21

Relay Testing and Commissioning

Introduction Electrical type tests Electromagnetic compatibility tests Product s
afety type tests Environmental type tests Software type tests Dynamic validation
type testing Production testing Commissioning tests Secondary injection test eq
uipment Secondary injection testing 21.1 21.2 21.3 21.4 21.5 21.6 21.7 21.8 21.9
21.10 21.11
Primary injection testing 21.12 Testing of protection scheme logic 21.13 Trippin
g and alarm annunciation tests 21.14 Periodic maintenance tests 21.15 Protection
scheme design for maintenance 21.16 References 21.17


21 Relay Testing and Commissioning
21.1 INTRODUCTION The testing of protection equipment schemes presents a number
of problems. This is because the main function of protection equipment is solely
concerned with operation under system fault conditions, and cannot readily be t
ested under normal system operating conditions. This situation is aggravated by
the increasing complexity of protection schemes and use of relays containing sof
tware. The testing of protection equipment may be divided into four stages: i. t
ype tests ii. routine factory production tests iii. commissioning tests iv. peri
odic maintenance tests
21.1.1 Type Tests Type tests are required to prove that a relay meets the publis
hed specification and complies with all relevant standards. Since the principal
function of a protection relay is to operate correctly under abnormal power cond
itions, it is essential that the performance be assessed under such conditions.
Comprehensive type tests simulating the operational conditions are therefore con
ducted at the manufacturer's works during the development and certification of t
he equipment. The standards that cover most aspects of relay performance are IEC
60255 and ANSI C37.90. However compliance may also involve consideration of the
requirements of IEC 61000, 60068 and 60529, while products intended for use in
the EEC also have to comply with the requirements of Directives 89/336/EEC and 7
3/23/EEC. Since type testing of a digital or numerical relay involves testing of
software as well as hardware, the type testing process is very complicated and
more involved than a static or electromechanical relay.
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21.1.2 Routine Factory Production Tests These are conducted to prove that relays
are free from defects during manufacture. Testing will take place at several st
ages during manufacture, to ensure problems are discovered at the earliest possi
ble time and hence minimise remedial work. The extent of testing will be determi
ned by the complexity of the relay and past manufacturing experience.
would take 4 years to write the functional type-test specifications, 30 years to
perform the tests and several years to write the test reports that result. Auto
mated techniques/ equipment are clearly required, and are covered in Section 21.
7.2.
Range 0.08 - 4.00In 0.08 - 32In Forward/Reverse/Non-directional -95 to +95 DT/IDMT
0 - 100s IEC Standard Inverse IEC Very Inverse IEC IDMT Time Delay IEC Extremel
y Inverse UK Long Time Inverse Time Multiplier Setting (TMS) 0.025 - 1.2 IEEE Mo
derately Inverse IEEE Very Inverse IEEE IDMT Time Delay IEEE Extremely Inverse U
S-CO8 Inverse US-CO2 Short Time Inverse Time Dial (TD) 0.5 - 15 IEC Reset Time (
DT only) 0 - 100s IEEE Reset Time IDMT/DT IEEE DT Reset Time 0 - 100s IEEE Moder
ately Inverse IEEE Very Inverse IEEE IDMT Reset Time IEEE Extremely Inverse US-C
O8 Inverse US-CO2 Short Time Inverse Table 21.1: Overcurrent relay element speci
fication Element I>1 I>2 Directionality RCA Characteristic Definite Time Delay S
tep Size 0.01In 0.01In 1 0.01s
21.1.3 Commissioning Tests These tests are designed to prove that a particular p
rotection scheme has been installed correctly prior to setting to work. All aspe
cts of the scheme are thoroughly checked, from installation of the correct equip
ment through wiring checks and operation checks of the individual items of equip
ment, finishing with testing of the complete scheme.
0.025
R e l a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
21.1.4 Periodic Maintenance Checks These are required to identify equipment fail
ures and degradation in service, so that corrective action can be taken. Because
a protection scheme only operates under fault conditions, defects may not be re
vealed for a significant period of time, until a fault occurs. Regular testing a
ssists in detecting faults that would otherwise remain undetected until a fault
occurs.
0.1 0.01s 0.01s
21.2 ELECTRICAL TYPE TESTS Various electrical type tests must be performed, as f
ollows:
Test 1 Three phase non-directional pick up and drop off accuracy over complete c
urrent setting range for both stages Three phase directional pick up and drop of
f accuracy over complete RCA setting range in the forward direction, current ang
le sweep Three phase directional pick up and drop off accuracy over complete RCA
setting range in the reverse direction, current angle sweep Three phase directi
onal pick up and drop off accuracy over complete RCA setting range in the forwar
d direction, voltage angle sweep Three phase directional pick up and drop off ac
curacy over complete RCA setting range in the reverse direction, voltage angle s
weep Three phase polarising voltage threshold test Accuracy of DT timer over com
plete setting range Accuracy of IDMT curves over claimed accuracy range Accuracy
of IDMT TMS/TD Effect of changing fault current on IDMT operating times Minimum
Pick-Up of Starts and Trips for IDMT curves Accuracy of reset timers Effect of
any blocking signals, opto inputs, VTS, Autoreclose Voltage polarisation memory
21.2.1 Functional Tests

Test 2

21
The functional tests consist of applying the appropriate inputs to the relay und
er test and measuring the performance to determine if it meets the specification
. They are usually carried out under controlled environmental conditions. The te
sting may be extensive, even where only a simple relay function is being tested.
, as can be realised by considering the simple overcurrent relay element of Tabl
e 21.1. To determine compliance with the specification, the tests listed in Tabl
e 21.2 are required to be carried out. This is a time consuming task, involving
many engineers and technicians. Hence it is expensive. When a modern numerical r
elay with many functions is considered, each of which has to be type-tested, the
functional type-testing involved is a major issue. In the case of a recent rela
y development project, it was calculated that if one person had to do all the wo
rk, it
Test 3
Test 4
Test 5 Test 6 Test 7 Test 8 Test 9 Test 10 Test 11 Test 12 Test 13 Test 14
Table 21.2: Overcurrent relay element functional type tests
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21.2.2 Rating Tests Rating type tests are conducted to ensure that components ar
e used within their specified ratings and that there are no fire or electric sho
ck hazards under a normal load or fault condition of the power system. This is i
n addition to checking that the product complies with its technical specificatio
n. The following are amongst the rating type tests conducted on protection relay
s, the specified parameters are normally to IEC 60255-6.
seconds. This is carried out between all circuits and case earth, between all in
dependent circuits and across normally open contacts. The acceptance criterion f
or a product in new condition is a minimum of 100M. After a damp heat test the pa
ss criterion is a minimum of 10M. 21.2.7 Auxiliary Supplies Digital and numerical
protection relays normally require an auxiliary supply to provide power to the
on-board microprocessor circuitry and the interfacing optoisolated input circuit
s and output relays. The auxiliary supply can be either a.c. or d.c., supplied f
rom a number of sources or safe supplies - i.e. batteries, UPS, generators, etc.,
all of which may be subject to voltage dips, short interruptions and voltage va
riations. Relays are designed to ensure that operation is maintained and no dama
ge occurs during a disturbance of the auxiliary supply. Tests are carried out fo
r both a.c. and d.c. auxiliary supplies and include mains variation both above a
nd below the nominal rating, supply interruptions derived by open circuit and sh
ort circuit, supply dips as a percentage of the nominal supply, repetitive start
s. The duration of the interruptions and supply dips range from 2ms to 60s inter
vals. A short supply interruption or dip up to 20ms, possibly longer, should not
cause any malfunction of the relay. Malfunctions include the operation of outpu
t relays and watchdog contacts, the reset of microprocessors, alarm or trip indi
cation, acceptance of corrupted data over the communication link and the corrupt
ion of stored data or settings. For a longer supply interruption, or dip in exce
ss of 20ms, the relay self recovers without the loss of any function, data, sett
ings or corruption of data. No operator intervention is required to restore oper
ation after an interruption or dip in the supply. Many relays have a specificati
on that exceeds this requirement, tolerating dips of up to 50ms without operatio
n being affected. In addition to the above, the relay is subjected to a number o
f repetitive starts or a sequence of supply interruptions. Again the relay is te
sted to ensure that no damage or data corruption has occurred during the repetit
ive tests. Specific tests carried out on d.c. auxiliary supplies include reverse
polarity, a.c. waveform superimposed on the d.c. supply and the effect of a ris
ing and decaying auxiliary voltage. All tests are carried out at various levels
of loading of the relay auxiliary supply.
21.2.3 Thermal ithstand The thermal withstand of VTs, CTs and output contact circ
uits is determined to ensure compliance with the specified continuous and shortterm overload conditions. In addition to functional verification, the pass crite
rion is that there is no detrimental effect on the relay assembly, or circuit co
mponents, when the product is subjected to overload conditions that may be expec
ted in service. Thermal withstand is assessed over a time period of 1s for CTs an
d 10s for VTs.
21.2.4 Relay Burden The burdens of the auxiliary supply, optically isolated inpu
ts, VTs and CTs are measured to check that the product complies with its specifica
tion. The burden of products with a high number of input/output circuits is appl
ication specific i.e. it increases according to the number of optically isolated
input and output contact ports which are energised under normal power system lo
ad conditions. It is usually envisaged that not more than 50% of such ports will
be energised in any application.
21.2.5 Relay Inputs Relay inputs are tested over the specified ranges. Inputs in
clude those for auxiliary voltage, VT, CT, frequency, optically isolated digital
inputs and communication circuits.

21.2.6 Relay Output Contacts Protection relay output contacts are type tested to
ensure that they comply with the product specification. Particular withstand an
d endurance type tests have to be carried out using d.c., since the normal suppl
y is via a station battery.
21.2.7 Insulation Resistance The insulation resistance test is carried out accor
ding to IEC 60255-5, i.e. 500V d.c. 10%, for a minimum of 5
21.3 ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILITY TESTS There are numerous tests that are carri
ed out to determine the ability of relays to withstand the electrical
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environment in which they are installed. The substation environment is a very se

vere environment in terms of the electrical and electromagnetic interference tha
t can arise. There are many sources of interference within a substation, some or
iginating internally, others being conducted along the overhead lines or cables
into the substation from external disturbances. The most common sources are: a.
switching operations b. system faults c. lightning strikes d. conductor flashove
r e. telecommunication operations e.g. mobile phones A whole suite of tests are
performed to simulate these types of interference, and they fall under the broad
umbrella of what is known as EMC, or Electromagnetic Compatibility tests.
that the relay can withstand an interruption in the auxiliary supply without deenergising, e.g. switching off, and that when this time is exceeded and it does
transiently switch off, that no maloperation occurs. It simulates the effect of
a loose fuse in the battery circuit, or a short circuit in the common d.c. suppl
y, interrupted by a fuse. Another source of d.c. interruption is if there is a p
ower system fault and the battery is supplying both the relay and the circuit br
eaker trip coils. hen the battery energises the coils to initiate the circuit b
reaker trip, the voltage may fall below the required level for operation of the
relay and hence a d.c. interrupt occurs. The test is specified in IEC 60255-11 a
nd comprises a interruptions of 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100 and 200ms. For interruptio
ns lasting up to and including 20ms, the relay must not de-energise of maloperat
e, while for longer interruptions it must not maloperate. The relay is powered f
rom a battery supply, and both short circuit and open circuit interruptions are
carried out. Each interruption is applied 10 times, and for auxiliary power supp
lies with a large operating range, the tests are performed at minimum, maximum,
and other voltages across this range, to ensure compliance over the complete ran
ge.
R e l a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
Broadly speaking, EMC can be defined as: The ability of equipment to co-exist in
the same electromagnetic environment It is not a new subject and has been tested
for by the military ever since the advent of electronic equipment. EMC can cause
real and serious problems, and does need to be taken into account when designin
g electronic equipment. EMC tests determine the impact on the relay under test o
f high-frequency electrical disturbances of various kinds. Relays manufactured o
r intended for use in the EEC have to comply with EEC Directive 89/336/EEC in th
is respect. To achieve this, in addition to designing for statutory compliance t
o this Directive, the following range of tests are carried out: a. d.c. interrup
t test b. a.c. ripple on d.c. supply test
21.3.2 A.C. Ripple on D.C. Supply This test (IEC 60255-11) determines that the r
elay is able to operate correctly with a superimposed a.c. voltage on the d.c. s
upply. This is caused by the station battery being charged by the battery charge
r, and the relevant waveform is shown in Figure 21.1. It consists of a 12% peakto-peak ripple superimposed on the d.c. supply voltage.
60.00 50.00 40.00
Voltage (V)

