Unit-I

1.Explain tool signature/nomenclature

Nomenclature of single point cutting tool:
The single point cutting tool has only one cutting point or edge.
These tools used for turning, boring, shaping or planning
operations. These tools used on lathe, boring and shaper
machines.

A single point cutting tool consists of a sharpened cutting part

and the shank and main parts or elements which are:
1: Shank
It is the main body of the tool.
2: Flank:
The surface or surfaces below the adjacent to the cutting edge is
called flank of the tool.
3: Face
The surface on which the chip slides is called the face of the tool.
4: Heel
It is the intersection of the flank and the base of the tool.
5: Nose
It is the point where the side cutting edge and end cutting edge
intersect.
6: Cutting Edge

It is the edge on the face of the tool which removes the material
from the work piece. The cutting edge consists of the side cutting
edge(major cutting edge) and cutting edge(minor cutting edge)
and the nose.

2.Explain merchants force circle diagram with assumptions.

For establishing the relationship between measurable and actual forces Merchants
circle diagram will be used.

Merchant circle diagram is used to analyze the forces acting in metal cutting.

The analysis of three forces system, which balance each other for cutting to occur.
Each system is a triangle of forces.

Assumptions made in drawing Merchants circle:

1. Shear surface is a plane extending upwards from the cutting edge.
2. The tool is perfectly sharp and there is no contact along the clearance force.

3. The cutting edge is a straight line extending perpendicular to the direction of

motion and generates a plane surface as the work moves past it.
4. The chip doesnt flow to either side, that is chip width is constant.
5. The depth of cut remains constant.
6. Width of the too, is greater than that of the work.
7. Work moves with uniform velocity relative tool tip.
8. No built up edge is formed.

The three triangles of forces in merchants circle diagram are

1. A triangle of forces for the cutting forces,
2. A triangle of forces for the shear forces,
3. A triangle of forces for the frictional forces.

Figure 1: Forces acting on a cutting tool

Let F = Frictional force

N = Normal to frictional force
Fs = Shear force
Fsn = Normal to shear force
Fc = Cutting force or tangential component of force
Ft =Thrust force or feed force
= Friction angle

 = Coefficient of friction = tan

Fc and Ft are along and normal to the direction of velocity.

Figure 2: Merchants circle diagram

Let R = resultant force

Then resultant force is given by the formula
R = (Fc2 + Ft2)0.5

R = Diameter of merchants circle

Ft, Fc forces are defined based on actual machining conditions

From the above merchants circle diagram it is found that there are three right
angled triangles are present and all the three right angled triangle possessing
common hypotenuse (largest side opposite to right angle in a right angled
triangle).

Merchants circle is used for establishing relationship between measurable and

actual forces.

3.Explain orthogonal cutting and oblique cutting

4.Explain Taylors tool life equation

5.Explain cutting tool materials

The tool is wedge shape object of hard material. It is usually made from H.S.S.
Beside H.S.S. machine tool is also made from High Carbon Steel, Satellite,
Ceramics, Diamond, Abrasive, etc. The main requirement of tool material is
hardness. It must be hard enough to resist cutting forces applied on work piece.
Hot hardness, wear resistance, Toughness, Thermal conductivity, & specific heat,
coefficient of friction, are other requirement of tool material. All these properties
should be high.

1 Carbon Steels
Carbon steels have been used since the 1880s for cutting tools.
However carbon steels start to soften at a temperature of about
180oC. This limitation means that such tools are rarely used for
metal cutting operations. Plain carbon steel tools, containing about
0.9% carbon and about 1% manganese, hardened to about 62 Rc,
are widely used for woodworking and they can be used in a router to
machine aluminium sheet up to about 3mm thick.
2 High Speed Steel (HSS)
HSS tools are so named because they were developed to cut at
higher speeds. Developed around 1900 HSS are the most highly
alloyed tool steels. The tungsten (T series) were developed first and
typically contain 12 - 18% tungsten, plus about 4% chromium and 1
- 5% vanadium. Most grades contain about 0.5% molybdenum and
most grades contain 4 - 12% cobalt.
It was soon discovered that molybdenum (smaller proportions)could
be substituted for most of the tungsten resulting in a more

economical formulation which had better abrasion resistance than

the T series and undergoes less distortion during heat treatment.
Consequently about 95% of all HSS tools are made from M series
grades. These contain 5 - 10% molybdenum, 1.5 - 10% tungsten, 1 4% vanadium, 4% Chromium and many grades contain 5 - 10%
cobalt.
HSS tools are tough and suitable for interrupted cutting and are
used to manufacture tools of complex shape such as drills, reamers,
taps, dies and gear cutters. Tools may also be coated to improve
wear resistance. HSS accounts for the largest tonnage of tool
materials currently used. Typical cutting speeds: 10 - 60 m/min.
3 Cast Cobalt Alloys
Introduced in early 1900s these alloys have compositions of about
40 - 55% cobalt, 30% chromium and 10 - 20% tungsten and are not
heat treatable. Maximum hardness values of 55 - 64 Rc. They have
good wear resistance but are not as tough as HSS but can be used
at somewhat higher speeds than HSS. Now only in limited use.
4 Carbides
Also known as cemented carbides or sintered carbides were
introduced in the 1930s and have high hardness over a wide range
of temperatures, high thermal conductivity, high Young's modulus
making them effective tool and die materials for a range of
applications.
The two groups used for machining are tungsten carbide and
titanium carbide, both types may be coated or uncoated.
Tungsten carbide particles (1 to 5 micro-m) are are bonded together
in a cobalt matrix using powder metallurgy. The powder is pressed
and sintered to the required insert shape. titanium and niobium
carbides may also be included to impart special properties.
A wide range of grades are available for different applications.
Sintered carbide tips are the dominant type of material used in
metal cutting.
The proportion of cobalt (the usual matrix material) present has a
significant effect on the properties of carbide tools. 3 - 6% matrix of
cobalt gives greater hardness while 6 - 15% matrix of cobalt gives a
greater toughness while decreasing the hardness, wear resistance
and strength. Tungsten carbide tools are commonly used for
machining steels, cast irons and abrasive non-ferrous materials.

