Chapter Two

Precipitation and its estimation

Eng.M. M. Qawdhan
MSc. Water Engineering

Outcome of Lecture
After completing this lecture
The students should be able to:

c
c

c
c
c

c
c

Understand types of precipitation and its measurement in field

Understand the concept of temporal and spatial averaging of
precipitation
Apply several methods to spatially average precipitation
Understand data preparation for any water resource projects
Apply appropriate corrections to data in case of missing
records, errors or inconsistency is present

Precipitation
c

When the water/moisture in the clouds/atmosphere gets too heavy,the

water/moisture falls back to the earth. This is called precipitation.

Types of Precipitation:
Drizzle
Rain
Freezing rain
Sleet
Snow
Hail

c
c
c
c
c
c

Rainfall being the predominant form of precipitation causing

stream flow,especially the flood flow in majority of rivers.Thus,in
this context, rainfall is used synonymously with precipitation.
3

Precipitation: Rainfall
c

Rain: It is precipitation in the form of water drops of size between 0.5

mm to 7mm
The rainfall is classified into
c Light rain if intensity is trace to 2.5 mm/h
c Moderate rain if intensity is 2.5 mm/hr to 7.5 mm/hr
c Heavy rain above 7.5 mm/hr

c
c

Measurement Units:
Amount of precipitation/rain (mm or inch)
c It is measure as total depth of rainfall over an area in one day.
Intensity of precipitation/rain (mm/hr or inch/hr)
c It is the amount of precipitation at a place per unit time (rain rate).It
is expressed as mm/hr or inch/hr
4

Measurement of Precipitation
c

Why do we need to measure rainfall?

Agriculture what to plant in certain areas, where and when to plant,

when to harvest

Horticulture/viticulture - how and when to irrigate

Engineers - to design structures for runoff control i.e. storm-water

drains, bridges etc.

Scientists - hydrological modelling of catchments

Measurement of Precipitation
c

Method of measuring rainfall:

Instruments for measuring precipitation include rain gauges and

snow gauges, and various types are manufactured according to the
purpose at hand.

Rain gauges are classified into

c Non-recording (Manual) and
c recording types (Automatic)

Instrument used to collect and measure the precipitation is called rain gauge and the location
at which raingage is located is called gauging station.
6

Measurement of Precipitation
c

Non-recording (Manual) types:

Often have a funnel opening into a

cylinder gauge.

Come in a variety of shapes and sizes

Calculate the rainfall (in mm) by

dividing the volume of water collected
by the area of the opening of the cup.
(The gauge marking often accounts for
this).

Measurement of Precipitation
Non-recording (Manual) types:

Measurement of Precipitation
Recording (Automatic) types:

Tipping bucket gauges

c Weighing type gauges c
Float recording gauges
Tipping bucket rain gauge -The bucket tips when precipitation of 0.2 mm,
0.5 mm,1.0 mm has been collected.Each tip is recorded by a data logger.
c

Measurement of Precipitation
c

Recording (Automatic) types:

Weather Station - Records rainfall, but also evaporation, air

pressure, air temperature, wind speed and wind direction (so can be
used to estimate evapo-transpiration)

Radar - Ground-based radar equipment can be used to determine

how much rain is falling and where it is the heaviest.

10

Measurement of Precipitation
c

Recording (Automatic) types:

Weather Station -

11

Measurement of Precipitation
c

Recording (Automatic) types:

Radar -

12

Measurement of Precipitation
Raingauge Network
c

Since the catching area of the raingauge is very small as compared to

the areal extent of the storm, to get representative picture of a
storm over a catchment the number of raingauges should be as
large as possible, i.e. the catchment area per gauge should be small.

There are several factors to be considered to restrict the number of

gauges:
c Like economic considerations to a large extent
c Topographic & accessibility to some extent.

13

Catchment area: An extent of land where water from precipitation drains into a
body of water

Measurement of Precipitation
Raingauge Network
c

World Meteorological Organization (WMO) recommendation:

c

In flat regions of temperate, Mediterranean and tropicalzones

c Ideal 1 station for 600 900 km2
c Acceptable 1 station for 900 3000 km2
In mountainous regions of temperate , Mediterranean and tropicalzones
c Ideal 1 station for 100 250 km2
c Acceptable 1 station for 250 1000 km2
In arid and polar zone
c 1 station for 1500 10,000 km2

10 % of the raingauges should be self recording to know the intensity of

the rainfall !!
14

Measurement of Precipitation
Raingauge Network
c
c

Placement of rainguages
Gauges are affected by wind pattern, eddies, trees and the
gauge itself, therefore it is important to have the gauge located
and positioned properly.
Raingauges should be
c 1m above ground level is standard c All gauges in a catchment should be the same height
c 2 to 4 times the distance away from an isolated object (such as a
tree or building) or in a forest a clearing with the radius at least the
tree height or place the gauge at canopy level
c shielded to protect gauge in windy sites or if obstructions are
numerous they will reduce the wind-speed, turbulence and eddies.