21
c. d.c. ramp test d. high frequency disturbance test e. fast transient test f. s
urge immunity test g. power frequency interference test h. electrostatic dischar
ge test i. conducted and radiated emissions tests j. conducted and radiated immu
nity tests k. power frequency magnetic field tests
30.00 20.00 10.00 0.00
1 88 175 262 349 436 523 610 697 784 871 958 1045 1132 1219 1306 1393

Time (ms) Figure 21.1: A.C. ripple superimposed on d.c. supply test
21.3.1 D.C Interrupt Test This is a test to determine the maximum length of time
For auxiliary power supplies with a large operating range, the tests are perform
ed at minimum, maximum, and other voltages across this range, to ensure complian
ce for the complete range. The interference is applied using a full wave rectifi
er network, connected in parallel with the battery supply. The relay must contin
ue to operate without malfunction during the test.
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21.3.3 D.C. Ramp Down/Ramp Up This test simulates a failed station battery charg
er, which would result in the auxiliary voltage to the relay slowly ramping down
. The ramp up part simulates the battery being recharged after discharging. The
relay must power up cleanly when the voltage is applied and not maloperate. Ther
e is no international standard for this test, so individual manufacturers can de
cide if they wish to conduct such a test and what the test specification shall b
e.
V
Burst period, 300 ms Burst duration (1/15 ms)
t V 5 ns rise time, 50 ns pulse width
Repetition period Figure 21.3: Fast Transient Test waveform
t
21.3.4 High Frequency Disturbance Test The High Frequency Disturbance Test simul
ates high voltage transients that result from power system faults and plant swit
ching operations. It consists of a 1MHz decaying sinusoidal waveform, as shown i
n Figure 21.2. The interference is applied across each independent circuit (diff
erential mode) and between each independent circuit and earth (common mode) via
an external coupling and switching network. The product is energised in both nor
mal (quiescent) and tripped modes for this test, and must not maloperate when th
e interference is applied for a 2 second duration. The product is energised in b
oth normal (quiescent) and tripped modes for this test. It must not maloperate w
hen the interference is applied in common mode via the integral coupling network
to each circuit in turn, for 60 seconds. Interference is coupled onto communica
tions circuits, if required, using an external capacitive coupling clamp.
21.3.6 Surge Immunity Test The Surge Immunity Test simulates interference caused
by major power system disturbances such as capacitor bank switching and lightni
ng strikes on overhead lines within 5km of the substation. The test waveform has
an open circuit voltage of 4kV for common mode surges and 2kV for differential
mode surges. The test waveshape consists on open circuit of a 1.2/50ms rise/fall
time and a short circuit current of 8/20ms rise/fall time. The generator is cap
able of providing a short circuit test current of up to 2kA, making this test po
tentially destructive. The surges are applied sequentially under software contro
l via dedicated coupling networks in both differential and common modes with the
product energised in its normal (quiescent) state. The product shall not malope
rate during the test, shall still operate within specification after the test se
quence and shall not incur any permanent damage.
0 Time
Figure 21.2: High Frequency Disturbance Test waveform

21.3.5 Fast Transient Test The Fast Transient Test simulates the HV interference
caused by disconnector operations in GIS substations or breakdown of the SF6 in
sulation between conductors and the earthed enclosure. This interference can eit
her be inductively coupled onto relay circuits or can be directly introduced via
the CT or VT inputs. It consists of a series of 15ms duration bursts at 300ms i
ntervals, each burst consisting of a train of 50ns wide pulses with very fast (5
ns typical) rise times (Figure 21.3), with a peak voltage magnitude of 4kV.
21.3.7 Power Frequency Interference This test simulates the type of interference
that is caused when there is a power system fault and very high levels of fault
current flow in the primary conductors or the earth grid. This causes 50 or 60H

z interference to be induced onto control and communications circuits. There is

no international standard for this test, but one used by some Utilities is: a. 5
00V r.m.s., common mode b. 250V r.m.s., differential mode
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Voltage

applied to circuits for which power system inputs are not connected. Tests are c
arried out on each circuit, with the relay in the following modes of operation:
1. current and voltage applied at 90% of setting, (relay not tripped) 2. current
and voltage applied at 110% of setting, (relay tripped) 3. main protection and
communications functions are tested to determine the effect of the interference
The relay shall not maloperate during the test, and shall still perform its main
functions within the claimed tolerance.
1. current and voltage applied at 90% of setting, (relay not tripped) 2. current
and voltage applied at 110% of setting, (relay tripped) 3. main protection and
communications functions are tested to determine the effect of the discharge To
pass, the relay shall not maloperate, and shall still perform its main functions
within the claimed tolerance.
21.3.9 Conducted and Radiated Emissions Tests These tests arise primarily from t
he essential protection requirements of the European Community (EU) directive on
EMC. These require manufacturers to ensure that any equipment to be sold in the
countries comprising the European Union must not interfere with other equipment
. To achieve this it is necessary to measure the emissions from the equipment an
d ensure that they are below the specified limits. Conducted emissions are measu
red only from the equipments power supply ports and are to ensure that when conne
cted to a mains network, the equipment does not inject interference back into th
e network which could adversely affect the other equipment connected to the netw
ork. Radiated emissions measurements are to ensure that the interference radiate
d from the equipment is not at a level that could cause interference to other eq
uipment. This test is normally carried out on an Open Area Test Site (OATS) wher
e there are no reflecting structures or sources of radiation, and therefore the
measurements obtained are a true indication of the emission spectrum of the rela
y. An example of a plot obtained during conducted emissions tests is shown in Fi
gure 21.5. The test arrangements for the conducted and radiated emissions tests
are shown in Figure 21.6. hen performing these two tests, the relay is in a qui
escent condition, that is not tripped, with currents and voltages applied at 90%
of the setting values. This is because for the majority of its life, the relay
will be in the quiescent state and the emission of electromagnetic interference
when the relay is tripped is considered to be of no significance. Tests are cond
ucted in accordance with IEC 60255-25 and EN 50081-2, and are detailed in Table
21.3.
Frequency Range 30 - 230MHz Radiated 230 - 1000MHz Specified Limits 30dB(V/m) at
30m 37dB(V/m) at 30m 79dB(V) quasi-peak 66dB(V) average 73dB(V) quasi-peak 60dB(V) av
erage Test Limits 40dB(V/m) at 10m 47dB(V/m) at 10m 79dB(V) quasi-peak 66dB(V) avera
ge 73dB(V) quasi-peak 60dB(V) average
21.3.8 Electrostatic Discharge Test This test simulates the type of high voltage
interference that occurs when an operator touches the relays front panel after b
eing charged to a high potential. This is exactly the same phenomenon as getting
an electric shock when stepping out of a car or after walking on a synthetic fi
bre carpet. In this case the discharge is only ever applied to the front panel o
f the relay, with the cover both on and off. Two types of discharges are applied
, air discharge and contact discharge. Air discharges are used on surfaces that
are normally insulators, and contact discharges are used on surfaces that are no
rmally conducting. IEC 60255-22-2 is the relevant standard this test, for which
the test parameters are: a. cover on: Class 4, 8kV contact discharge, 15kV air d
ischarge b. cover off: Class 3, 6kV contact discharge, 8kV air discharge In both
cases above, all the lower test levels are also tested. The discharge current w
aveform is shown in Figure 21.4.
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 10
Current, % of Peak

R e l a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g 21
Rise Time = 0.7 to 1.0 ns. Current specified for 30 ns and 60 ns
20
30
40 50 Time, ns
60
70
80
90
Figure 21.4: ESD Current

aveform

The test is performed with single discharges repeated on each test point 10 time
s with positive polarity and 10 times with negative polarity at each test level.
The time interval between successive discharges is greater than 1 second. Tests
are carried out at each level, with the relay in the following modes of operati
on:
0.15 - 0.5MHz Conducted 0.5 - 30MHz
Table 21.3: Test criteria for Conducted and Radiated Emissions tests
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100 90 80 70 Quasi-peak limits Average limits Typical trace

Emissions Level, dBuV
60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0.1 1 Frequency, MHz 10 100
Figure 21.5: Conducted Emissions Test Plot
Screened room
Ante-chamber
E.U.T. Impedance network
Access panel
Support/analysis equipment
(a) Conducted EMC emissions test arrangement
10m

Antenna E.U.T.
Turntable
Earth Plane
(b) Radiated Emissions test arrangement on an OATS E.U.T. - Equipment under test
Figure 21.6: EMC test arrangements
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R e l a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g 21

21.3.10 Conducted and Radiated Immunity Tests These tests are designed to ensure
that the equipment is immune to levels of interference that it may be subjected
to. The two tests, conducted and radiated, arise from the fact that for a condu
ctor to be an efficient antenna, it must have a length of at least 1/4 of the wa
velength of the electromagnetic wave it is required to conduct. If a relay were
to be subjected to radiated interference at 150kHz, then a conductor length of a
t least = 300 x106/(150 x 103 x 4) = 500 m wou
d be needed to conduct the interf
erence. Even with a

the cab
ing attached and with the
ongest PCB track
ength
taken into account, it wou
d be high
y un
ike
y that the re
ay wou
d be ab
e to
conduct radiation of this frequency, and the test therefore, wou
d have no effe
ct. The interference has to be physica

y introduced by conduction, hence the co
nducted immunity test. However, at the radiated immunity
ower frequency
imit o
f 80MHz, a conductor
ength of approximate
y 1.0m is required. At this frequency
, radiated immunity tests can be performed with the confidence that the re
ay wi


conduct this interference, through a combination of the attached cab
ing and
the PCB tracks. A
though the test standards state that a