Titanium carbide has a higher wear resistance than tungsten but is

not as tough. With a nickel-molybdenum alloy as the matrix, TiC is
suitable for machining at higher speeds than those which can be
used for tungsten carbide. Typical cutting speeds are: 30 - 150
m/min or 100 - 250 when coated.
5 Coatings
Coatings are frequently applied to carbide tool tips to improve tool
life or to enable higher cutting speeds. Coated tips typically have
lives 10 times greater than uncoated tips. Common coating
materials include titanium nitride, titanium carbide and aluminium
oxide, usually 2 - 15 micro-m thick. Often several different layers
may be applied, one on top of another, depending upon the
intended application of the tip. The techniques used for applying
coatings include chemical vapour deposition (CVD) plasma assisted
CVD and physical vapour deposition (PVD).
Diamond coatings are also in use and being further developed.
6 Cermets
Developed in the 1960s, these typically contain 70% aluminium
oxide and 30% titanium carbide. Some formulation contain
molybdenum carbide, niobium carbide and tantalum carbide. Their
performance is between those of carbides and ceramics and
coatings seem to offer few benefits. Typical cutting speeds: 150 350 m/min.
7 Ceramics Alumina
Introduced in the early 1950s, two classes are used for cutting tools:
fine grained high purity aluminium oxide (Al2O3) and silicon nitride
(Si3N4) are pressed into insert tip shapes and sintered at high
temperatures. Additions of titanium carbide and zirconium oxide
(ZrO2) may be made to improve properties. But while ZrO2 improves
the fracture toughness, it reduces the hardness and thermal
conductivity. Silicon carbide (SiC) whiskers may be added to give
better toughness and improved thermal shock resistance.
The tips have high abrasion resistance and hot hardness and their
superior chemical stability compared to HSS and carbides means
they are less likely to adhere to the metals during cutting and
consequently have a lower tendency to form a built up edge. Their
main weakness is low toughness and negative rake angles are often

used to avoid chipping due to their low tensile strengths. Stiff

machine tools and work set ups should be used when machining
with ceramic tips as otherwise vibration is likely to lead to
premature failure of the tip. Typical cutting speeds: 150 - 650
m/min.
Silicon Nitride
In the 1970s a tool material based on silicon nitride was developed,
these may also contain aluminium oxide, yttrium oxide and titanium
carbide. SiN has an affinity for iron and is not suitable for machining
steels. A specific type is 'Sialon', containing the elements: silicon,
aluminium, oxygen and nitrogen. This has higher thermal shock
resistance than silicon nitride and is recommended for machining
cast irons and nickel based superalloys at intermediate cutting
speeds.
8 Cubic Boron Nitride (cBN)
Introduced in the early 1960s, this is the second hardest material
available after diamond. cBN tools may be used either in the form of
small solid tips or or as a 0.5 to 1 mm thick layer of of
polycrystalline boron nitride sintered onto a carbide substrate under
pressure. In the latter case the carbide provides shock resistance
and the cBN layer provides very high wear resistance and cutting
edge strength. Cubic boron nitride is the standard choice for
machining alloy and tool steels with a hardness of 50 Rc or higher.
Typical cutting speeds: 30 - 310 m/min.
9 Diamond
The hardest known substance is diamond. Although single crystal
diamond has been used as a tool, they are brittle and need to be
mounted at the correct crystal orientation to obtain optimal tool life.
Single crystal diamond tools have been mainly replaced by
polycrystalline diamond (PCD). This consists of very small synthetic
crystals fused by a high temperature high pressure process to a
thickness of between 0.5 and 1mm and bonded to a carbide
substrate. The result is similar to cBN tools. The random orientation
of the diamond crystals prevents the propagation of cracks,
improving toughness.
Because of its reactivity, PCD is not suitable for machining plain
carbon steels or nickel, titanium and cobalt based alloys.
PCD is most suited to light uninterrupted finishing cuts at almost any
speed and is mainly used for very high speed machining of

aluminium - silicon alloys, composites and other non - metallic

materials. Typical cutting speeds: 200 - 2000 m/min.
10 Other Materials
To improve the toughness of tools, developments are being carried
out with whisker reinforcement, such as silicon nitride reinforced
with silicon carbide whiskers.
Tool Life Curves
The Taylor tool life equation can be written as: v(T) n = C, where
v is the cutting speed, m/min, T is the tool life, in minutes, C is the
cutting speed for a tool life of 1 minute and n is the Taylor exponent
(Do not confuse this use of n with the cold working index n).
Tool Material

Typical 'n' value

High-speed steels

0.08 - 0.2

Cast Alloys

0.1 - 0.15

Carbides

0.2 - 0.5

Ceramics

0.5 - 0.7

6.Classification of cutting tools

A] According to number of cutting edge.

1. Single point cutting tool

It is simplest from of cutting tool & it have only one cutting edge.
Examples shear tools, lathe tools, planer tools, boring tolls etc.

1. Multi point cutting tool

In this two or more single point cutting tools arranged together as a unit. The rate
of machining is more & surface finish is also better in this case.
Example- milling cutter, drills, brooches, grinding wheels, abrasive sticks etc.
B] According to motion

1. Linear motion tools lathe tools, brooches

2. Rotary motion tools milling cutters, grinding wheels
3. Linear & rotary motion tools drills, taps, etc.

Single point cutting tool geometry

The single point cutting tool mainly consist of tool shank & cutting part called point.
The point of cutting tool is bounded by cutting face, end flank, side/ main flank, &
base. The chip slide along the face.
The side / main cutting edge ab is formed by intersecting of face & side / main
flank
The end cutting edge ac is formed by the intersection of end flank & base.
The point a which the intersection of end cutting edge & side cutting edge is called
nose
Mainly the chip cuts by side cutting edge.

Terminology of single point cutting tool

1. Shank It is main body of tool. The shank used to grippesd in tool holder.
2. Flank The surface or surface below the adjacent of the cutting edge is
called flank of the tool.
3. Face It is top surface of the tool along which the chips slides.
4. Base It is actually a bearing surface of the tool when it is held in tool
holder or clamped directly in a tool post.
5. Heel It is the intersection of the flank & base of the tool. It is curved
portion at the bottom of the tool.
6. Nose It is the point where side cutting edge & base cutting edge intersect.

7. Cutting edge It is the edge on face of the tool which removes the material
from workpiece. The cutting edges are side cutting edge (major cutting edge)
& end cutting edge ( minor cutting edge)
8. Tool angles-Tool angles have great importance. The tool with proper angle,
reduce breaking of tool, cut metal more efficiently, generate less heat.
9. Noise radius It provide long life & good surface finish sharp point on nose
is highly stressed, & leaves grooves in the path of cut.Longer nose radius
produce chatter.

7. Explain different types of chips.

Continuous chip
Favorable conditions for continuous chips are

Ductile workpiece

High speed

Low feed rate

Low depth of cutting

High back rake angle.

Less friction between tool face and chip

Continuous chip obtained when cutting of ductile material like aluminium and low carbon steel. The
chips come out without fracture in the form of either long string or bend into a tight roll. If this chip hit
finished parts of the work, it spoils the finished surface. To avoid this, a chip breaker is used to break
continues chip. High back rake angle favors the continuous chip by providing resistance to chip flow.

