chekirbane et al.

Fig. 11 Chlorinity and stable isotopic composition for the Wadi Al Ayn plain.

groundwater discharge via evaporation (e.g. Khan

et al. 2008).
To differentiate between salinity origins affecting groundwater in the plain of Wadi Al Ayn, 18 O
was plotted against chloride concentration (Fig. 11).
The concentration of salt through evaporation should
be indicated by Cl- contents increasing with 18 O
enrichment in a linear correlation (Clark and Fritz
1997). However, salt intrusion leads to an increase
in Cl- concentration without fractionation of water
molecules. Consequently, three water groups can be
distinguished:
(a) Samples with Cl- < 20 meq/L and 18 O <
4.8 (at the bottom left of Fig. 11) are interpreted as fresh groundwater, recharged from
meteoric water.
(b) Samples enriched in 18 O with a small increase in
chloride content (AYW21, AW8, AW9, AW17,
AL5 and AL8) resulting from evaporation.
Field observations confirmed that AW17 and
AL8 wells are rarely used, whereas AYW21,
AW8, AW9 and AL5 are exploited normally;
thus, the return flow from irrigation seems to be
the main recharge process and the cause of their
relatively increased salinity.
(c) Samples at the top of Fig. 11 with similar
18 O values and high chloride content (AYW8,
AYW9, AYW11 and AYW12) can be formed

through salt intrusion; this may be the infiltrated

oilfield brine for AYW8 and AYW9, located
in the vicinity of wadi discharge, and seawater
intrusion for the coastal wells AYW11 and
AYW12.
All samples within the diagram can be regarded
as influenced by evaporation if they are shifted
towards the right, or by salt intrusion if they are
shifted upwards. Nevertheless, the two phenomena
can coexist because, once the well is salinized its
exploitation becomes rare, as is the case of wells
AYW23 and AW3. Well AW11 is a 75-m deep well
located in the middle of the plain and about 300 m
from wadi location AYR4. Compared to the other
deep wells, it shows higher Cl- content and a relative enrichment in 18 O. This could be explained by the
fact that shallow groundwater (Na-Cl type) is communicating with deep groundwater due to a probable
absence or reduction of clay lenses usually frequent
in the Soma formation (reservoir) and forming a
boundary between shallow and deep groundwater.

CONCLUSION
The present study focuses on the hydrogeochemical and isotopic composition of wadi water and
groundwater in the Wadi Al Ayn and Daroufa plain,

Hydrogeochemistry and groundwater salinization in an ephemeral coastal flood plain: Cap Bon, Tunisia

Cap Bon, northeastern Tunisia. Based on the hydrodynamic, geochemical and isotopic variation of the
groundwater flow system, it is evident that there is
interaction between the wadi water and the aquifer,
especially in the middle area (near AYR3). In the
upstream and downstream of Wadi Al Ayn (near
AYR1, AYR4 and AYR5), the wadi is hydraulically disconnected from the aquifer and its only
role is vertical recharge. The groundwater mineralization in the study area is not a homogenous process, but is related to different sources and dynamics
with variation in space. The fresh shallow and deep
groundwater chemistry is mainly controlled by natural conditions of rockwater interaction. However,
groundwater salinization in the middle and coastal
parts of Wadi Al Ayn plain seems to have an anthropogenic origin. In fact, salinization detected in the
wells located in the vicinity of the wadi was caused
by the infiltration of discharged oilfield brine through
the sandy bed of Wadi Al Ayn up to late 2009. In contrast, the salinization detected in the Daroufa area (the
coastal part) is mainly controlled by seawater intrusion and occurs where the groundwater level shows
negative values as low as 5 m a.s.l. The return
flow from irrigation water is also an important factor in controlling groundwater mineralization in the
parcels of land irrigated with traditional flooding irrigation, where the cumulated salt in the soil from water
evaporation gradually reaches the saturated zone. The
results of this study make clear that groundwater
monitoring is important for understanding salinity
ingress and implementing effective remediation and
counteractive measures.
Acknowledgements This work was supported by
the Japanese government programme: Science and
Technology Research Partnership for Sustainable
Development (SATREPS). The authors are grateful
for Miss Mizuho Takahashi and Mr Wataru Yamada
for participating in the field survey and chemical
analysis of the samples taken.