6 faces of the equipm
ent shou
d be subjected to the interference, in practice this is not carried out
. App
ying interference to the sides and top and bottom of the re
ay wou
d have

itt
e effect as the circuitry inside is effective
y screened by the earthed met
a
case. However, the front and rear of the re
ay are not comp
ete
y enc
osed by
meta
and are therefore not at a

we

screened, and can be regarded as an EMC
ho
e. E
ectromagnetic interference when directed at the front and back of the r
e
ay can enter free
y onto the PCBs inside. When performing these two tests, the
re
ay is in a quiescent condition, that is not tripped, with currents and vo
tag
es app
ied at 90% of the setting va
ues. This is because for the majority of its

ife, the re
ay wi

be in the quiescent state and the coincidence of an e
ectr
omagnetic disturbance and a fau
t is considered to be un
ike
y. However, spot ch
ecks are performed at se
ected frequencies when the main protection and contro

functions of the re
ay are exercised, to ensure that it wi

operate as expected
, shou
d it be required to do so. The frequencies for the spot checks are in gen
era
se
ected to coincide with the radio frequency broadcast bands, and in parti
cu
ar, the frequencies of mobi
e communications equipment used by personne
work
ing in the substation. This is to ensure that when working in the vicinity of a
re
ay, the personne
shou
d be ab
e to
operate their radios/mobi
e phones without fear of re
ay ma
operation. IEC 60255
-22-3 specifies the radiated immunity tests to be conducted (ANSI/IEEE C37.90.2
is used for equipment bui
t to US standards), with signa

eve
s of: 1. IEC: C
a
ss III, 10V/m, 80MHz -1000MHz 2. ANSI/IEEE: 35V/m 25MHz - 1000MHz with no modu
a
tion, and again with 100% pu
se modu
ation IEC 60255-22-6 is used for the conduc
ted immunity test, with a test
eve
of: C
ass III, 10V r.m.s., 150kHz - 80MHz.
21.3.11 Power Frequency Magnetic Fie
d Tests These tests are designed to ensure
that the equipment is immune to magnetic interference. The three tests, steady s
tate, pu
sed and damped osci

atory magnetic fie
d, arise from the fact that for
different site conditions the
eve
and waveshape is a
tered. 23.3.11.1 Steady
state magnetic fie
d tests These tests simu
ate the magnetic fie
d that wou
d be
experienced by a device
ocated within c
ose proximity of the power system. Tes
ting is carried out by subjecting the re
ay to a magnetic fie
d generated by two
induction coi
s. The re
ay is rotated such that in each axis it is subjected to
the fu

magnetic fie
d strength. IEC 610004-6 is the re
evant standard, using
a signa

eve
of: Leve
5: 300A/m continuous and 1000A/m short duration The tes
t arrangement is shown in Figure 21.7.
R e
a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
Induction coi

21
Induction coi

E.U.T.
Ground p
ane
E.U.T. - Equipment under test Figure 21.7: Power frequency magnetic fie
d set-up
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To pass the steady-state test, the re
ay sha

not ma
operate, and sha

sti

p
erform its main functions within the c
aimed to
erance. During the app
ication o
f the short duration test, the main protection function sha

be exercised and v
erified that the operating characteristics of the re
ay are unaffected. 21.3.11.
2 Pu
sed magnetic fie
d These tests simu
ate the magnetic fie
d that wou
d be ex
perienced by a device
ocated within c
ose proximity of the power system during
a transient fau
t condition. According to IEC 61000-4-9, the generator for the i
nduction coi
s sha

produce a 6.4/16s waveshape with test
eve
5, 100A/m with t
he equipment configured as for the steady state magnetic fie
d test. The re
ay s
ha

not ma
operate, and sha

sti

perform its main functions within the c
aim
ed to
erance during the test. 21.3.11.3 Damped osci

atory magnetic fie
d These
tests simu
ate the magnetic fie
d that wou
d be experienced by a device
ocated
within c
ose proximity of the power system during a transient fau
t condition. I
EC 61000-4-10 specifies that the generator for the coi
sha

produce an osci

a
tory waveshape with a frequency of 0.1MHz and 1MHz, to give a signa

eve
in ac
cordance with Leve
5 of 100A/m, and the equipment sha

be configured as in Fig
ure 21.7.
open contacts intended for connection to tripping circuits, in accordance with A
NSI/IEEE C37.90 3. 1.0kV r.m.s., 50/60Hz for 1 minute across the norma

y open c
ontacts of watchdog or changeover output re
ays, in accordance with IEC 60255-5
The routine die
ectric vo
tage withstand test time may be shorter than for the 1
minute type test time, to a

ow a reasonab
e production throughput, e.g. for a
minimum of 1 second at 110% of the vo
tage specified for 1 minute.
21.4.2 Insu
ation Withstand for Overvo
tages The purpose of the High Vo
tage Imp
u
se Withstand type test is to ensure that circuits and their components wi

wi
thstand overvo
tages on the power system caused by
ightning. Three positive and
three negative high vo
tage impu
ses, 5kV peak, are app
ied between a

circuit
s and the case earth and a
so between the termina
s of independent circuits (but
not across norma

y open contacts). As before, different requirements app
y in
the case of circuits using D-type connectors. The test generator characteristics
are as specified in IEC 60255-5 and are shown in Figure 21.8. No disruptive dis
charge (i.e. f
ashover or puncture) is a

owed. If it is necessary to repeat eit
her the Die
ectric Vo
tage or High Vo
tage Impu
se Withstand tests these shou
d
be carried out at 75% of the specified
eve
, in accordance with IEC 60255-5, to
avoid overstressing insu
ation and components.
21.4 PRODUCT SAFETY TYPE TESTS A number of tests are carried out to demonstrate
that the product is safe when used for its intended app
ication. The essentia
r
equirements are that the re
ay is safe and wi

not cause an e
ectric shock or f
ire hazard under norma
conditions and in the presence of a sing
e fau
t. A numb
er of specific tests to prove this may be carried out, as fo

ows.
Vo
tage
21.4.1 Die
ectric Vo
tage Withstand Die
ectric Vo
tage Withstand testing is carr
ied out as a routine test i.e. on every unit prior to despatch. The purpose of t
his test is to ensure that the product bui
d is as intended by design. This is d
one by verifying the c
earance in air, thus ensuring that the product is safe to
operate under norma
use conditions. The fo

owing tests are conducted un
ess o
therwise specified in the product documentation: 1. 2.0kV r.m.s., 50/60Hz for 1
minute between a

termina
s and case earth and a
so between independent circuit
s, in accordance with IEC 60255-5. Some communication circuits are exc
uded from
this test, or have modified test requirements e.g. those using D-type connector
s 2. 1.5kV r.m.s., 50/60Hz for 1 minute across norma

y

5kV peak Rise time (10 % to 90 %) = 1.2 s Duration (50 %) = 50 s

Time
Figure 21.8: Test generator characteristics for insu
ation withstand test
21.4.3 Sing
e Fau
t Condition Assessment An assessment is made of whether a sing

e fau
t condition such as an over
oad, or an open or short circuit, app
ied to
the product may cause an e
ectric shock or fire
Network Protection & Automation Guide
379
R e
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hazard. In the case of doubt, type testing is carried out to ensure that the pro
duct is safe.
21.5.2 Humidity Test The humidity test is performed to ensure that the product w
i

withstand and operate correct
y when subjected to 93% re
ative humidity at a
constant temperature of 40C for 56 days. Tests are performed to ensure that the
product functions correct
y within specification after 21 and 56 days. After the
test, visua
inspections are made for any signs of unacceptab
e corrosion and m
ou
d growth.
21.4.4 Earth Bonding Impedance C
ass 1 products that re
y on a protective earth
connection for safety are subjected to an earth bonding impedance (EBI) type tes
t. This ensures that the earth path between the protective earth connection and
any accessib
e earthed part is sufficient
y
ow to avoid damage in the event of
a sing
e fau
t occurring. The test is conducted using a test vo
tage of 12V maxi
mum and a test current of twice the recommended maximum protective fuse rating.
After 1 minute with the current f
owing in the circuit under test, the EBI sha


not exceed 0.1. 21.4.5 CE Marking
21.5.3 Cyclic Temperature/Humidity Test This is a short-term test that stresses
the relay by subjecting it to temperature cycling in conjunction with high humid
ity. The test does not replace the 56 day humidity test, but is used for testing
extension to ranges or minor modifications to prove that the design is unaffect
ed. The applicable standard is IEC 60068-2-30 and test conditions of: +25C 3C and 9
5% relative humidity/+55C 2C and 95% relative humidity are used, over the 24 hour c
ycle shown in Figure 21.9.
Relative humidity %
R e l a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
A CE mark on the product, or its packaging, shows that compliance is claimed aga
inst relevant European Community directives e.g. Low Voltage Directive 73/23/EEC
and Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) Directive 89/336/EEC.
21.5 ENVIRONMENTAL TYPE TESTS Various tests have to be conducted to prove that a
relay can withstand the effects of the environment in which it is expected to w
ork. They consist of: the following tests: 1. temperature 2. humidity 3. enclosu
re protection 4. mechanical
100 90 80 70
96% 95% 90% 15min End of temperature rise 80% temperature Time 95%
+55C
Ambient Temperature C

21
These tests are described in the following sections.
0.5h 3h 12h0.5h 3h 6h 24h
+28C +22C Time
+25C
21.5.1 Temperature Test Temperature tests are performed to ensure that a product
can withstand extremes in temperatures, both hot and cold, during transit, stor

age and operating conditions. Storage and transit conditions are defined as a te
mperature range of 25C to +70C and operating as 25C to +55C. Dry heat withstand tests
are performed at 70C for 96 hours with the re
ay de-energised. Co
d withstand tes
ts are performed at 40C for 96 hours with the re
ay deenergised. Operating range t
ests are carried out with the product energised, checking a

main functions ope
rate within to
erance over the specified working temperature range 25C to +55C.
Figure 21.9: Cyc
ic temperature/humidity test profi
e
For these tests the re
ay is p
aced in a humidity cabinet, and energised with no
rma
in-service quantities for the comp
ete duration of the tests. In practica

terms this usua

y means energising the re
ay with currents and vo
tages such th
at it is 10% from the thresho
d for operation. Throughout the duration of the te
st the re
ay is monitored to ensure that no unwanted operations occur. Once the
re
ay is removed from the humidity cabinet, its insu
ation resistance is measure
d to ensure that it has not deteriorated to be
ow the c
aimed
eve
. The re
ay i
s then functiona

y tested again, and fina

y dismant
ed to
Network Protection & Automation Guide
380

check for signs of component corrosion and growth. The acceptance criterion is t
hat no unwanted operations sha

occur inc
uding transient operation of indicati
ng devices. After the test the re
ays insu
ation resistance shou
d not have signi
ficant
y reduced, and it shou
d perform a

of its main protection and communica
tions functions within the c
aimed to
erance. The re
ay shou
d a
so suffer no si
gnificant corrosion or growth, and photographs are usua

y taken of each PCB and
the case as a record of this.
21.5.4 Enc
osure Protection Test Enc
osure protection tests prove that the casin
g system and connectors on the product protect against the ingress of dust, mois
ture, water drop
ets (striking the case at predefined ang
es) and other po

utan
ts. An acceptab
e
eve
of dust or water may penetrate the case during testing, bu
t must not impair norma
product operation, safety or cause tracking across insu

ated parts of connectors.
Figure 21.10: Re
ay undergoing seismic test
1.2A A 0.8A Pu
se shape (ha
f sine)
21.5.5 Mechanica
Tests Mechanica
tests simu
ate a number of different mechanic
a
conditions that the product may have to endure during its
ifetime. These fa


into two categories a. response to disturbances whi
e energised b. response to
disturbances during transportation (de-energised state) Tests in the first cate
gory are concerned with the response to vibration, shock and seismic disturbance
. The tests are designed to simu
ate norma
in-service conditions for the produc
t, for examp
e earthquakes. These tests are performed in a

three axes, with th
e product energised in its norma
(quiescent) state. During the test, a

output
contacts are continua

y monitored for change using contact fo

ower circuits.
Vibration
eve
s of 1gn, over a 10Hz-150Hz frequency sweep are used. Seismic tes
ts use excitation in a sing
e axis, using a test frequency of 35Hz and peak disp

acements of 7.5mm and 3.5mm in the x and y axes respective
y be
ow the crossove
r frequency and peak acce
erations of 2.0gn and 1.0gn in these axes above the cr
ossover frequency. The second category consists of vibration endurance, shock wi
thstand and bump tests. They are designed to simu
ate the
onger-term affects of
shock and vibration that cou
d occur during transportation. These tests are per
formed with the product de-energised. After these tests, the product must sti


operate within its specification and show no signs of permanent mechanica
damag
e. Equipment undergoing a seismic type test is shown in Figure 21.10, whi
e the
waveform for the shock/bump test is shown in Figure 21.11
Network Protection & Automation Guide
0.4D 2.5D
D
D 2.5D
2.4D = T1 6D = T2 D - duration of nomina
pu
se A - peak acce
eration of nomina

pu
se T1- minimum time for monitoring of pu
se when conventiona
shock/bump mac
hine is used T2 - as T1 when a vibration generator is used Figure 21.11: Shock/B
ump Impu
se waveform
The test
eve
s for shock and bump tests are: Shock response (energised): 3 pu
s
es, each 10g, 11ms duration Shock withstand (de-energised): 3 pu
ses, 15g, 11ms
duration Bump (de-energised): 1000 pu
ses, 10g, 16ms duration