Continuous chip with built-up edge

Favorable conditions are

High friction at tool face

Low rake angle

Ineffective cutting fluid

Low speed

High feed rate

High depth of cut

Similar to the continuous chip except the built-up edge at the nose of the tool. At low speed, the heat
dissipation at cutting edge is also low. At high temperature and pressure the chip material stick or
weld itself to the cutting edge and tool face near the nose. It is called built up edge (BUE). This builtup edge initially gives strength to cutting edge; however the size of the built-up edge increase as
cutting continuous and change the tool geometry. At some point this accumulated built-up is carried
away by the chip, a part of tool may lose in this mechanism (It is called adhesion wear). The
tendency for built-up edge formation can be decreased by using a tool that has a lower chemical
affinity towards the workpiece material.
Built-up edge is undesirable because

1. Poor surface finish

2. The high power consumption
3. Reduce tool life by accelerating tool wear
4. Fluctuation in cutting force induces vibration that causes tool failure.

Discontinuous chip
Favorable conditions for these type chips are

Hard and brittle work material

The work piece is having hard inclusion and impurities

Low speed

High feed rate

High depth of cut

Low back rake angle

High friction

Low stiffness of machine tools that allows vibrations.

While machining the deformed metal rapture ahead of the tool when compressive force reaches the
fracture limit of the material. Discontinuous chips are the fragments of the plastically deformed
workpiece which are either loosely connected (adhere each other) or entirely separate. The material
having low ductility such as brass has this type of plastic chip formation.
As most of the heat generated carried out by the chip, temperature at the edge of tool is less, and
longer life of tool is the result. For brittle material, discontinuous chip gives a fair surface finish, lower
power consumption and increase tool life. But in ductile materials, it causes a poor surface finish and

excessive tool wear. Discontinuous chips are convenient to handle and dispose of.

Non-homogenous chip (serrated chip)

They are semi-continuous chips formed due to non-uniform strain on the material during cutting. It
has saw tooth-like appearance due to zones of low and high shear strain. This type of chip formed in
a material whose mechanical strength decreases with increase in temperature (thermal softening)
and which have low thermal conductivity. A non-homogenous chip formed during machining of
titanium alloys at medium speed.

Cutting fluids are used in metal machining for a

variety of reasons such as improving tool life, reducing workpiece thermal
deformation, improving surface finish and flushing away chips from the
cutting zone. Practically all cutt ing fluids presently in use fall into one of
four categories:

Straight oils

Soluble oils

Semisynthetic fluids

Synthetic fluids

Straight oils are non-emulsifiable and are used in machining operations in

an undiluted form. They are composed of a base mineral or petroleum oil
and often contains polar lubricants such as fats, vegetable oils and esters
as well as extreme pressure additives such as Chlorine, Sulphur and
Phosphorus. Straight oils provide the best lubrication and the poorest
cooling characteristics among cutting fluids.

Synthetic Fluids contain no petroleum or mineral oil base and instead are
formulated from alkaline inorganic and organic compounds along with
additives for corrosion inhibition. They are generally used in a diluted
form (usual concent ration = 3 to 10%). Synthetic fluids often provide the
best cooling performance among all cutting fluids.

Soluble Oil Fluids form an emulsion when mixed with water. The
concentrate consists of a base mineral oil and emulsifiers to help produce
a stable emulsion. They are used in a diluted form (usual concentration =
3 to 10%) and provide good lubrication and heat transfer performance.
They are widely used in industry and are the least expensive among all
cutting fluids.

Semi-synthetic fluids are esentially combination of synthetic and soluble

oil fluids and have characteristics common to both types. The cost and
heat transfer performance of semi-synthetic fluids lie between those of
synthetic and sol uble oil fluids.
The principal methods of cutting fluid application include:

Flood Application of Fluid:

a flood of cutting fluid is applied on the workpiece

Jet Application of Fluid:

a jet of cutting fluid is applied on the workpiece
directed at the cutting zone
Mist Application of Fluid:

cutting fluid is atomised by a jet of air and the

mist is directed at the cutting zone
he primary functions of cutting fluids in machining are :
Lubricating the cutting process primarily at low cutting speeds
Cooling the workpiece primarily at high cutting speeds
Flushing chips away from the cutting zone
Secondary functions include:
Corossion protection of the machined surface
enabling part handling by cooling the hot surface
Process effects of using cutting fluids in machining include:
Longer Tool Life
Reduced Thermal Deformation of Workpiece
Better Surface Finish (in some applications)
Ease of Chip and Swarf handling

Unit-II
1. Different types of lathe machines

he four main types of lathes are

Speed Lathes
Engine Lathes
Tool Room Lathes and
Turret Lathes

So lets start .

Speed Lathes
It is very simple is design. It only has headstock, tailstock and a very simple tool
post. It can operate in 3-4 speeds. The spindle speed is very high. It is used for light
machine works like wood turning, metal spinning and metal polishing.

Engine Lathes
Engine lathes are the most common types of lathe machine. It is designed for low
power operations as well as high power operations. Various lengths of the machine is
available. The length can be up to 60 feet. Engine lathe is commonly seen in every
machine shop. Various metals can be machines. The machine can operates at a wide
range of speed ratios.

Tool room Lathes

It is a very versatile lathe machine. It can give better accuracy and finishing . It has
wider range of speeds . It can give different types of feeds. It can be a great device to
manufacture die.

Turret Lathes
It is a great machine for quick operations. It has various types of tool posts mounted
on a single structure. As a number of tools are set up on machine, the job can be
completed very quickly with the help of a single setup. A capstan wheel is used to
position the next tool. A sequential machining process can be done by using the
turret lathe without moving the workpiece. It eliminates the error that occurs due to
misalignment.

Special Types of Lathe Machines

These are the machines which are allows the worker to perform tasks which are not
possible in normal lathe machines. These lathes include

bench type jewelers lathe

Automatic lathes
brakedrum lathes
multispindle lathes
crankshaft lathes
duplicating lathes

4.
5. Difference between centre lathe and capstan

machine.

Explain difference parts of lathe

turret lathe:

S.No

Centre lathe

Capstan/turret lathe

It is a manually operated lathe

It is a semi automatic lathe

It has only one tool post tool changing

Front and rear tool posts are available. Tool changing

time is more

time is less

It has tail stock

It has turret head instead of tail stock

Only one tool can be fitted in the tail stock

Six different tools can be fitted in the turret head.