REFERENCES
Andersen, M.S., 2001. Geochemical processes at a seawater
freshwater interface. Thesis (PhD), Technical University of
Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark.
Appelo, C.A.J. and Postma, D., 2005. Geochemistry, groundwater and
pollution, 2nd edition. Amsterdam: A.A. Balkema.
Bear, J., Zhou, Q., and Bensabat, J., 2001. Three-dimensional simulation of seawater intrusion in heterogeneous aquifers with
application to the coastal aquifer of Israel. First international conference on saltwater intrusion and coastal aquifers:
monitoring, modeling, and management, 2325 April 2001,
Essaouira, Morocco, 113.

1109

Ben Hammouda, M.F., et al., 2011. Understanding the origin of salinization of the Plio-Quaternary eastern coastal
aquifer of Cap Bon (Tunisia) using geochemical and
isotopic investigations. Environmental Earth Sciences, 63 (5),
889901.
Ben Moussa, A., et al., 2010. Hydrochemical and isotopic investigation of the groundwater composition of an alluvial aquifer,
Cap Bon Peninsula, Tunisia. Carbonates Evaporates, 25 (3),
161176.
Ben Salem, H., 1992. Contribution la connaissance de la gologie
du Cap Bon: stratigraphie, tectonique et sedimentologie. Thesis
(PhD), Faculty of Sciences of Tunis, Tunisia.
Cardona, A., et al., 2004. Salinization in coastal aquifers of arid
zones: an example from Santo Domingo, Baja California Sur,
Mexico. Environmental Geology, 45 (3), 350366.
CCI Cap Bon, 2011. Chambre de Commerce et dIndustrie du Cap
Bon, Tunisia [online]. Available from: http://www.ccicapbon.
org.tn [Accessed 4 December 2011].
Chattouti, F., 2006. tude des fluctuations pizomtriques des nappes
phratiques et profondes de la cte orientale du Cap Bon (N-E
de la Tunisie). Thesis (Master), Faculty of Sciences of Bizerte,
Tunisia.
Chkirbene, A., et al., 2009. Hydro-geochemical evolution of
groundwater in an alluvial aquifer: case of Kurokawa aquifer,
Tochigi prefecture, Japan. Desalination, 246 (3), 485495.
Clark, I.D. and Fritz, P., 1997. Environmental isotopes in hydrology.
Boca Raton, FL: CRC Lewis.
Colleuil, B., 1976. tude stratigraphique et notectonique des formations nognes et quaternaires de la rgion NabeulHammamet
(Cap Bon, Tunisie). Thesis (PhD), University of Nice, France.
Craig, H., 1961. Isotopic variations in meteoric waters. Science, 133,
17021703.
Dansgaard, W., 1964. Stable isotopes in precipitation. Tellus, 16 (4),
436468.
Das, A. and Datta, B., 2001. Simulation of seawater intrusion in
coastal aquifers: some typical responses. Sadhana, 26 (4),
317352.
Diaw, M., et al., 2012. Isotopic and geochemical characteristics of
groundwater in the Senegal River delta aquifer: implication
of recharge and flow regime. Environmental Earth Sciences,
66 (4), 10111020.
Ennabli, M., 1980. tude hydrogologique des aquifres du Nord-Est
de la Tunisie pour une gestion intgre des ressources en eau.
Thesis (PhD), University of Nice, France.
Garrels, R.M. and Christ, C.L., 1965. Solutions, minerals and equilibria. New York: Harper and Row.
Grube, A., et al., 2002. Numerical and hydrochemical modelling
of salt-water intrusion into a Pleistocene aquifer: case study
Grossbeuthen (Brandenburg) Brandenburg. Proceedings of the
17th Salt Water Intrusion meeting, 610 May 2002, Delft, The
Netherlands, 183194.
Hounslow, A.W., 1995. Water quality data: analysis and interpretation. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Lewis.
Hudak, F.H. and Wachal, D.J., 2001. Effects of brine injection
wells, dry holes, and plugged oil/gas wells on chloride, bromide, and barium concentrations in the Gulf Coast Aquifer,
southeast Texas, USA. Environment International, 26 (78),
497503.
INM, 2010. Institut National de la Mtorologie, Tunis, Tunisia
[online]. Available from: http://www.meteo.tn/ [Accessed
August 2010].
Kerrou, J., 2008. Deterministic and probabilistic numerical modelling towards sustainable groundwater management: application to seawater intrusion in the Korba aquifer (Tunisia). Thesis
(PhD), Neuchtel University, Switzerland.
Khan, S., Rana, T., and Hanjra, M.A., 2008. A cross disciplinary
framework for linking farms with regional groundwater and
salinity management targets. Agricultural Water Management,
95 (1), 3547.