21.6 SOFTWARE TYPE TESTS Digita
and numerica
re
ays contain software to imp
em
ent the protection and measurement functions of a re
ay. This software must be t
horough
y tested, to ensure that the re
ay comp
ies with a

specifications and
that disturbances of various kinds do not resu
t in unexpected resu
ts. Software

is tested in various stages: a. unit testing b. integration testing c. function

a
qua
ification testing
381
R e
a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g 21
+0.2A 0 -0.2A

The purpose of unit testing is to determine if an individua
function or procedu

re imp
emented using software, or sma

group of c
ose
y re
ated functions, is f
ree of data,
ogic, or standards errors. It is much easier to detect these types
of errors in individua
units or sma

groups of units than it is in an integra
ted software architecture and/or system. Unit testing is typica

y performed aga
inst the software detai
ed design and by the deve
oper of the unit(s). Integrati
on testing typica

y focuses on these interfaces and a
so issues such as perform
ance, timings and synchronisation that are not app
icab
e in unit testing. Integ
ration testing a
so focuses on stressing the software and re
ated interfaces. Inte
gration testing is b
ack box in nature, i.e. it does not take into account the str
ucture of individua
units. It is typica

y performed against the software archi
tectura
and detai
ed design. The specified software requirements wou
d typica


y a
so be used as a source for some of the test cases.
21.6.3 Unit Testing Environment Both Dynamic and Static Unit Testing are perform
ed in the host environment rather than the target environment. Dynamic Unit Test
ing uses a test harness to execute the unit(s) concerned. The test harness is de
signed such that it simu
ates the interfaces of the unit(s) being tested - both
software-software interfaces and software-hardware interfaces - using what are k
nown as stubs. The test harness provides the test data to those units being test
ed and outputs the test resu
ts in a form understandab
e to a deve
oper. There a
re many commercia

y avai
ab
e testing too
s to automate test harness production
and the execution of tests.
21.6.4 Software/Software Integration Testing Software/Software Integration Testi
ng is performed in the host environment. It uses a test harness to simu
ate inpu
ts and outputs, hardware ca

s and system ca

s (e.g. the target environment ope
rating system).
R e
a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
21.6.5 Software/Hardware Integration Testing 21.6.1 Static Unit Testing Static U
nit Testing (or static ana
ysis as it is often ca

ed) ana
yses the unit(s) sour
ce code for comp
exity, precision tracking, initia
isation checking, va
ue track
ing, strong type checking, macro ana
ysis etc. Whi
e Static Unit Testing can be
performed manua

y, it is a
aborious and error prone process and is best perfor
med using a proprietary automated static unit ana
ysis too
. It is important to
ensure that any such too
is configured correct
y and used consistent
y during d
eve
opment. Software/Hardware Integration Testing is performed in the target env
ironment, i.e. it uses the actua
target hardware, operating system, drivers etc
. It is usua

y performed after Software/Software Integration Testing. Testing t
he interfaces to the hardware is an important feature of Software/Hardware Integ
ration Testing. Test cases for Integration Testing are typica

y based on those
defined for Va
idation Testing. However the emphasis shou
d be on finding errors
and prob
ems. Performing a dry run of the va
idation testing often comp
etes In
tegration Testing.
21.6.2 Dynamic Testing

21.6.6 Va
idation Testing The purpose of Va
idation Testing (a
so known as Softw
are Acceptance Testing) is to verify that the software meets its specified funct
iona
requirements. Va
idation Testing is performed against the software require
ments specification, using the target environment. In idea
circumstances, someo
ne independent of the software deve
opment performs the tests. Va
idation Testin
g is b
ack box in nature, i.e. it does not take into account the interna
structur
e of the software. For re
ays, the non-protection functions inc
uded in the soft
ware are considered to be as important as the protection functions, and hence te
sted in the same manner. Each va
idation test shou
d have predefined eva
uation
criteria, to be used to decide if the test has passed or fai
ed. The eva
uation

criteria shou
d be exp
icit with no room for interpretation or ambiguity.

Network Protection & Automation Guide
21
Dynamic Testing is concerned with the runtime behaviour of the unit(s) being tes
ted and so therefore, the unit(s) must be executed. Dynamic unit testing can be
sub-divided into b
ack box testing and white box testing. B
ack box testing verifies t
he imp
ementation of the requirement(s) a

ocated to the unit(s). It takes no ac
count of the interna
structure of the unit(s) being tested. It is on
y concerne
d with providing known inputs and determining if the outputs from the unit(s) ar
e correct for those inputs. White box testing is concerned with testing the intern
a
structure of the unit(s) and measuring the test coverage, i.e. how much of th
e code within the unit(s) has been executed during the tests. The objective of t
he unit testing may, for examp
e, be to achieve 100% statement coverage, in whic
h every
ine of the code is executed at
east once, or to execute every possib
e
path through the unit(s) at
east once.
382

21.6.7 Traceabi
ity of Va
idation Tests Traceabi
ity of va
idation tests to soft

ware requirements is vita
. Each software requirement documented in the software
requirements specification shou
d have at
east one va
idation test, and it is
important to be ab
e to prove this.
Power system simu
ators can be divided into two types: a. those which use ana
og
ue mode
s of a power system b. those which mode
the power system mathematica

y
using digita
simu
ation techniques
21.6.8 Software Modifications - Regression Testing Regression Testing is not a t
ype test in its own right. It is the overa

name given to the testing performed
when an existing software product is changed. The purpose of Regression Testing
is to show that unintended changes to the functiona
ity (i.e. errors and defects
) have not been introduced. Each change to an existing software product must be
considered in its own right. It is impossib
e to specify a standard set of regres
sion tests that can be app
ied as a catch-a

for introduced errors and defects. E
ach change to the software must be ana
ysed to determine what risk there might b
e of unintentiona
changes to the functiona
ity being introduced. Those areas of
highest risk wi

need to be regression tested. The u
timate regression test is
to perform the comp
ete Va
idation Testing programme again, updated to take acc
ount of the changes made. Regression Testing is extreme
y important. If it is no
t performed, there is a high risk of errors being found in the fie
d. Performing
it wi

not reduce to zero the chance of an error or defect remaining in the so
ftware, but it wi

reduce it. Determining the Regression Testing that is requir
ed is made much easier if there is traceabi
ity from proper
y documented softwar
e requirements through design (again proper
y documented and up to date), coding
and testing.
21.7.1 Use of Power System Ana
ogue Mode
s For many years, re
ays have been test
ed on ana
ogue mode
s of power systems such as artificia
transmission
ines, or
test p
ant capab
e of supp
ying significant amounts of current [21.1]. However,
these approaches have significant
imitations in the current and vo
tage wavefo
rms that can be generated, and are not suitab
e for automated, unattended, testi
ng programmes. Whi
e sti

used on a
imited basis for testing e
ectromechanica

and static re
ays, a radica

y different approach is required for dynamic testi
ng of numerica
re
ays.
21.7.2 Use of Microprocessor Based Simu
ation Equipment The comp
exity of numeri
ca
re
ays, re
iant on software for imp
ementation of the functions inc
uded, di
ctates some kind of automated test equipment. The functions of even a simp
e num
erica
overcurrent re
ay (inc
uding a

auxi
iary functions) can take severa
mo
nths of automated, 24 hours/day testing to test comp
ete
y. If such test equipme
nt was ab
e to app
y rea
istic current and vo
tage waveforms that c
ose
y match
those found on power systems during fau
t conditions, the equipment can be used
either for type testing of individua
re
ay designs or of a comp
ete protection
scheme designed for a specific app
ication. In recognition of this, a new genera
tion of power system simu
ators has been deve
oped, which is capab
e of providin
g a far more accurate simu
ation of power system conditions than has been possib

e in the past. The simu
ator enab
es re
ays to be tested under a wide range of
system conditions, representing the equiva
ent of many years of site experience.
21.7.2.1 Simu
ation hardware Equipment is now avai
ab
e to provide high-speed,
high
y accurate mode

ing of a section of a power system. The equipment is based
on distributed microprocessor-based hardware containing software mode
s of the
various e
ements of a power system, and is shown in Figure 21.12. The modu
es ha
ve outputs
inked to current and vo
tage sources that have a simi
ar transient c
apabi
ity and have suitab
e output
eve
s for direct connection to the inputs of
re
ays i.e. 110V for vo
tage and 1A/5A for current. Inputs are a
so provided to
monitor the response of re
ays under test (contact c
osures for tripping, etc.)
and these inputs can be used as part of the mode
of the power

21.7 DYNAMIC VALIDATION TYPE TESTING There are two possib
e methods of dynamica


y proving the satisfactory performance of protection re
ays or schemes; the fir
st method is by actua

y app
ying fau
ts on the power system and the second is t
o carry out comprehensive testing on a power system simu
ator. The former method
is extreme
y un
ike
y to be used
ead times are
engthy and the risk of damage
occurring makes the tests very expensive. It is therefore on
y used on a very
i
mited basis and the fau
ts app
ied are restricted in number and type. Because of
this, a proving period for new protection equipment under service conditions ha
s usua

y been required. As fau
ts may occur on the power system at infrequent i
nterva
s, it can take a number of years before any possib
e shortcomings are dis
covered, during which time further insta

ations may have occurred.

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383
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R e
a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
Figure 21.12: Digita
power system simu
ator for re
ay/protection scheme testing
system. The software is a
so capab
e of mode

ing the dynamic response of CTs and
VTs accurate
y. Where it is desired to check the response of a re
ay or protecti
on scheme to an actua
power system transient, the transient can be simu
ated us
ing sophisticated power systems ana
ysis software and the resu
ts transferred di
gita

y to the simu
ator, or the event recorder recording of the transient can b
e used, in either digita
or ana
ogue form as inputs to the simu
ator mode
. Out
put signa
conversion invo
ves circuits to e
iminate the quantisation steps norm
a

y found in conventiona
D/A conversion. Ana
ogue mode
s of the system transdu
cer characteristics can be interposed between the signa
processors and the outp
ut amp
ifiers when required. This equipment shows many advantages over tradition
a
test equipment: a. the power system mode
is capab
e of reproducing high freq
uency transients such as trave

ing waves b. tests invo
ving very
ong time cons
tants can be carried out c. it is not affected by the harmonic content, noise an
d frequency variations in the a.c. supp
y d. it is capab
e of representing the v
ariation in the current associated with generator fau
ts and power swings e. sat
uration effects in CTs and VTs can be mode

ed f. a set of test routines can be sp
ecified in software and then
eft to run unattended (or with on
y occasiona
mon
itoring) to comp
etion, with a detai
ed record of
test resu
ts being avai
ab
e on comp
etion A b
ock schematic of the equipment is
shown in Figure 21.13, is based around a computer which ca
cu
ates and stores t
he digita
data representing the system vo
tages and currents. The computer cont
ro
s conversion of the digita
data into ana
ogue signa
s, and it monitors and c
ontro
s the re
ays being tested. 21.7.2.2 Simu
ation software Un
ike most tradit
iona
software used for power systems ana
ysis, the software used is suitab
e fo
r the mode

ing the fast transients that occur in the first few mi

iseconds aft
er fau
t inception. Two very accurate simu
ation programs are used, one based on
time domain and the other on frequency domain techniques. In both programs, sin
g
e and doub
e circuit transmission
ines are represented by fu

y distributed p
arameter mode
s. The
ine parameters are ca
cu
ated from the physica
constructi
on of the
ine (symmetrica
, asymmetrica
, transposed or non-transposed), taking
into account the effect of conductor geometry, conductor interna
impedance and
the earth return path. It a
so inc
udes, where appropriate, the frequency depen
dence of the
ine parameters in the frequency domain program. The frequency depe
ndent variab
e effects are ca
cu
ated using Fast Fourier Transforms and the resu

ts are converted to the time domain. Conventiona
current transformers and capa
citor vo
tage transformers can be simu
ated. The fau
t can be app
ied at any one
point in the system and can be any combination of phase to phase or phase