Number of speeds is less

Number of speeds is more

Tool changing time is more

The machine should be stopped for

changing tool

Tool changing time is less

Tool can be changed without stopping the machine

It is not suitable for mass production

It is suitable for mass production

No feed stops to control the tool

The tools are controlled by feed stops

10

11

The tool is centered manually after

changing the tool

Only one operation is done at a time

6. Operations performed on lathe machine

The tool is centered automatically

More than one operation can be done at a time

Principle of lathe:It is probably the oldest machine tool, stemming from the early tree lathe, which was turned by
a rope passed around the work a few times and attached to a springly branch overhead. The
work was supported by two dowels struck in adjacent trees. The operators foot supplied the
motion, which was intermittent and fluctuating. The tool was held in the operators hand. Later a
strip of wood called a lath was used to support the rope and hence named as lathe. Lathe was
actually the first machine tool which came into being as a useful machine for metal cutting,
because it permits a large variety of operations to be performed on it.

Working principle of Lathe.

Lathe removes undesired material from a rotating work piece in the form of chips with the help
of a tool which is traversed across the work and can be fed deep in work. Lathe machine holds
the work piece between two rigid and strong supports called Centers, or in a chuck or Face
plate while the latter revolves. The chuck or the face plate is mounted on the projected end of
the machine spindle. The cutting tool is rigidly held and supported in a tool post and is fed
against the revolving work. While the work revolves about its own axis the tool is made to move
either parallel to or at an inclination with this axis to cut the desired material. In doing so it
produces a cylindrical surface, if it is fed parallel to the axis or will produced a Tapered surface if
it is fed at an inclination.
7.specifications of a lathe machine
1.

Swing the largest work diameter that can be swung over the lathe bed.

2.

The shape of bed ways and horse power of the driving motor sometimes taken into
specifications.

3.

Distance between head stock and tail stock center.

4.

Some manufacturers designate the lathes by the swing and length of the bed.

7.Taper turning methods on lathe machine

A surface may be turned in a lathe if the tool point is not fed parallel but at, a certain angle.
Tool travel at an angle to the work axis may be obtained by the following methods: Taper Turning by Off Setting the Tailstock

Taper can be machined on a job that can be turned between centres by setting over the
tailstock. The method of setting over the tailstock. In this method the axis of the job rotates
with an angle to machine bed axis and the tool moves parallel to the machine bed. Under this
method the tailstock is off set on the basis the value of, which is in mm or inches instead of
degrees. If the dead centre is set over in the opposite direction it will turn a taper its larger
diameter on the side of the tailstock.
The set over can be determined by the formula: Off set = D-d

2l
Where D = Major dia.
d = Minor dia.
l = Taper length L = Full length.
When the entire length of job is to be tapered the formula:
Off set = D-d
2

Following process may be followed for setting the parallel position:

(a) Advance the nose of the tool to the left end of the taper so as to slightly nip a piece of
paper between the tool and taper surface.
(b) Note down the reading on cross feed dial and withdraw the tool.
(c) Move the tool to the right end of the taper and again nip the paper between the tool and
the taper.
(d) Check up the reading of cross feed dial. If it coincides then the set over is correct.
Off Setting Tail Stock Method
The setting over method includes the following steps:
(a) Loosen the clamp nut of the tailstock.
(b) Loosen one adjusting screw and tighten the other till the required set over is obtained.
(c) Mount the tool in usual way as in parallel turning.
(d) Take a rough cut.
(e) Test the taper and readjust if needed.
(f) When the required taper is obtained, finish the size.

Non-uniform wear on the centre holes may be prevented by using ball centres instead of
ordinary centres. The ball centres may be used on both the ends.
Advantages of Tail Stock Method
(a) Longer jobs can be tapered.
(b) Good surface can be obtained by automatic feed.
(c) External taper threads can be cut.
Disadvantages of Tail Stock Method
(a) Steep taper cannot be cut.
(b) Internal taper cannot be cut.
(c) Since the centres are out of alignment the centre points do not seat exactly in the centre
holes on the work and therefore the danger of the work being thrown out is more under
severe machining condition.
Taper Turning by Swiveling the Compound Slide
This method is used to produce short or steep tapers. Compound slide is fixed on the top of
cross slide and it can be rotated on its central pins in both ways. Its base is graduated with 0
to 45 and degrees are marked on both the sides of zero. Taper turning can be done outside
the job or in the bore.

The principle of this compound slide is that axis of work piece rotates parallel to the axis of
bed and the cutting tool moves at the desired angles. The compound slide is swivelled to the
desired angle by loosening the nuts. Tool is set on the tool post. It is thus fed along a path at
an angle turning its screw by hand. The tool travels on the path of compound slide and the
desired taper is obtained. For internal taper turning the tool may be set as shown in the figure
below.

Taper turning by compound slide has the following disadvantages:

(a) Production efficiency is low and finishing is not good because of hand feed.
(b) Only short tapers can be turned because the length of the taper is limited by compound
slide travel.
Some important hints may be kept in mind while taper turning by compound slide and these
are the following:
(a) Avoid the over hang of the tool.

(b) The height of the tool point must be in the centre. It should neither be low nor high.
(c) The hand feed should be uniform as much as possible.
(d) Use coolant sparingly.
Taper Turning with Taper Turning Attachment
In this method the work rotates around the bed axis and the cutting tool moves in an angle.
Modern lathes are equipped with taper turning attachments for machining external and
internal surfaces having an angle but not exceeding 12 maximum. On some lathes the angle
is limited to 18.

Working of Taper Turning Attachment - A taper turning attachment is in the form of a

guide, which is graduated and bolted in back of the lathe. It is adjusted to an angle with the
axis of the lathe. Its main function is to make it possible to keep the lathe centre in line but
freeing the cross slide and then guiding it on the lines of taper to be turned.
In figure above a bracket attached to the lathe bed. It carries a guide bar and the guide can be
swivelled to the required angle. The guide bar is clamped in the set position by bolt. Guide
block is connected to the lathe cross slide by link and lock. It is free to slide along the guide
bar to allow the cross to travel freely on its way it must be disconnected from the saddle by

loosening the cross feed screw nut, which will disengage the cross slide on the longitudinal
feed of the saddle. Guide block will slide along guide bar. The guide block is linked to cross
slide, so it will travel with the tool in the direction of the guide bar. After each cut the tool is
fed in the depth of cut by rotating the handle of compound slide. The compound rest should
be positioned at 90 to its normal position. The guide bar should be set parallel with the taper
on, which the tool is applied. The guide bar is swivelled on the taper angle as read on the
scale of the indicator.
In some taper turning attachments the marking is in millimetres instead of degrees. In such
cases we can find out the number of mm divisions by the formula.
MM= D-d

xH

L
Here MM = required number of mm divisions to be moved by guide bar. D = Major dia., d =
Minor dia.
L = Length of taper in mm.
H = Distance from the axis of rotation of the guide bar to its end in mm The angles for
swivelling the guide bar can be determined by the Formula: Tan = D-d
2L
Where D = major dia, d = minor dia and L = length of taper in mm.
Advantages of Using Taper Turning Attachment
The following advantages are given below for using taper turning attachments:
(a) The attachment can be set quickly and easily.
(b) With the use of this attachment, tapers are turned without disturbing the normal set up of
the lathe.
(c) External and internal tapers can be given.
(d) Tapers are turned with the longitudinal power feed and thus the work can be machined
quickly and with better finish.