15

Measurement of Precipitation
Raingauge Network

Rainguage with wind shield

16

Measurement of Precipitation
Raingauge Network

17

For sloping ground the gauge should be placed with the opening
parallel to the ground
The rainfall catch volume (mm3) is then divided by the opening area
that the rain can enter

Measurement of Precipitation
Sources of Errors

Instrument error
Observer error
Errors due to different observation times
Error due to occult precipitation
Errors due to low-intensity rains

Any-other ?

c
c
c
c

Occult precipitation: Precipitation arriving at a location by processes that would

normally go unrecorded by a standard rain gauge,e.g.the condensation of mist and
fog on foliage.
18

Preparation of Data
c

Before using rainfall data for any analysis, it is necessary to check the
record for
c Missing data and/or
c Consistency of data

19

Inconsistency in rainfall data my root from

c Change of gauge location
c Change of gauge type
c Change of gauge environment
c Change of gauge observer
c Change of gauge climate

Preparation of Data: Missing Data

Methods
c

The following methods can be used to estimate the

missing precipitation data
c
c
c
c

20

Station-average method
Normal-ratio method
Inverse-distance weighting
Regression

Preparation of Data: Missing Data

Station Average Method

1 n
PX Pi
n i1
PX is the missing precipitation value for station X
P1,P2,,Pn are precipitation values at the adjacent
stations for the same period
n is the number of nearby stations

This method is used when 10% variation in annual precipitation at

station X lies within annual precipitation of surrounding/adjacent
stations.

21

Preparation of Data: Missing Data

Example
c

Find out the missing storm precipitation data of station X given in following
table using station averaging method
Station

Storm Precipitation (inches)

3.8

3.25

4.6

3.15

Annual Precipitation (inches)

39.50

43.1

36.8

49.5

46.20

1
1
PX Pi 3.8 3.25 4.6 3.15 3.7in
n i1
4
What about 10% variation check from annual precipitation ??

22

Preparation of Data: Missing Data

Normal Ratio Method
n P
PX
1 P1 P2
Pn
1
or PX i N X
.....

N X n N1 N 2
Nn
n i1Ni

c
c
c
c
c

PX is the missing precipitation value for station X for a certain time period
P1,P2,,Pn are precipitation values at adjacent stations for the same period
NX is the long-term, annual average precipitation at station X
N1,N2,,Nn is the long-term precipitation for neighboring stations
n is the number of adjacent stations

23

Preparation of Data: Missing Data

Example
c

Find out the missing storm precipitation data of station X given in following
table
Station

Storm Precipitation (inches)

3.8

3.25

4.6

3.15

Annual Precipitation (inches)

39.50

43.1

36.8

49.5

46.20

Test the normal annual precipitation at station X

10% of 36.8 3.68in

3.68 36.8 40.48in and 33.12in

Since annual precipitation of adjacent station does not lie with 10% so station
averaging method cannot be used and instead normal ratio method will be used for
better accuracy
24

Preparation of Data: Missing Data

Example
c

Find out the missing storm precipitation data of station X given in following
table
Station

Storm Precipitation (inches)

3.8

3.25

4.6

3.15

Annual Precipitation (inches)

39.50

43.1

36.8

49.5

46.20

P1 3.8", P2 3.25", P3 4.6", P4 3.15"

N1 39.5", N 2 43.1", N 3 49.5", N 4 46.2"
Px ?, N x 36.8"

PX
1 P1 P2
Pn

.....