21
384
Network Protection & Automation Guide

IA
IB
D/A conversion
Linear interpo
ation circuits
CT mode

Current amp
ifier
IC VDU I/O Subsystem VA Computer Equipment under test D/A conversion
Linear interpo
ation circuits
Keyboard VDU
VB
CVT mode

Vo
tage amp
ifier
VC Contact status monitor Storage Key : CT - Current transformer CVT - Capacitor
vo
tage transformer VDU - Visua
disp
ay unit Signa

ing Channe
Simu
ation To
second RTDS
Keyboard
Figure 21.13: B
ock diagram of microprocessor-based automated re
ay test system
to earth, resistive, or non-
inear phase to earth arcing fau
ts. For series comp
ensated
ines, f
ashover across a series capacitor fo

owing a short circuit fau

t can be simu
ated. The frequency domain mode
is not suitab
e for deve
oping f
au
ts and switching sequences, therefore the wide
y used E
ectromagnetic Transie
nt Program (EMTP), working in the time domain, is emp
oyed in such cases. In add
ition to these two programs, a simu
ation program based on
umped resistance and
inductance parameters is used. This simu
ation is used to represent systems wit
h
ong time constants and s
ow system changes due, for examp
e, to power swings.
21.7.2.3 Simu
ator app
ications The simu
ator is used for checking the accuracy
of ca
ibration and performing type tests on a wide range of protection re
ays d
uring their deve
opment. It has the fo

owing advantages over existing test meth
ods: a. state of the art power system mode

ing data can be used to test re
ay
s b. freedom from frequency variations and noise or harmonic content of the a.c.
supp
y c. the re
ay under test does not burden the power system simu
ation d. a


tests are accurate
y repeatab
e e. wide bandwidth signa
s can be produced f.
a wide range of frequencies can be reproduced g. se
ected harmonics may be super
imposed on the
power frequency h. the use of direct coup
ed current amp
ifiers a

ows time cons
tants of any
ength i. capab
e of simu
ating s
ow system changes j. reproduces f
au
t currents whose peak amp
itude varies with time k. transducer mode
s can be
inc
uded
. automatic testing removes the
ike
ihood of measurement and setting
errors m. two such equipments can be
inked together to simu
ate a system mode

with two re
aying points The simu
ator is a
so used for the production testing o
f re
ays, in which most of the advantages
isted above app
y. As the tests and m
easurements are made automatica

y, the qua
ity of testing is a
so great
y enhan
ced. Further, in cases of suspected ma
function of a re
ay in the fie
d under kn
own fau
t conditions, the simu
ator can be used to rep
icate the power system an
d fau
t conditions, and conduct a detai
ed investigation into the performance of

the re
ay. Fina

y, comp
ex protection schemes can be mode

ed, using both the
re
ays intended for use and software mode
s of them as appropriate, to check the
suitabi
ity of the proposed scheme under a wide variety of conditions. To i

us
trate this, Figure 21.14(a) shows a section of a particu
ar power system mode

e
d. The waveforms of Figure 21.14(b) show the three phase vo
tages and currents a
t the primaries of VT1 and CT1 for the fau
t condition indicated in Figure 21.14
(a).

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385
R e
a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g 21
Communications
ink to second RTDS
(When required)

N 3G L Infinite bus 4G CB3 CT3 F3 Line 2 8G F4 CT4 CB4

9G LR3 LR4
CB1
oad 1
oad 2
oad 3 VT1
CT1
F1 Line 1
F2
CT2
CB2
11G
VT2
LR1 Re
ay 1
LR2 Re
ay 2
R e
a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
(a) Examp
e power system
Va Vb Vc Ia Ib
Figure 21.14: Examp
e of app
ication study
Ic 0 0.08 0.16 0.24 0.32 0.4 0.48 0.56
(b) Vo
tages and currents at VT1/CT1
21.8 PRODUCTION TESTING Production testing of protection re
ays is becoming far
more demanding as the accuracy and comp
exity of the products increase. E
ectron
ic power amp
ifiers are used to supp
y accurate vo
tages and currents of high st
abi
ity to the re
ay under test. The inc
usion of a computer in the test system
a

ows more comp
ex testing to be performed at an economica
cost, with the adva
ntage of speed and repeatabi
ity of tests from one re
ay to another. Figure 21.1
5 shows a modern computer-contro

ed test bench. The hardware is mounted in a sp
ecia
rack. Each unit of the test system is connected to the computer via an int
erface bus. Individua
test programs for each type of re
ay are required, but th
e interface used is standard for a

re
ay types. Contro
of input waveforms and
ana
ogue measurements, the monitoring of output signa
s and the ana
ysis of tes
t data are performed by the computer. A printout of the test resu
ts can a
so be
produced if required.

21
Figure 21.15: Modern computer-contro

ed test bench
Because software is extensive
y tested at the typetesting stage, there is norma


y no need to check the correct functioning of the software. Checks are
imited
to determining that the ana
ogue and digita
I/O is functioning correct
y. This
is achieved for inputs by
386

Network Protection & Automation Guide

app
ying known vo
tage and current inputs to the re
ay under test and checking t
hat the software has captured the correct va
ues. Simi
ar
y, digita
outputs are
exercised by using test software to actuate each output and checking that the c
orrect output is energised. Provided that appropriate procedures are in p
ace to
ensure that on
y type-tested software is down
oaded, there is no need to check
the correct functioning of the software in the re
ay. The fina
step is to down

oad the software appropriate to the re
ay and store it in the EPROM fitted in th
e re
ay.
b. genera
inspection of the equipment, checking a

connections, wires on re
ay
s termina
s,
abe
s on termina
boards, etc. c. insu
ation resistance measuremen
t of a

circuits d. perform re
ay se
f-test procedure and externa
communicatio
ns checks on digita
/numerica
re
ays e. test main current transformers f. test
main vo
tage transformers g. check that protection re
ay a
arm/trip settings hav
e been entered correct
y h. tripping and a
arm circuit checks to prove correct f
unctioning In addition, the fo

owing checks may be carried out, depending on th
e factors noted ear
ier. i. secondary injection test on each re
ay to prove oper
ation at one or more setting va
ues
21.9 COMMISSIONING TESTS Insta

ation of a protection scheme at site creates a n
umber of possibi
ities for errors in the imp
ementation of the scheme to occur.
Even if the scheme has been thorough
y tested in the factory, wiring to the CTs a
nd VTs on site may be incorrect
y carried out, or the CTs/VTs may have been incorre
ct
y insta

ed. The impact of such errors may range from simp
y being a nuisance
(tripping occurs repeated
y on energisation, requiring investigation to
ocate
and correct the error(s)) through to fai
ure to trip under fau
t conditions,
ea
ding to major equipment damage, disruption to supp
ies and potentia
hazards to
personne
. The strategies avai
ab
e to remove these risks are many, but a

invo

ve some kind of testing at site. Commissioning tests at site are therefore inva
riab
y performed before protection equipment is set to work. The aims of commiss
ioning tests are: 1. to ensure that the equipment has not been damaged during tr
ansit or insta

ation 2. to ensure that the insta

ation work has been carried o
ut correct
y 3. to prove the correct functioning of the protection scheme as a w
ho
e The tests carried out wi

norma

y vary according to the protection scheme
invo
ved, the re
ay techno
ogy used, and the po
icy of the c
ient. In many case
s, the tests actua

y conducted are determined at the time of commissioning by m
utua
agreement between the c
ients representative and the commissioning team. He
nce, it is not possib
e to provide a definitive
ist of tests that are required
during commissioning. This section therefore describes the tests common
y carrie
d out during commissioning. The fo

owing tests are invariab
y carried out, sinc
e the protection scheme wi

not function correct
y if fau
ts exist. a. wiring d
iagram check, using circuit diagrams showing a

the reference numbers of the in
terconnecting wiring
k. testing of protection scheme
ogic This section detai
s the tests required to
cover items (a)(g) above. Secondary injection test equipment is covered in Secti
on 21.10 and Section 21.11 detai
s the secondary injection that may be carried o
ut. Section 21.12 covers primary injection testing, and Section 21.13 detai
s th
e checks required on any
ogic invo
ved in the protection scheme. Fina

y, Secti
on 21.14 detai
s the tests required on a
arm/tripping circuits tripping/a
arm ci
rcuits.
21.9.1 Insu
ation Tests A

the de
iberate earth connections on the wiring to be
tested shou
d first be removed, for examp
e earthing
inks on current transform
ers, vo
tage transformers and d.c. supp
ies. Some insu
ation testers generate im
pu
ses with peak vo
tages exceeding 5kV. In these instances any e
ectronic equip
ment shou
d be disconnected whi
e the externa
wiring insu
ation is checked. The
insu
ation resistance shou
d be measured to earth and between e
ectrica

y sepa
rate circuits. The readings are recorded and compared with subsequent routine te
sts to check for any deterioration of the insu
ation. The insu
ation resistance

measured depends on the amount of wiring invo
ved, its grade, and the site humid
ity. Genera

y, if the test is restricted to one cubic
e, a reading of severa
h
undred megohms shou
d be obtained. If
ong
engths of site wiring are invo
ved,
the reading cou
d be on
y a few megohms.

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387
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j. primary injection tests on each re
ay to prove stabi
ity for externa
fau
ts
and to determine the effective current setting for interna
fau
ts (essentia
fo
r some types of e
ectromechanica
re
ays)

21.9.2 Re
ay Se
f-Test Procedure Digita
and numerica
re
ays wi

have a se
f-t
est procedure that is detai
ed in the appropriate re
ay manua
. These tests shou

d be fo

owed to determine if the re
ay is operating correct
y. This wi

norma


y invo
ve checking of the re
ay watchdog circuit, exercising a

digita
input
s and outputs and checking that the re
ay ana
ogue inputs are within ca
ibration
by app
ying a test current or vo
tage. For these tests, the re
ay outputs are n
orma

y disconnected from the remainder of the protection scheme, as it is a tes
t carried out to prove correct re
ay, rather than scheme, operation. Unit protec
tion schemes invo
ve re
ays that need to communicate with each other. This
eads
to additiona
testing requirements. The communications path between the re
ays
is tested using suitab
e equipment to ensure that the path is comp
ete and that
the received signa
strength is within specification. Numerica
re
ays may be fi
tted with
oopback test faci
ities that enab
e either part of or the entire comm
unications
ink to be tested from one end. After comp
etion of these tests, it i
s usua
to enter the re
ay settings required. This can be done manua

y via the
re
ay front pane
contro
s, or using a portab
e PC and suitab
e software. Whiche
ver method is used, a check by a second person that the correct settings have be
en used is desirab
e, and the settings recorded. Programmab
e scheme
ogic that
is required is a
so entered at this stage.
robust moving coi
, permanent magnet, centre-zero type. A
ow vo
tage battery is
used, via a sing
e-po
e pushbutton switch, to energise the primary winding. On
c
osing the push-button, the d.c. ammeter, A, shou
d give a positive f
ick and o
n opening, a negative f
ick. 21.9.3.2 Magnetisation Curve Severa
points shou
d
be checked on each current transformer magnetisation curve. This can be done by
energising the secondary winding from the
oca
mains supp
y through a variab
e
auto-transformer whi
e the primary circuit remains open; see Figure 21.17. The c
haracteristic is measured at suitab
e interva
s of app
ied vo
tage, unti
the ma
gnetising current is seen to rise very rapid
y for a sma

increase in vo
tage.
This indicates the approximate knee-point or saturation f
ux
eve
of the curren
t transformer. The magnetising current shou
d then be recorded at simi
ar vo
tag
e interva
s as it is reduced to zero. Care must be taken that the test equipment
is suitab
y rated. The short-time current rating must be in excess of the CT se
condary current rating, to a

ow for the measurement of the saturation current.
This wi

be in excess of the CT secondary current rating. As the magnetising cu
rrent wi

not be sinusoida
, a moving iron or dynamometer type ammeter shou
d b
e used. It is often found that current transformers with secondary ratings of 1A
or
ess have a knee-point vo
tage higher than the
oca
mains supp
y. In these
cases, a step-up interposing transformer must be used to obtain the necessary vo

tage to check the magnetisation curve.
Test p
ug iso
ating current transformers from re
ay coi
s
R e
a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
21.9.3 Current Transformer Tests The fo

owing tests are norma

y carried out pr
ior to energisation of the main circuits. 21.9.3.1 Po
arity check
P2 _ P1 S2 S1 +
Variab
e transformer 250V 8A
A
B
C
A P1 S 1 To re
ay coi
s V 250V a.c. supp
y