(e) Long tapers can be given.

(f) Taper turning attachment can be used for turning taper threads.
Taper Turning with Forming Tool
Short external tapers can be turned with the form tool. In this method the work is parallel to
the lathe bed axis and feed is also parallel but the shape of the cutting tool is in taper angle.
In this method both longitudinal and cross feed can be used. However from tool, which is
also named as broad nosed tool can be applied only if the length of the taper does not exceed
20 mm. If wider tool is used, it will chatter and will vibrate considerably.
Defects of Taper Tuning
In taper turning following defects may occur:
(a) Incorrect Taper - It is due to incorrect set over of the tail stock or incorrectly setting of
compound slide or incorrectly setting of taper turning attachment. It can be prevented by
proper setting.
(b) Incorrect Dimensions of the Taper - It can be also due to wrong setting.
(c) Incorrect Diameters - Sometimes it so happens that the diameter of one end is correct
and angle of tapers is also correct but diameter on the other end is incorrect. It is due to
incorrect length of the taper. This defect can be avoided by carefully checking the length of
the taper before starting the work.
Difference between capstan lathe and turret lathe:

S.N
o

Capstan lathe

Turret lathe

It is a light duty machine

It is a heavy duty machine

The turret head is mounted on the ram

The turret head is directly mounted on the

and the ram is mounted on the saddle.

saddle and the saddle slides over the bed ways

The saddle will not be moved during

The saddle is moved along with the turret head

machining

during machining

The lengthwise movement of turret is less

The lengthwise movement of turret is more

Short work pieces only can be machined.

Long work pieces can be machined

It is easy to move the turret head as it

It is difficult to move the turret head along with

slides over the ram

saddle

The turret head cannot be moved

The turret head can bbe moved crosswise in

crosswise

some turret lathes

As the construction of lathe is not rigid,

As the construction of lathe is rigid, heavy cut

heavy cut cannot be given

can be given

It is used for machining work pieces up to

It is used for machining work pieces up to

60mm diameter

200mm diameter

Collet is used to hold the work piece

Jaw chuck is used to hold the work piece

10

Shaper:

A shaper is a type of machine tool that uses linear relative motion between
the workpiece and a single-point cutting tool to machine a linear toolpath. Its
cut is analogous to that of a lathe, except that it is (archetypally) linear instead
of helical.

Types of shapers
Shapers are classified according to various aspects.
1) Based on type of mechanism employed for the movement of the cutting
tool i.e. tool carrying ram the shapers are classified in to three types
a. Crank type
b. Gear type
c. Hydraulic type
2) According to position and movement of ram the shapers are classified in to
three types
a. Horizontal type
b. Vertical type
c. Travelling head type

3) Shapers are classified in to two types based on design of the work table
a. Standard shaper
b. Universal shaper
4) Based on type of cutting stroke employed these are classified in to
a. Push type
b. Draw type

Crank type shaper

In these shapers the reciprocating ram is driven by crank mechanism. In this a
single point cutting tool is employed to do the operation. A crank is connected
to the ram and the bull gear to which the power is given through an individual
motor. These are most common type of shapers being used. The reciprocating
length of tool will be always is equal to the length of stroke.

Gear type shaper

These are the rarely used shapers. In these shapers a rack and pinion are
employed the rack is attached to the lower part of the ram and on which the
pinion moves. The power is transmitted from the bull gear. A grain train is
engaged for the transfer of power from the bull gear to pinion.

Hydraulic type shaper

These shapers run on hydraulic power. The end of the ram is connected to a
piston fitted in to a cylinder. Oil is fed in to the cylinder initially the oil acts in
one direction and the ram moves in one direction. A varying pressure is
applied on the oil so as to obtain the reciprocating motion of the ram. One of
the main advantage of this shaper is a constant speed can be obtained from
the starting of the machining operation. There will be no fluctuations in the
cutting speed and stroke of the ram. Another important advantage of this
shaper is no sound will be produced hence a noise free environment can be
obtained.

Horizontal shaper
As the name indicates these shapers have the motion of ram along the
horizontal axis. This type of shapers is generally used for generation of fine
and flat surfaces.

Vertical shaper
In these shapers the tool containing ram has its motion in vertical direction. In
some of the shapers a provision of 100 rotation of the ram is also provided. In
vertical shaper the ram may be driven by various types like crank driven,
screw driven, gear driven, or by hydraulic power. Vertical shaping machines
finds many applications in deep hole boring, machining internal surfaces,
keyways, grooves etc. vertical shaper has a very robust table which can have
cross, longitudinal, and rotational movement. The tool used on a vertical
shaper is totally different from that of the normal tool which is employed on a
horizontal shaper.

Travelling head type shaper

This type of shaper is generally employed for machining very large objects
that cannot be mounted on the table of the machine and cannot be moved. In
this machine the ram having reciprocating movement also provides crosswise
movement simultaneously such that the tool can cut the required shape on the
work piece.

Standard shaper
In these shaper the table has only two movements i.e. vertical and horizontal.
The table may or may not be supported on the other end. These are not
generally used

Universal shaper
In these shapers in addition to the above mentioned two movements of the
standard shaper it provides two more directions.
1) By swelling the table about a axis ram ways.
2) The table can be tilted about an axis perpendicular to the 1 st one
So due to these two features any operation at any angle can be performed
very easily. So due to these features the shaper is termed as a universal
shaper

Push type shaper

It is one of the most commonly used shaper. In this the metal is removed
when the ram is moving away from the column. This type of shaper pushes
the work piece while removing the work piece away from it so this shaper is
called as push type shaper.