N X n N1 N 2
Nn
PX
1 3.8 3.25 4.6 3.15

36.8 4 39.5 43.1 49.5 46.2

25

PX 3.06"

Preparation of Data: Missing Data

Station Average Method
c

Example

26

Part II

27

Temporal and Spatial Variation of Rainfall

c

Rainfall varies greatly both in time and space

c With respect to time Temporal variation
c With space Spatial variation

The temporal variation may be defined as hourly, daily, monthly, seasonal

variations and annual variation (long-term variation of precipitation)
Temporal Variation of rainfall at a particular site
Total Rainfall amount = 6.17cm
14

Rainfall Intensity,
cm/hr

12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0

20

40

60

80

Time, min

28

100

120

140

Temporal and Spatial Variation of Rainfall

LongtermPrecipitation variation atArba Minch
45
40

A n n u a l ra i n f a l l ,
mm

35
30
25
20

15
10
5
0
1986

1988

1990

1992

1994

1996

Years

29

1998

2000

2002

2004

2006

Annual Precipitation
average precipitation

Temporal and Spatial Variation of Rainfall

Source: Gary R Fuelner, Rainfall and climate records from Sharjah Airport: Historical data for
30 the study of recent climatic periodicity in the U.A.E.
c

Temporal Averaging of Precipitation

c

Storm rainfall/precipitation: It is the precipitationof a particular

storm/rainfall event.
c

Daily Rainfall: The amount of rainfall accumulated in one day at a place,

24
Mathematically;
Pday Pi
i1

Where Pday is daily rainfall and Pi is hourly storm rainfall during a given
day.

Monthly Rainfall: The amount of rainfall accumulated in one month at a

place,Mathematically;
30

Pmonth Pday
iday

c
31

Where Pmonth is monthly rainfall and Pday is daily precipitation during a

given month.

Temporal Averaging of Precipitation

c

Annual Rainfall: The amount of rainfall accumulated in one year at a place,

365
Mathematically;

Pann Pday
iday

Where Pann is annual rainfall and Pday is daily rainfall

Average rainfall for N years: It is the arithmetic average of annual

precipitation for N years over a rain gauging station.Mathematically;
N

Pavg

32

Where Pavg
year

i1

N
is average rainfall for N years and Pi is annual rainfallfor ith

Temporal Averaging of Precipitation

c

Estimate average monthly and annual precipitation from given data

Average Monthly Precipitation ?

N

P
avg

Pi
i1

18.8 25 22.1 7.2 0.4 0 0.8 0 0 1.1 2.7 16.2/12 7.86mm

Annual Precipitation ?
365

Pann Pi
i1

12

Pann Pi
i1

Pann 18.8 25 22.1 7.2 0.4 0 0.8 0 0 1.1 2.7 16.2 94.3
33

Climate data for Dubai

Month
Record high
C (F)

Jan
31.6
(88.9)

Feb
37.5
(99.5)

Mar
41.3
(106.3)

Apr
43.5
(110.3)

May
47.0
(116.6)

Jun
46.7
(116.1)

Jul
49.0
(120.2)

Aug
48.7
(119.7)

Sep
45.1
(113.2)

Oct
42.0
(107.6)

Nov
41.0
(105.8)

Dec
35.5
(95.9)

Year
49
(120.2)

Average
high C (F)

24.0
(75.2)

25.4
(77.7)

28.2
(82.8)

32.9
(91.2)

37.6
(99.7)

39.5
(103.1)

40.8
(105.4)

41.3
(106.3)

38.9
(102)

35.4
(95.7)

30.5
(86.9)

26.2
(79.2)

33.4
(92.1)

Daily mean
C (F)

19
(66)

20
(68)

22.5
(72.5)

26
(79)

30.5
(86.9)

33
(91)

34.5
(94.1)

35.5
(95.9)

32.5
(90.5)

29
(84)

24.5
(76.1)

21
(70)

27.5
(81.5)

Average
low C (F)

14.3
(57.7)

15.4
(59.7)

17.6
(63.7)

20.8
(69.4)

24.6
(76.3)

27.2
(81)

29.9
(85.8)

30.2
(86.4)

27.5
(81.5)

23.9
(75)

19.9
(67.8)

16.3
(61.3)

22.3
(72.1)

Record low
C (F)

6.1
(43)

6.9
(44.4)

9.0
(48.2)

13.4
(56.1)

15.1
(59.2)

18.2
(64.8)

20.4
(68.7)

23.1
(73.6)

16.5
(61.7)

15.0
(59)

11.8
(53.2)

8.2
(46.8)

6.1
(43)

Precipitatio
n mm
(inches)

18.8
(0.74)

25.0
(0.984)

22.1
(0.87)

7.2
(0.283)

0.4
(0.016)

0.0
(0)

0.8
(0.031)

0.0
(0)

0.0
(0)

1.1
(0.043)

2.7
(0.106)

16.2
(0.638)

94.3
(3.711)