21
P2 S2 Main circuit breaker open _ A +
Step-up transformer if required
Figure 21.17: Testing current transformer magnetising curve
21.9.4 Vo
tage Transformer Tests
Figure 21.16: Current transformer po
arity check
Vo
tage transformers require testing for po
arity and phasing. 21.9.4.1 Po
arity
check The vo
tage transformer po
arity can be checked using the method for CT p
o
arity tests. Care must be taken to connect the battery supp
y to the primary w
inding, with
Each current transformer shou
d be individua

y tested to verify that the primar
y and secondary po
arity markings are correct; see Figure 21.16. The ammeter con
nected to the secondary of the current transformer shou
d be a
388
Network Protection & Automation Guide

the po
arity ammeter connected to the secondary winding. If the vo
tage transfor
mer is of the capacitor type, then the po
arity of the transformer at the bottom
of the capacitor stack shou
d be checked. 21.9.4.2 Ratio check This check can b
e carried out when the main circuit is first made
ive. The vo
tage transformer
secondary vo
tage is compared with the secondary vo
tage shown on the namep
ate.
21.9.4.3 Phasing check The secondary connections for a three-phase vo
tage tran
sformer or a bank of three sing
e-phase vo
tage transformers must be carefu

y c
hecked for phasing. With the main circuit a
ive, the phase rotation is checked u
sing a phase rotation meter connected across the three phases, as shown in Figur
e 21.18. Provided an existing proven VT is avai
ab
e on the same primary system,
and that secondary earthing is emp
oyed, a

that is now necessary to prove cor
rect phasing is a vo
tage check between, say, both A phase secondary outputs. Ther
e shou
d be nomina

y
itt
e or no vo
tage if the phasing is correct. However, t
his test does not detect if the phase sequence is correct, but the phases are di
sp
aced by 120 from their correct position, i.e. phase A occupies the position of
phase C or phase B in Figure 21.18. This can be checked by removing the fuses f
rom phases B and C (say) and measuring the phase-earth vo
tages on the secondary
of the VT. If the phasing is correct, on
y phase A shou
d be hea
thy, phases B
and C shou
d have on
y a sma

residua
vo
tage.
A B C A
Correct phasing shou
d be further substantiated when carrying out on
oad tests on
any phase-ang
e sensitive re
ays, at the re
ay termina
s. Load current in a kno
wn phase CT secondary shou
d be compared with the associated phase to neutra
VT
secondary vo
tage. The phase ang
e between them shou
d be measured, and shou
d
re
ate to the power factor of the system
oad. If the three-phase vo
tage transf
ormer has a brokende
ta tertiary winding, then a check shou
d be made of the vo

tage across the two connections from the broken de
ta VN and VL, as shown in Fig
ure 21.18. With the rated ba
anced three-phase supp
y vo
tage app
ied to the vo

tage transformer primary windings, the broken-de
ta vo
tage shou
d be be
ow 5V w
ith the rated burden connected.
21.9.5 Protection Re
ay Setting Checks At some point during commissioning, the a

arm and trip settings of the re
ay e
ements invo
ved wi

require to be entered
and/or checked. Where the comp
ete scheme is engineered and supp
ied by a sing

e contractor, the settings may a
ready have been entered prior to despatch from
the factory, and hence this need not be repeated. The method of entering setting
s varies according to the re
ay techno
ogy used. For e
ectromechanica
and stati
c re
ays, manua
entry of the settings for each re
ay e
ement is required. This
method can a
so be used for digita
/numerica
re
ays. However, the amount of dat
a to be entered is much greater, and therefore it is usua
to use appropriate so
ftware, norma

y supp
ied by the manufacturer, for this purpose. The software a

so makes the essentia
task of making a record of the data entered much easier.
Once the data has been entered, it shou
d be checked for comp
iance with the rec
ommended settings as ca
cu
ated from the protection setting study. Where appropr
iate software is used for data entry, the checks can be considered comp
ete if t
he data is checked prior to down
oad of the settings to the re
ay. Otherwise, a
check may required subsequent to data entry by inspection and recording of the r
e
ay settings, or it may be considered adequate to do this at the time of data e
ntry. The recorded settings form an essentia
part of the commissioning document
ation provided to the c
ient.
V1 C V2 B

VN V VL V2
21.10 SECONDARY INJECTION TEST EQUIPMENT
V1

A B C
Phase rotation meter
Secondary injection tests are a
ways done prior to primary injection tests. The
purpose of secondary injection testing is to prove the correct operation of the
protection scheme that is downstream from the inputs to the protection re
ay(s).
Secondary injection tests are a
ways done prior to primary injection tests. Thi
s is
Figure 21.18: Vo
tage transformer phasing check
Network Protection & Automation Guide 389
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a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g 21

because the risks during initia
testing to the LV side of the equipment under t
est are minimised. The primary (HV) side of the equipment is disconnected, so th
at no damage can occur. These tests and the equipment necessary to perform them
are genera

y described in the manufacturers manua
s for the re
ays, but brief
detai
s are given be
ow for the main types of protection re
ays.
21.10.1 Test B
ocks/P
ugs for Secondary Injection Equipment It is common practic
e to provide test b
ocks or test sockets in the re
ay circuits so that connectio
ns can readi
y be made to the test equipment without disturbing wiring. Test p
u
gs of either mu
ti-finger or sing
e-finger design (for monitoring the current in
one CT secondary circuit) are used to connect test equipment to the re
ay under
test. The top and bottom contact of each test p
ug finger is separated by an in
su
ating strip, so that the re
ay circuits can be comp
ete
y iso
ated from the s
witchgear wiring when the test p
ug is inserted. To avoid open-circuiting CT sec
ondary termina
s, it is therefore essentia
that CT shorting jumper
inks are fi
tted across a

appropriate
ive side termina
s of the test p
ug BEFORE it is inse
rted. With the test p
ug inserted in position, a

the test circuitry can now be
connected to the iso
ated re
ay side test p
ug termina
s. Some modern test b
ocks
incorporate the
ive-side jumper
inks within the b
ock and these can be set to
the c
osed or open position as appropriate, either manua

y prior to removing the c
over and inserting the test p
ug, or automatica

y upon remova
of the cover. Re
mova
of the cover a
so exposes the co
our-coded face-p
ate of the b
ock, c
ear

y indicating that the protection scheme is not in service, and may a
so disconne
ct any d.c. auxi
iary supp
ies used for powering re
ay tripping outputs. Withdra
wing the test p
ug immediate
y restores the connections to the main current tran
sformers and vo
tage transformers and removes the test connections. Rep
acement
of the test b
ock cover then removes the short circuits that had been app
ied to
the main CT secondary circuits. Where severa
re
ays are used in a protection s
cheme, one or more test b
ocks may be fitted on the re
ay pane
enab
ing the who

e scheme to be tested, rather than just one re
ay at a time. Test b
ocks usua


y offer faci
ities for the monitoring and secondary injection testing of any pow
er system protection scheme. The test b
ock may be used either with a mu
ti-fing
ered test p
ug to a

ow iso
ation and monitoring of a

the se
ected conductor p
aths, or with a sing
e finger test p
ug that a

ows the currents on individua
c
onductors to be monitored. A modern test b
ock and test p
ugs are i

ustrated in
Figure 21.19.
Figure 21.19: Modern test b
ock/p
ugs
21.10.2 Secondary Injection Test Sets The type of the re
ay to be tested determi
nes the type of equipment used to provide the secondary injection currents and v
o
tages. Many e
ectromechanica
re
ays have a non-
inear current coi
impedance
when the re
ay operates and this can cause the test current waveform to be disto
rted if the injection supp
y vo
tage is fed direct
y to the coi
. The presence o
f harmonics in the current waveform may affect the torque of e
ectromechanica
r
e
ays and give unre
iab
e test resu
ts, so some injection test sets use an adjus
tab
e series reactance to contro
the current. This keeps the power dissipation
sma

and the equipment
ight and compact. Many test sets are portab
e and inc
u
de precision ammeters and vo
tmeters and timing equipment. Test sets may have bo
th vo
tage and current outputs. The former are high-vo
tage,
ow current outputs
for use with re
ay e
ements that require signa
inputs from a VT as we

as a C
T. The current outputs are high-current,
ow vo
tage to connect to re
ay CT inpu
ts. It is important, however, to ensure that the test set current outputs are tr
ue current sources, and hence are not affected by the
oad impedance of a re
ay
e
ement current coi
. Use of a test set with a current output that is essentia


y a vo
tage source can give rise to serious prob
ems when testing e
ectromechani
ca
re
ays. Any significant impedance mismatch between the output of the test se
t and the re
ay current coi
during re
ay operation wi

give rise to a variatio
n in current from that desired and possib
e error in the test resu
ts. The re
ay
operation time may be greater than expected (never
ess than expected) or re
ay
chatter may occur. It is quite common for such errors to on
y be found much
ater

, after a fau
t has caused major damage to equipment through fai
ure of the prim
ary protection to operate. Fai
ure investigation then shows that the reason for
the primary protection to operate is an incorrect
y set re
ay, due in turn to us
e of a test set with a current output consisting of a vo
tage-source when the re

ay was
ast tested. Figure 21.20 shows typica
waveforms resu
ting from use of
test set current output that is a vo
tage

R e
a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g 21
390
Network Protection & Automation Guide

V re
ay/source
Time
Saturation
eve
of magnetic circuit (current)
imited on
y by D.C. resistance o
f re
ay coi

Re
ay with saturation of CDG magnetic circuit (phase shift from CDG inductive
o
ad shown).
a) Re
ay current coi
waveform distorted due to use of vo
tage source
Sinusoida
CURRENT when changing impedance of re
ay is swamped out by high sourc
e impedance
Time
Typica
VOLTAGE waveform appearing across re
ay current coi
s with sinusoida
I
above the re
ay setting (10 x shown).