Draw type shaper

It is just a converse of the push type shaper. In these machines the metal is
removed from the work piece when the ram is moving towards the column. So
due to this the work piece takes a force in the direction towards the column of
the work piece. Due to this action the forces over the column and bearings are
somewhat reduced. The tool is required to be mounted in opposite direction to
the normal conditions. The vibrations on machine components are also
damped to some extent.
A planer is a type of metalworking machine tool that uses linear
relative motion between the workpiece and a single-point cutting tool to cut
the work piece. A planer is similar to a shaper, but larger, and with workpiece
moving, whereas in a shaper the cutting tool moves.
Planner:

A shaper is a machine tool that uses reciprocating straight line motion of the tool and a
perpendicular feed of the job or the tool. By moving the work piece across the path of
the reciprocating tool a flat surface is generated regardless of the shape of the tool.
With special tools, attachments and devices for holding the work, a shaper can also be
used to cut external and internal key ways, gears, racks, dovetails, T-slots and other
miscellaneous shapes.

Shaping is essentially an inefficient method of metal removal but the simplicity of the
process coupled with short set up time and cheap tooling makes it extremely useful for
single job.
The most common type of horizontal shapers is the production push cut shaper. This
type of shaper consists of a frame or column supported on abase, a reciprocating ram
and a work table. The frame houses the drive mechanism of the shaper. The top of the
frame provides guide ways for the ram.The front of the frame provides guide ways for
a cross rail which can be moved up and down. Sliding along the cross rail,
perpendicular to the line of motion of the ram is a saddle which carries the work table.
On the front end of the ram is fitted a tool head which holds the tool and is provided
with means for feeding the tool into the work.
The reciprocating motion of the ram provides the straight line motion to the tool
which is the speed for cutting. The vertical movement of the cross rail permits jobs of
different heights to be accommodated below the tool and is a machine setting. Motion
of the table along the cross rail provides the feed motion for horizontal shaping. The
motion of the tool slide on the tool head in conjunction with the swivel base provides
feed motion for vertical and angular cuts. The motion of the table along the cross rail
for feeding is powered by a paul and ratchet arrangement and timed by actuating the
paul by the shaper ram drive the feed is provided at the end of return stroke.
The tool slide swivel base is held on the circular seat on the ram and is graduated to
indicate the angle of swivel. The apron consisting of the clapper box, the clapper
block and the tool post is clamped on the vertical slide by a screw. It can be swivelled
about the apron swivelp in by releasing the clamping screw. The clapper block which
carries the tool post is connected to the clapper box by means of a hinge pin. The
clapper box-blocks assembly provides a rigid support to the tool in the forward or
cutting stroke but on the return stroke the clapper block is lifted out of the clapper box
to clear the tool from the work piece. This prevents scratching of the work piece and
wear of the tool due to tool dragging.
Shaper Mechanism
In a shaper rotary movement of the drive is converted into reciprocating movement by
the mechanism contained within the column or frame of the machine. The ram
holding the tool gets the reciprocating movement. In a standard shaper metal is
removed in the forward cutting stroke, while the return stroke goes idle and no metal
is removed during this period. This mechanism is known as quick return mechanism.
The reciprocating movement of the ram and quick return mechanism of the machine
usually obtained by any one of the following methods:

1. Crank and slotted link mechanism

2. Whitworth quick return mechanism
3. Hydraulic shaper mechanism
The principle of quick return motion is illustrated in fig. 13.1. when the link is in the
position PM, the ram will be at the extreme backward position of its stroke, and when
it is at PN, the extreme forward position of the ram will have been reached. PM and
PN are shown tangent to the crank pin circle stroke, therefore, takes place when the
crank rotates through the angle C 1KC2 and the return stroke takes place when the
crank rotates through the angle C2LC1. It is evident that the angle C 1KC2 made by the
forward or cutting stroke is greater than the angle C 2LC1 described by there turn
stroke.
The angular velocity of the crank pin being constant the return stroke is, therefore,
completed within a shorter time for which it is known as quick return motion.
Cutting time to return time ration usually varies between 2:1 and the practical limit is
2:2.

Principle of quick return

Parts of a standard shaper

Planer
The planer is almost exactly similar to a shaper, and is primarily intended to produce
plane and flat surfaces by a single point cutting tool. The fundamental difference
between a shaper and planer is that the table reciprocates past the stationary cutting
tool and feed is supplied by the lateral movement of the tool, where as in a shaper the
tool reciprocates and the feed is given by the crosswise movement of the table.
Longer stroke of practically unlimited length can be obtained by having the work
piece attached to a long, horizontal, reciprocating bed while the tool is attached to a
massive column or arch or, rather, a cross-rail with a lead screw that generates the
feed movement.
Most planer cut in one; some, in both directions. The slots and holes are provided for
bolts,keys, pins for holding and locating work pieces on the finished table top.
The large work that is not expected to be machines on other machines, such as shapers
is conveniently machined on planners.
Slotter
The slotter machine operates almost on the same principle as that of a shaper. The
major difference between a slotter and shaper is that in a slotter the ram holding the
tool reciprocates in a vertical axis, whereas in a shaper the ram holding the tool
reciprocates in a horizontal axis. A slotter is therefore, considered a vertical shaper,
and they are almost similar to each other as regards their construction, operation, and
use.

The slotter is used for cutting grooves, key ways, and slots of various shapes, for
making both internal and external regular and irregular surfaces.
NC-CNC Machine Tools
Numerical control or computerised numerical control is a technique of automatically
operating a productive facility based on code of letters, numbers and special
characters. The complete set of coded instructions; responsible for executing an
operation is called part programme. In computer-aided part programming, much of the
tedious computational work needed in manual programming is performed by the
computer microprocessor. This programme is translated into electrical signals to drive
various motors to operate the machine to carry out the required operations. Avoidance
of human intervention, omission of conventional tooling and fixturing and quick
change capability of NC system are the primary factors considered to decide the level
of acceptance of machine tools for a particular job. All NC/CNC machine tools are
provided with drive motors and other accessories to do auxiliary functions of the
machine along with the work table, spindle and other hardware of the traditional
machine tools.
c

Comparison between shaper and planer machines is given below in the

tabular form.

S.no

Shaper

Planer

In a shaper machine work is held

stationary and the cutting tool on
the ram is moved back and forth
across the work.

In a planar machine, the tool is stationary

and work piece travels back and forth
under the tool.

Shaper can be used for shaping

much smaller jobs.

A planer is meant for larger jobs than can

be undertaken on a shaper. Jobs as large
as 6 meter wide and twice as long can be
machined on a planer.

A shaper is a light machine.

A planer is a heavy duty machine.

Shaper can employ light cuts and Planer can employ heavier cuts and
finer feed.
coarse feed.

Shaper uses one cutting tool at a

time.

Planer uses several tools to cut

simultaneously.

The shaper is driven using quick

return mechanism.

The drive on the planer table is either

by gears or by hydraulic means.

It is less rigid and less robust.

Due to better rigidity of planer machine,

compared to that of a shaper, planer can
give more accuracy on machined surfaces.