Avg. precipit
ation days

5.4

4.7

5.8

2.6

0.3

0.0

0.5

0.5

0.1

0.2

1.3

3.8

25.2

% humidity

65

65

63

55

53

58

56

57

60

60

61

64

59.8

Mean
monthly sun
shine hours

254.2

229.6

254.5

294.0

344.1

342.0

322.4

316.2

309.0

303.8

285.0

256.6

3,511.4

4242

Source #1: Dubai Meteorological Office[4]

Source #2: climatebase.ru (extremes, sun),[5], NOAA (humidity, 1974-1991)[6]

Spatial Averaging of Precipitation

c

Average rainfall over an area: It is the amount of precipitation which

can be assumed as uniform over the given area.

It is estimated by using several approaches given below;

c
c
c

Arithmetic method
Theissen polygon method
Isohyetal method

According to arithmetic method, arithmetic mean precipitation

over an area can be defined by
N

Pavg
c

35

Pi
i1

Where, Pavg is the average precipitation, N is the total number of stations and
Pi is the average annual precipitation for ith station.

Methods of Spatial Averaging Rainfall Data

c

Raingauges rainfall represent only point sampling of the areal

distribution of a storm

The important rainfall for hydrological analysis is a rainfall over

an area, such as over the catchment

To convert the point rainfall values at various stations in to

average value over a catchment, the following methods are
used:
c (i). arithmetic mean method
c (ii).the method of theThiessen polygons
c (iii). the isohyetal method
36

Methods of Spatial Averaging Rainfall Data

Arithmetic Mean Method
When the area is physically and climatically
homogenous and the required accuracy is small,
the average rainfall ( P ) for a basin can be
obtained as the arithmetic mean of the Pi values
recorded at various stations.
Applicable rarely for practical purpose

P1 P2 ..... Pi .....Pn

P
N
37

1 N
Pi

N i1

Methods of Spatial Averaging Rainfall Data

Thiessen Polygon Method
The method of Thiessen polygons consists of attributing to
each station an influence zone in which it is considered that
the rainfall is equivalent to that of the station.
The influence zones are represented by convex polygons.
These polygons are obtained using the mediators of the
segments which link each station to the closest
neighbouring stations

38

Methods of Spatial Averaging Rainfall Data

Thiessen Polygon Method

39

Methods of Spatial Averaging Rainfall Data

Thiessen Polygon Method
P7

P6

A7
A6

P2
A2

A1

A8

P1

P8

P5

A3

A4

P3
P4
40

A5

Methods of Spatial Averaging Rainfall Data

Thiessen Polygon Method

P1 A1 P2 A2 ..... Pm Am
P
A1 A2 ..... Am
Generally for M station
M

PA
i

The ratio
41

i1

Atotal

i1

Ai
Pi
A

Methods of Spatial Averaging Rainfall Data

Thiessen Polygon Method

42

Methods of Spatial Averaging Rainfall Data

Thiessen Polygon Method

Ai
A

51

Pi

Pi

Mean precipitation =

i 1

Ai
A =121.84

Ai
A

Methods of Spatial Averaging Rainfall Data

Isohyetal Method
An isohyet is a line joining points of equal rainfall
magnitude.
10.0

8
D
A5
12

C
9.2

12
A4

A3

7.0
B

7.2
A
A2
4.0
F

E
9.1

A1
8

52

10.0

Methods of Spatial Averaging Rainfall Data

Isohyetal Method
P1, P2, P3, . , Pn the values of the isohytes
A1, A2, A3, ., A4 are the inter isohytes area respectively
Atotal the total catchment area
P - the mean precipitation over the catchment

P2 P3
Pn1 Pn
PP

1
2
A1
A2
... An1

2
P 2 2
Atotal
NOTE
45

The isohyet method is superior to the other two methods

especially when the stations are large in number.

Methods of Spatial Averaging Rainfall Data

Isohyetal Method

46

Pavg

47

PiPi1
2

Ai

Ai
Atotal

Pavg

Ai
Atotal

Methods of Spatial Averaging Rainfall Data

Isohyetal Method
c

Other mapping programs such as SURFER or GIS

program ARCVIEW can be used to map rainfall at
the different measurement locations.

48

Thank you
c

Questions.

66

Excercise
Six rain gauges where installed in a relatively flat area and storm
precipitation from these gauges were recorded as 3.7, 4.9, 6.8,11.4, 7.6,
and 12.7 cm respectively from gauges, 1,2,36.
Find average precipitation