b) Undistorted re
ay current coi
current distorted due to use of current source
Figure 21.20: Re
ay current coi
waveforms
source the distorted re
ay coi
current waveform gives rise to an extended opera
tion time compared to the expected va
ue. Modern test sets are computer based. T
hey comprise a PC (usua

y a standard
aptop PC with suitab
e software) and a po
wer amp
ifier that takes the
ow-
eve
outputs from the PC and amp
ifies them in
to vo
tage and current signa
s suitab
e for app
ication to the VT and CT inputs
of the re
ay. The phase ang
e between vo
tage and current outputs wi

be adjust
ab
e, as a
so wi

the phase ang
es between the individua
vo
tages or currents
making up a
3-phase output set. Much greater precision in the setting of the magnitudes and
phase ang
es is possib
e, compared to traditiona
test sets. Digita
signa
s to
exercise the interna

ogic e
ements of the re
ays may a
so be provided. The a
a
rm and trip outputs of the re
ay are connected to digita
inputs on the PC so th
at correct operation of the re
ay, inc
uding accuracy of the re
ay tripping char
acteristic can be monitored and disp
ayed on-screen, saved for inc
usion in repo
rts generated
ater, or printed for an immediate record to present to the c
ient
. Optiona
features may inc
ude GPS time synchronising equipment and remote-
oca
ted amp
ifiers
Network Protection & Automation Guide
391
R e
a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g 21

to faci
itate testing of unit protection schemes, and digita
I/O for exercising
the programmab
e scheme
ogic of modern re
ays. The software for modern test se
ts is capab
e of testing the functiona
ity of a wide variety of re
ays, and cond
ucting a set of tests automatica

y. Such sets ease the task of the commissionin
g engineer. The software wi

norma

y offer options for testing, ranging from a
test carried out at a particu
ar point on the characteristic to comp
ete determ
ination of the tripping characteristic automatica

y. This feature can be he
pfu

if there is any reason to doubt that the re
ay is operating correct
y with the
tripping characteristic specified. Figure 21.21 i

ustrates a modern PC-based t
est set. Traditiona
test sets use an arrangement of adjustab
e transformers and
reactors to provide contro
of current and vo
tage without incurring high power
dissipation. Some re
ays require adjustment of the phase between the injected v
o
tages and currents, and so phase shifting transformers may be used. Figure 21.
22 shows the circuit diagram of a traditiona
test set suitab
e for overcurrent
re
ay resting, whi
e Figure 21.23 shows the circuit diagram for a test set for d
irectiona
/distance re
ays. Timers are inc
uded so that the response time of the
re
ay can be measured.
R e
a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
Figure 21.21: Modern PC-based secondary injection test set
21.11 SECONDARY INJECTION TESTING The purpose of secondary injection testing is
to check that the protection scheme from the re
ay input termina
s onwards is fu
nctioning correct
y with the settings specified. This is achieved by app
ying su
itab
e inputs from a test set to the inputs of the re
ays and checking if the ap
propriate a
arm/trip signa
s occur at the re
ay/contro
room/CB
ocations. The e
xtent of
testing wi

be
arge
y determined by the c
ient specification and re
ay techno

ogy used, and may range from a simp
e check of the re
ay characteristic at a sin
g
e point to a comp
ete verification of the tripping characteristics of the sche
me, inc
uding the response to transient waveforms and harmonics and checking of
re
ay bias characteristics. This may be important when the protection scheme inc

udes transformers and/or generators.

21
Coarse contro
reactor K2 Fine contro
variab
e transformer Start timer Backing
transformer 10% contro
Re
ay current, I = Ammeter reading (A) K1 x K2 Medium co
ntro
reactor Injection transformer Stop timer Re
ay short-circuiting switch A R
ange adjusting CT
K1 I>
I Re
ay coi

250V a.c. supp
y
Figure 21.22: Circuit diagram of traditiona
test set for overcurrent re
ays
392
Network Protection & Automation Guide

A B C N
Variab
e transformer contro

Supp
y switch 440V 3p phase 4 wire supp
y
Fau
t A-N X( ) 22.5 20.0 17.5 15.0 12.5 10.0 7.5 5.0 2.5 0.0 -2.5 -5.0 -7.5 -10.
0 -15.0 -10.0 -5.0 0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 R( )
Choke Re
ay
adjusting CT
A PA A V PA A
440/110V phase p shifting g transformer
> vo
tage e
ement Variab
e transformer for current contro
V Vo
tmeter A Ammeter
PA Phase ang
e meter
To other vo
tage e
ements of re
ay y under test (if required)
Figure 21.23: Circuit diagram for traditiona
test set for directiona
/distance
re
ays
Figure 21.24: Distance re
ay zone checking using search technique and to
erance
bands
Zn
*
21.11.1 Schemes using Digita
or Numerica
Re
ay Techno
ogy The po
icy for secon
dary injection testing varies wide
y. In some cases, manufacturers recommend, an
d c
ients accept, that if a digita
or numerica
re
ay passes its se
ftest, it ca
n be re
ied upon to operate at the settings used and that testing can therefore
be confined to those parts of the scheme externa
to the re
ay. In such cases, s
econdary injection testing is not required at a

. More often, it is required th
at one e
ement of each re
ay (usua

y the simp
est) is exercised, using a second
ary injection test set, to check that re
ay operation occurs at the conditions e
xpected, based on the setting of the re
ay e
ement concerned. Another a
ternativ
e is for the comp
ete functiona
ity of each re
ay to be exercised. This is rare

y required with a digita
or numerica
re
ay, probab
y on
y being carried out in
the event of a suspected re
ay ma
function. To i

ustrate the resu
ts that can
be obtained, Figure 21.24 shows the resu
ts obtained by a modern test set when d
etermining the reach settings of a distance re
ay using a search technique. Anot
her examp
e is the testing of the Power Swing b
ocking e
ement of a distance re

ay. Figure 21.25 i

ustrates such a test, based on using discrete impedance poin
ts. This kind of test may not be adequate in a

cases, and test equipment may h
ave the abi
ity to generate the waveforms simu
ating a power swing and app
y the
m to the re
ay (Figure 21.26).
PSB-Zone
R
Figure 21.25: Testing of power swing b
ocking e
ement discrete points

Figure 21.26: Simu
ated power swing waveform

21.11.2 Schemes using E
ectromechanica
/Static Re
ay Techno
ogy Schemes using si

ng
e function e
ectromechanica
or static re
ays wi

usua

y require each re
ay
to be exercised. Thus a scheme with distance and back-up overcurrent e
ements w
i

require a test on each of these functions, thereby taking up more time than
if a digita
or numerica
re
ay is used. Simi
ar
y, it may be important
Network Protection & Automation Guide
393
R e
a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g 21
The testing shou
d inc
ude any scheme
ogic. If the
ogic is imp
emented using t
he programmab
e scheme
ogic faci
ities avai
ab
e with most digita
or numerica

re
ays, appropriate digita
inputs may need to be app
ied and outputs monitored
(see Section 21.13). It is c
ear that a modern test set can faci
itate such tes
ts,
eading to a reduced time required for testing.
X

to check the re
ay characteristic over a range of input currents to confirm para
meters for an overcurrent re
ay such as: i. the minimum current that gives opera
tion at each current setting ii. the maximum current at which resetting takes p

ace iii. the operating time at suitab
e va
ues of current iv. the time/current c
urve at two or three points with the time mu
tip
ier setting TMS at 1 v. the res
etting time at zero current with the TMS at 1 Simi
ar considerations app
y to di
stance and unit protection re
ays of these techno
ogies.
of VTs/CTs may not then be discovered unti
either spurious tripping occurs in ser
vice, or more serious
y, fai
ure to trip on a fau
t. This hazard is much reduced
where digita
/numerica
re
ays are used, since the current and vo
tage measurem
ent/disp
ay faci
ities that exist in such re
ays enab
e checking of re
ay input
va
ues against those from other proven sources. Many connection/wiring errors ca
n be found in this way, and by iso
ating temporari
y the re
ay trip outputs, unw
anted trips can be avoided. Primary injection testing is, however, the on
y way
to prove correct insta

ation and operation of the who
e of a protection scheme.
As noted in the previous section, primary injection tests are a
ways carried ou
t after secondary injection tests, to ensure that prob
ems are
imited to the VTs
and CTs invo
ved, p
us associated wiring, a

other equipment in the protection
scheme having been proven satisfactory from the secondary injection tests.
21.11.3 Test Circuits for Secondary Injection Testing
R e
a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
The test circuits used wi

depend on the type of re
ay and test set being used.
Un
ess the test circuits are simp
e and obvious, the re
ay commissioning manua

wi

give detai
s of the circuits to be used. Common
y used test circuits can a

so be found in Chapter 23 of reference [21.1]. When using the circuits in this
reference, suitab
e simp
ifications can easi
y be made if digita
or numerica
r
e
ays are being tested, to a

ow for their bui
t-in measurement capabi
ities ext
erna
ammeters and vo
tmeters may not be required. A

resu
ts shou
d be carefu


y noted and fi
ed for record purposes. Departures from the expected resu
ts mus
t be thorough
y investigated and the cause determined. After rectification of er
rors, a

tests whose resu
ts may have been affected (even those that may have g
iven correct resu
ts) shou
d be repeated to ensure that the protection scheme ha
s been imp
emented according to specification.
21.12.1 Test Faci
ities An a
ternator is the most usefu
source of power for pro
viding the heavy current necessary for primary injection. Unfortunate
y, it is r
are
y avai
ab
e, since it requires not on
y a spare a
ternator, but a
so spare b
usbars capab
e of being connected to the a
ternator and circuit under test. Ther
efore, primary injection is usua

y carried out by means of a portab
e injection
transformer (Figure 21.27), arranged to operate from the
oca
mains supp
y and
having severa

ow vo
tage, heavy current windings. These can be connected in s
eries or para

e
according to the current required and the resistance of the pr
imary circuit. Outputs of 10V and 1000A can be obtained. A
ternative
y, modern P
C-contro

ed test sets have power amp
ifiers capab
e of injecting currents up to
about 200A for a sing
e unit, with higher current ratings being possib
e by usi
ng mu
tip
e units in para

e
.

21
21.12 PRIMARY INJECTION TESTS This type of test invo
ves the entire circuit; cur
rent transformer primary and secondary windings, re
ay coi
s, trip and a
arm cir
cuits, and a

intervening wiring are checked. There is no need to disturb wirin
g, which obviates the hazard of open-circuiting current transformers, and there
is genera

y no need for any switching in the current transformer or re
ay circu

its. The drawback of such tests is that they are time consuming and expensive to
organise. Increasing
y, re
iance is p
aced on a

wiring and insta

ation diagr
ams being correct and the insta

ation being carried out as per drawings, and se
condary injection testing being comp
eted satisfactori
y. Under these circumstan
ces, the primary injection tests may be omitted. However, wiring errors between
VTs/CTs and re
ays, or incorrect po
arity
394
A 250V a.c. supp
y
Variab
e transformer 40A
Injection transformer 250/10 + 10 + 10 + 10V 10kVA
Figure 21.27: Traditiona
primary injection test set
Network Protection & Automation Guide