Unit III

Milling machines are an important industrial tool for machining solid materials like
wood and metal. They can perform a vast number of functions ordinarily done by
hand, thus speeding up and facilitating a faster and more efficient workflow. In

order to be better informed about what type of milling machine is best for one's
needs, it is best to learn what the different classifications of mills are and what
each is best intended for. Knowing the difference between horizontal and vertical
machines is particularly useful. Milling machines can be purchased from a
machinery shop or warehouse. Mills can also be purchased used from warehouse
liquidators or even from local sellers. The Internet provides a vast selection of
milling machines through authorized dealers or on auction sites like eBay.
Whether it be new or used, prospective buyers should consider their budget and
needs before buying one particular type of mill because, although these machines
are very useful, they can also be a substantial financial investment.

History of Milling Machines

The milling machine performs a variety of operations, so it has numerous historical

predecessors, from the drill to the lathe. The first milling machines were developed
to shape wood in the 19th century, and as technology and the knowledge of
metallurgy advanced, these wood mills were modified to cut and shape metal.
These machines helped fuel the pace of the Industrial Revolution, when precise
machining became increasingly important. Since so many machinists were making
adjustments and developments in their own shops, it is difficult to credit one
person with the invention of the mill. A mill of note, however, is one built in the
1830s by James Nasmyth; his milling machine could mill the six sides of a hex nut.
Over time, milling machines have become synonymous with industry and
manufacturing. Modern mills employ the use of computer numerical control (CNC)
for even more ease of use and precision.

Types of Milling Machines

There are several types of milling machines, but usually they are classified by the
orientation of their spindles, which are positioned either horizontal or vertical.
Each type of mill has its own attributes depending on what type of work one is

doing, so it is essential to familiarize oneself with the differences between these

two before purchasing one for use.
Horizontal Mill

Horizontal milling machines have a spindle or cutters mounted on a horizontal

arbor above an X-Y table. Some horizontal mills have a table, known as universal
table, that features a rotary function for machining at different angles. Horizontal
mills are optimal for machining heavier pieces because the cutters have support
from the arbor, as well as a bigger cross-section area than a vertical mill. The
design of the horizontal milling machine allows for the rapid removal of material off
of the piece one is machining. These types of milling machines can range in size
from something small enough to fit on a tabletop to room-sized machines.
Vertical Mill

Vertical milling machines have a spindle that moves in a vertical orientation over
the table, working on the top and bottom sides of the object being machined.
Vertical milling machines lend themselves to standing machinists and detailed
work. These machines tend to be taller than they are wide since their operation is
vertical, which works well when dealing with die sinking. Die sinking is when a
cavity of a particular size and shape is machined into a steel block. The opening
can then be used for molding plastic or for forging, coining, or die-casting. Below
are the two types of vertical milling machines most commonly used.
Turret
Turret milling machines are classified as vertical milling machines because the
spindle is positioned vertically; it is considered a versatile machine since it can
create a wide selection of shapes. Like a drill press, this milling machine features
a quill that when lowered or raised can create different cutting depths; the quill
works in conjunction with a part under the table called a "knee" to machine a
piece. The table on this machine moves both parallel and perpendicular to allow

the machinist to make easier cuts, but this maneuverability can add stress on the
table. Turret milling machines also tend to be smaller since it is difficult to move a
quill on a larger machine.
Bed Mill
With bed milling machines , the table moves against the axis of the spindle. This
machine does not create as much flexibility in shape cutting like a turret milling
machine, but this type of configuration is often used on larger machines.
Milling Machine Lubricants

Since machining solid materials, especially metal, can create a lot of friction, it is
extremely important for milling machines to be properly lubricated. Lubricants help
reduce friction and cool the machine while it performs its intended functions, which
prevents failure and damage to the mill and the piece it is machining. Each milling
machine comes with a built-in lubrication system, but it is up to the user to
maintain the lubricant for it to function correctly. Most mill manufacturers indicate
what kind of lubricant to use, but if one is unsure, it is a good idea to try and find a
manual online or ask a professional to make sure what the proper lubricant is
needed for the particular machine being used.

Where to Purchase Milling Machines

Milling machines can be purchased at machinery shops or warehouses, but one

should be aware these kinds of retailers are not always found locally and usually
exist in larger cities or even remote towns. Used milling machines can be
purchased at warehouse liquidation sales or even from local sellers; checking
one's local newspaper for advertisements on both of these kinds of sales is a good
place to start. Many people prefer to purchase their mill used to save on cost, but
it is important to make sure and check the machine before purchasing it to make
sure all the components are working correctly. Since there is not a large

demographic for milling machines, the best place to purchase one can often be
online, since the Internet offers a wider selection than local shops and some
sellers even pay the cost of freight shipping. Milling machines can be found on
auction sites like eBay.
Buying Milling Machines on eBay

When purchasing milling machines on eBay, enter the keyword "milling machine"
into the Search bar, and eBay will return all the associated auction listings for that
keyword. Clicking on any of the relevant filters on the sidebar can help you narrow
down the results, or if you know the type of mill or brand you want, enter that along
with the keyword, or do an advanced search. The search results can be sorted by
price, shipping, and location. Since milling machines are heavy, there might be
substantial shipping charges, so it is a good idea to check for local sellers by
entering your zip code and arrange a pickup. Some sellers provide delivery, but
you should be aware this service may be in addition to the overall cost of the
milling machine.
Getting to Know the Seller
When browsing for milling machines on eBay, it is important to get to know the
seller to ensure the best possible transaction. In order to get a feel for how a seller
operates, look at his or her feedback score; this score is a reflection of how buyers
have rated the seller's products and transactions in the past. Another way to
familiarize yourself with the seller is to read the comments on his or her profile left
by other buyers to get an idea of the seller's overall level of customer service. In
the case of a milling machine, you may want to check if the seller has sold other
big ticket items or heavy equipment before and what the specific feedback was on
those items. If you have any questions or concerns not addressed on the auction
listing, you can contact the seller using eBay's message system.

Climb vs Conventional Milling

While many CNC'ers have gotten in the habit of always specifying climb
milling, there are times to climb mill and there are times where conventional
milling is preferred. Before we get into when to use each, let's have a quick
definition of the differences.
Climb milling is when the direction of cut and rotation of the cutter combine to
try to "suck" the mill up over (hence it's called "climb" milling) or away from the
work. It produces the best surface finish. Here is a diagram showing climb
versus conventional milling for a number of orientations:

Arrows show work piece motion, not spindle motion!

Keep in mind that for this illustration, it is the work piece that moves, not the
spindle. On some machines, like a gantry router, the spindle moves, so the
labels would reverse. I keep it straight by thinking of the spindle as a pinch
roller that can either help move the workpiece in the direction it was already
going (climb milling), or that might fight that movement (standard or
conventional milling).