1110

Anis Chekirbane et al.

Khlaifi, I., 1998. Contribution ltude de lintrusion marine par

un modle de transport tridimensionnel: interfaage avec des
systmes dinformation gographique. Thesis (Master),
University of Tunis Elmanar, Tunisia.
Kouzana, L., Ben Mammou, A., and Sfar Felfoul, M., 2009. Seawater
intrusion and associated processes: case of the Korba aquifer
(Cap-Bon, Tunisia). Comptes Rendus Geoscience, 341 (1),
2135.
Kouzana, L., et al., 2010. Geophysical and geochemical study of
the seawater intrusion in Mediterranean semi arid zones. Case
of the Korba coastal aquifer (Cap-Bon, Tunisia). Journal of
African Earth Sciences, 58 (2), 242254.
Lachaal, F., et al., 2011. Characterizing a complex aquifer system
using geophysics, hydrodynamics and geochemistry: a new
distribution of Miocene aquifers in the Zramdine and Mahdia
Jbniana blocks (east central Tunisia). Journal of African
Earth Sciences, 60 (4), 222236.
Maliki, M.A., et al., 2000. Relation entre nappe superficielle et
aquifere profound dans le bassin de Sfax, Tunisie. Comptes
Rendus de lAcademie des Sciences, 331 (1), 16.
Martinez, D.E. and Bocanegra, E.M., 2002. Hydrogeochemistry and
cation-exchange processes in the coastal aquifer of Mar Del
Plata, Argentina. Hydrogeology Journal, 10 (3), 393408.
Oude Essink, G.H.P., 2001. Improving fresh groundwater supply
problems and solutions. Ocean Coastal Management, 44 (4),
429449.
Paniconi, C., et al., 2001. A modeling study of sea water intrusion in
the Korba coastal plain, Tunisia. Physics and Chemistry of the
Earth (B), 26 (4), 345351.
Paniconi, C., et al., 2004. Modeling and analysis of seawater intrusion
in the coastal aquifer of eastern Cap-Bon, Tunisia. Transport in
Porous Media, 43 (1), 328.

Piper, A.M., 1994. A graphic procedure in the geochemical interpretation of water analysis. Transactions of the American
Geophysical Union, 25, 914923.
Rekaya, M., 1989. Le contexte hydrogologique de la nappe aquifre
de la cte orientale du Cap Bon (Tunisie) et les problmes
causs par la surexploitation. Tunis: Direction Gnrale des
Ressources en Eau.
Richter, B.C. and Kreitler, C.W., 1993. Geochemical techniques for
identifying sources of ground-water salinization. Boca Raton,
FL: CRC Press.
Rouatbi, R., 1968. tude hydrogologique primaire de la rgion
Tafelloune, Cap Bon oriental. Tunis: Bureau of Hydraulic
Resources Inventory.
Sakr, S., 1999. Validity of a sharp-interface model in a confined
coastal aquifer. Hydrogeology Journal, 7 (2), 155160.
Stuyfzand, P.J., 1999. Patterns in groundwater chemistry resulting
from groundwater flow. Hydrogeology Journal, 7 (1), 1527.
Trabelsi, R., Zairi, M., and Ben Dhia, H., 2007. Groundwater
salinization of the Sfax superficial aquifer, Tunisia.
Hydrogeology Journal, 15 (7), 13411355.
Tsujimura, M., et al., 2007. Stable isotopic and geochemical characteristics of groundwater in Kherlen River basin, a semi-arid
region in eastern Mongolia. Journal of Hydrology, 333 (1),
4757.
Umar, A., Umar, R., and Ahmad, M.S., 2001. Hydrogeological
and hydrochemical framework of regional aquifer system in
Kali-Ganga sub-basin, India. Environmental Geology, 40 (45),
602611.
Zghibi, A., Zouhri, L., and Tarhouni J., 2011. Groundwater
modelling and marine intrusion in the semi-arid systems (Cap-Bon, Tunisia). Hydrological Processes, 25 (11),
18221836.