If the main current transformers are fitted with test windings, these can be use
d for primary injection instead of the primary winding. The current required for
primary injection is then great
y reduced and can usua

y be obtained using sec
ondary injection test equipment. Unfortunate
y, test windings are not often prov
ided, because of space
imitations in the main current transformer housings or t
he cost of the windings.
21.12.2 CT Ratio Check Current is passed through the primary conductors and meas
ured on the test set ammeter, A1 in Figure 21.28. The secondary current is measu
red on the ammeter A2 or re
ay disp
ay, and the ratio of the va
ue on A1 to that
on A2 shou
d c
ose
y approximate to the ratio marked on the current transformer
namep
ate.
A B C
the residua
circuit, or re
ay disp
ay, wi

give a reading of a few mi

iampere
s with rated current injected if the current transformers are of correct po
arit
y. A reading proportiona
to twice the primary current wi

be obtained if they
are of wrong po
arity. Because of this, a high-range ammeter shou
d be used init
ia

y, for examp
e one giving fu

-sca
e def
ection for twice the rated secondar
y current. If an e
ectromechanica
earth-fau
t re
ay with a
ow setting is a
so
connected in the residua
circuit, it is advisab
e to temporari
y short-circuit
its operating coi
during the test, to prevent possib
e overheating. The sing
ephase injection shou
d be carried out for each pair of phases.
Temporary three-phase short circuit Primary injection test set A B C Re
ay
250V a.c. supp
y
Temporary short circuit
A Figure 21.29: Po
arity check on main current transformers
P1 S1
Re
ay
21.12.4 Primary Injection Testing of Re
ay E
ements As with secondary injection
testing, the tests to be carried out wi

be those specified by the c
ient, and/
or those detai
ed in the re
ay commissioning manua
. Digita
and numerica
re
ay
s usua

y require far fewer tests to prove correct operation, and these may be r
estricted to observations of current and vo
tage on the re
ay disp
ay under norm
a

oad conditions.
P2
S2 Re
ay or test b
ock contact fingers
A1
Primary injection test set 250V a.c. supp
y Figure 21.28: Current transformer ra
tio check
21.13 TESTING OF PROTECTION SCHEME LOGIC Protection schemes often invo
ve the us
e of
ogic to determine the conditions under which designated circuit breakers s
hou
d be tripped. Simp
e examp
es of such
ogic can be found in Chapters 9-14. T
raditiona

y, this
ogic was imp
emented by means of discrete re
ays, separate f
rom the re
ays used for protection. Such imp
ementations wou
d occur where e
ect
romechanica
or static re
ay techno
ogy is used. However, digita
and numerica

re
ays norma

y inc
ude programmab
e
ogic as part of the software within the re

ay, together with associated digita
I/O. This faci
ity (common
y referred to a
s Programmab
e Scheme Logic, or PSL) offers important advantages to the user, by

saving space and permitting modifications to the protection scheme
ogic throug
h software if the protection scheme requirements change with time. Changes to th
e
ogic are carried out using

21.12.3 CT Po
arity Check If the equipment inc
udes directiona
, differentia
or

earth fau
t re
ays, the po
arity of the main current transformers must be check
ed. It is not necessary to conduct the test if on
y overcurrent re
ays are used.
The circuit for checking the po
arity with a sing
e-phase test set is shown in
Figure 21.29. A short circuit is p
aced across the phases of the primary circuit
on one side of the current transformers whi
e sing
e-phase injection is carried
out on the other side. The ammeter connected in
Network Protection & Automation Guide
395
R e
a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g 21
Test p
ug insu
ation u

software hosted on a PC (or simi
ar computer) and down
oaded to the re
ay. Use o
f
anguages defined in IEC 61131, such as
adder
ogic or Boo
ean a
gebra is com
mon for such software, and is readi
y understood by Protection Engineers. Furthe
r, there are severa
common
y encountered protection functions that manufacturer
s may supp
y with re
ays as one or more defau
t
ogic schemes. Because software is
used, it is essentia
to carefu

y test the
ogic during commissioning to ensur
e correct operation. The on
y exception to this may be if the re
evant defau
t sch
eme is used. Such
ogic schemes wi

have been proven during re
ay type testing,
and so there is no need for proving tests during commissioning. However, where
a customer generates the scheme
ogic, it is necessary to ensure that the commis
sioning tests conducted are adequate to prove the functiona
ity of the scheme in
a

respects. A specific test procedure shou
d be prepared, and this procedure
shou
d inc
ude:
Many designs of withdrawab
e circuit breaker can be operated whi
e in the mainte
nance position, so that substation operation can continue unaffected except for
the circuit contro

ed by the circuit breaker invo
ved. In other cases, iso
ator
s can be used to avoid the need for busbar de-energisation if the circuit invo
v
ed is not ready for energisation.
21.15 PERIODIC MAINTENANCE TESTS Periodic testing is necessary to ensure that a
protection scheme continues to provide satisfactory performance for many years a
fter insta

ation. A

equipment is subject to gradua
degradation with time, an
d regu
ar testing is intended to identify the equipment concerned so that remedi
a
action can be taken before scheme ma
operation occurs. However, due care shou

d be taken in this task, otherwise fau
ts may be introduced as a direct resu
t
of the remedia
work. The c
earance of a fau
t on the system is correct on
y if
the number of circuit breakers opened is the minimum necessary to remove the fau

t. A sma

proportion of fau
ts are incorrect
y c
eared, the main reasons being
: a.
imitations in protection scheme design b. fau
ty re
ays c. defects in the
secondary wiring d. incorrect connections e. incorrect settings f. known app
ica
tion shortcomings accepted as improbab
e occurrences g. pi
ot wire fau
ts due to
previous unrevea
ed damage to a pi
ot cab
e h. various other causes, such as sw
itching errors, testing errors, and re
ay operation due to mechanica
shock The
se
f-checking faci
ities of numerica
re
ays assist in minimising fai
ures due t
o fau
ty re
ays. Defects in secondary wiring and incorrect connections are virtu
a

y e
iminated if proper commissioning after scheme insta

ation/a
teration is
carried out. The possibi
ity of incorrect settings is minimised by regu
ar revie
ws of re
ay settings. Network fau
t
eve
s change over time, and hence setting c
a
cu
ations may need to be revised. Switching and testing errors are minimised b
y adequate training of personne
, use of proven software, and we

designed syste
matic working procedures. A

of these can be said to be within the contro
of t
he user. The remaining three causes are not contro

ab
e, whi
e two of these thr
ee are unavoidab
e engineering is not science and there wi

a
ways be situation
s that a protection re
ay cannot reasonab
y be expected to cover at an affordab

e cost.
Network Protection & Automation Guide
R e
a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
a. checking of the scheme
ogic specification and diagrams to ensure that the ob
jectives of the
ogic are achieved b. testing of the
ogic to ensure that the fu
nctiona
ity of the scheme is proven c. testing of the
ogic, as required, to ens
ure that no output occurs for the re
evant input signa
combinations The degree
of testing of the
ogic wi


arge
y depend on the critica
ity of the app
icatio
n and comp
exity of the
ogic. The responsibi
ity for ensuring that a suitab
e t
est procedure is produced for
ogic schemes other than the defau
t one(s) supp
ied

ies with the specifier of the
ogic. Re
ay manufacturers cannot be expected to
take responsibi
ity for the correct operation of
ogic schemes that they have n
ot designed and supp
ied.


21
21.14 TRIPPING AND ALARM ANNUNCIATION TESTS If primary and/or secondary injectio
n tests are not carried out, the tripping and a
arm circuits wi

not have been
checked. Even where such checks have been carried out, CB trip coi
s and/or Cont
ro
Room a
arm circuits may have been iso
ated. In such cases, it is essentia
t
hat a

of the tripping and a
arm circuits are checked. This is done by c
osing
the protection re
ay contacts manua

y and checking that: 1. the correct circuit
breakers are tripped 2. the a
arm circuits are energised 3. the correct f
ag in
dications are given 4. there is no ma
operation of other apparatus that may be c
onnected to the same master trip re
ay or circuit breaker
396

21.15.1 Frequency of Inspection and Testing A
though protection equipment shou
d

be in sound condition when first put into service, prob
ems can deve
op uncheck
ed and unrevea
ed because of its infrequent operation. With digita
and numerica

re
ays, the in-bui
t se
f-testing routines can be expected to revea
and annun
ciate most fau
ts, but this does not cover any other components that, together,
comprise the protection scheme. Regu
ar inspection and testing of a protection s
cheme is therefore required. In practice, the frequency of testing may be
imite
d by
ack of staff or by the operating conditions on the power system. It is des
irab
e to carry out maintenance on protection equipment at times when the associ
ated power apparatus is out of service. This is faci
itated by co-operation betw
een the maintenance staff concerned and the network operations contro
centre. M
aintenance tests may sometimes have to be made when the protected circuit is on

oad. The particu
ar equipment to be tested shou
d be taken out of commission an
d adequate back-up protection provided for the duration of the tests. Such backup protection may not be fu

y discriminative, but shou
d be sufficient to c
ear
any fau
t on the apparatus whose main protection is temporari
y out of service.
Maintenance is assisted by the disp
ays of measured quantities provided on digi
ta
and numerica
re
ays. Incorrect disp
ay of a quantity is a c
ear indication
that something is wrong, either in the re
ay itse
f or the input circuits.
21.16 PROTECTION SCHEME DESIGN FOR MAINTENANCE If the fo

owing princip
es are a
dhered to as far as possib
e, the danger of back-feeds is
essened and fau
t inv
estigation is made easier: i. test b
ocks shou
d be used, to enab
e a test p
ug
to be used, and a defective unit to be rep
aced quick
y without interrupting ser
vice ii. circuits shou
d be kept as e
ectrica

y separate as possib
e, and the u
se of common wires shou
d be avoided, except where these are essentia
to the co
rrect functioning of the circuits iii. each group of circuits which is e
ectrica


y separate from other circuits shou
d be earthed through an independent earth

ink iv. where a common vo
tage transformer or d.c. supp
y is used for feeding s
evera
circuits, each circuit shou
d be fed through separate
inks or fuses. Wit
hdrawa
of these shou
d comp
ete
y iso
ate the circuit concerned v. power supp
i
es to protection schemes shou
d be segregated from those supp
ying other equipme
nt and provided with fu

y discriminative circuit protection vi. a sing
e auxi
i
ary switch shou
d not be used for interrupting or c
osing more than one circuit
vii. terminations in re
ay pane
s require good access, as these may have to be a

tered if extensions are made. Modern pane
s are provided with specia
test faci

ities, so that no connections need be disturbed during routine testing viii. ju
nction boxes shou
d be of adequate size and, if outdoors, must be made waterproo
f ix. a

wiring shou
d be ferru
ed for identification and phase-co
oured x. e
e
ctromechanica
re
ays shou
d have high operating and restraint torques and high
contact pressures; jewe
bearings shou
d be shrouded to exc
ude dust and the use
of very thin wire for coi
s and connections shou
d be avoided. Dust-tight cases
with an efficient breather are essentia
on these types of e
ectromechanica
e

ement xi. static, digita
and numerica
re
ays shou
d have test faci
ities acces
sib
e from the front to assist in fau
t finding. The re
ay manua
shou
d c
ear
y
detai
the expected resu
ts at each test point when hea
thy

21.15.2 Maintenance Tests Primary injection tests are norma

y on
y conducted ou
t during initia
commissioning. If scheme ma
operation has occurred and the prot
ection re
ays invo
ved are suspect, or a
terations have been made invo
ving the
wiring to the re
ays from the VTs/CTs, the primary injection tests may have to be
repeated. Secondary injection tests may be carried out at suitab
e interva
s to
check re
ay performance, and, if possib
e, the re
ay shou
d be a

owed to trip t
he circuit breakers invo
ved. The interva
between tests wi

depend upon the cr
itica
ity of the circuit invo
ved, the avai
abi
ity of the circuit for testing a
nd the techno
ogy of the re
ays used. Secondary injection testing is on
y necess
ary on the se
ected re
ay setting and the resu
ts shou
d be checked against thos
e obtained during the initia
commissioning of the equipment. It is better not t
o interfere with re
ay contacts at a

un
ess they are obvious
y corroded. The p

erformance of the contacts is fu

y checked when the re
ay is actuated. Insu
ati
on tests shou
d a
so be carried out on the re
ay wiring to earth and between cir
cuits, using a 1000V tester. These tests are necessary to detect any deteriorati
on in the insu
ation resistance.
Network Protection & Automation Guide
21.17 REFERENCES 21.1 Protective Re
ays App
ication Guide, 3rd edition. AREVA Tr
ansmission and Distribution, Protection and Contro
, 1987.
397
R e
a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g 21