Try the experiment on your mill of cutting both ways and you'll see that climb
milling is a lot smoother and produces a better surface finish (most of the time,
there are times when conventional gives a better finish, see below). Note that
depending on which way you are milling, you will need to make sure your
workpiece is supported well in that direction.
Characteristics of Conventional Milling:
The width of the chip starts from zero and increases as the cutter
finishes slicing.
The tooth meets the workpiece at the bottom of the cut.
Upward forces are created that tend to lift the workpiece during face
milling.
More power is required to conventional mill than climb mill.
Surface finish is worse because chips are carried upward by teeth and
dropped in front of cutter. There's a lot of chip recutting. Flood cooling
can help!
Tools wear faster than with climb milling.
Conventional milling is preferred for rough surfaces.
Tool deflection during Conventional milling will tend to be parallel to the
cut (see the section on Tool Deflection for more).
Characteristics of climb milling:
The width of the chip starts at maximum and decreases.
The tooth meets the workpiece at the top of the cut.
Chips are dropped behind the cutter--less recutting.
Less wear, with tools lasting up to 50% longer.
Improved surface finish because of less recutting.

 Less power required.

Climb milling exerts a down force during face milling, which makes
workholding and fixtures simpler. The down force may also help reduce
chatter in thin floors because it helps brace them against the surface
beneath.
Climb milling reduces work hardening.
It can, however, cause chipping when milling hot rolled materials due to
the hardened layer on the surface.
Tool deflection during Climb milling will tend to be perpendicular to the
cut, so it may increase or decrease the width of cut and affect accuracy.
Indexing

Explain twist drill:

Drilling
Drilling is the operation of producing circular hole in the work-piece by using
a rotating cutter called DRILL.

The machine used for drilling is called drilling machine.

The drilling operation can also be accomplished in lathe, in which the drill
is held in tailstock and the work is held by the chuck.

The most common drill used is the twist drill.

Drilling Machine

It is the simplest and accurate machine used in production shop.

The work piece is held stationary ie. Clamped in position and the drill rotates
to make a hole.

Types

1) Based on construction:
Portable,
Sensitive,
Radial,
up-right,
Gang,
Multi-spindle

2) Based on Feed:
Hand driven

Power driven

Components of drilling machine

Spindle
The spindle holds the drill or cutting tools and revolves in a fixed position in a
sleeve.

Sleeve
The sleeve or quill assembly does not revolve but may slide in its bearing in a
direction parallel to its axis. When the sleeve carrying the spindle with a cutting tool
is lowered, the cutting tool is fed into the work: and when its moved upward, the
cutting tool is withdrawn from the work. Feed pressure applied to the sleeve by
hand or power causes the revolving drill to cut its way into the work a fraction of an
mm per revolution.

Column
The column is cylindrical in shape and built rugged and solid. The column
supports the head and the sleeve or quill assembly.

Head
The head of the drilling machine is composed of the sleeve, a spindle, an
electric motor and feed mechanism. The head is bolted to the column.

Worktable
The worktable is supported on an arm mounted to the column. The worktable
can be adjusted vertically to accommodate different heights of work or it can be
swung completely out of the way. It may be tilted up to 90 degree in either
direction, to allow long pieces to be end or angle drilled.
Base

The base of the drilling machine supports the entire machine and when
bolted to the floor, provides for vibration-free operation and best machining
accuracy. The top of the base is similar to the worktable and may be equipped with
t- slot for mounting work too larger for the table.

Hand Feed

The hand- feed drilling machines are the simplest and most common type of
drilling machines in use today. These are light duty machine that are operated by
the operator, using a feed handled, so that the operator is able to feel the action
of the cutting tool as it cuts through the work piece. These drilling machines can be
bench or floor mounted.

Power feed

The power feed drilling machine are usually larger and heavier than the hand
feed ones they are equipped with the ability to feed the cutting tool in to the work
automatically, at preset depth of cut per revolution of the spindle these machines
are used in maintenance for medium duty work or the work that uses large drills
that require power feed larger work pieces are usually clamped directly to the table
or base using t bolts and clamps by a small work places are held in a vise. A depth
stop mechanism is located on the head, near the spindle, to aid in drilling to a
precise depth.

Sensitive or Bench Drilling Machine

This type of drill machine is used for very light works. Fig.1 illustrates the
sketch of sensitive drilling machine.
The vertical column carries a swiveling table the height of which can be
adjusted according to the work piece height.
The table can also be swung to any desired position.
At the top of the column there are two pulleys connected by a belt, one pulley
is mounted on the motor shaft and other on the machine spindle.
Vertical movement to the spindle is given by the feed handle by the operator.
Operator senses the cutting action so sensitive drilling machine.

Drill holes from 1.5 to 15mm

Fig.1. Sensitive Drilling Machine

Up-Right Drilling Machine

These are medium heavy duty machines.

It specifically differs from sensitive drill in its weight, rigidity, application of
power feed and wider range of spindle speed. Fig.2 shows the line sketch
of up-right drilling machine.
This machine usually has a gear driven mechanism for different spindle
speed and an automatic or power feed device.
Table can move vertically and radially.
Drill holes up to 50mm

Fig.2 Up-Right Drilling Machine

Radial Drilling Machine

It the largest and most versatile used for drilling medium to large and heavy
work pieces.
Radial drilling machine belong to power feed type.
The column and radial drilling machine supports the radial arm, drill head and
motor. Fig.3 shows the line sketch of radial drilling machine.

Fig. 3 Radial Drilling Machine

The radial arm slides up and down on the column with the help of elevating
screw provided on the side of the column, which is driven by a motor.
The drill head is mounted on the radial arm and moves on the guide ways
provided the radial arm can also be swiveled around the column.
The drill head is equipped with a separate motor to drive the spindle, which
carries the drill bit. A drill head may be moved on the arm manually or by
power.
Feed can be either manual or automatic with reversal mechanism.

Drill Materials

The two most common types are

1. HSS drill
- Low cost
2. Carbide- tipped drills
- high production and in CNC machines

Other types are

Solid Carbide drill, TiN coated drills, carbide coated masonry drills, parabolic
drills, split point drill. Fig.4 shows various types of drills

Fig. 4 Various types of drill

Drill fixed to the spindle

Fig. 5 Drill fixed to a spindle

Tool Nomenclature

Fig. 6 Nomenclature of twist drill

Tool holding devices

Fig.7 and Fig.8 shows the different work holding and drill drift device. The
different methods used for holding drill in a drill spindle are

By directly fitting in the spindle hole.

By using drill sleeve
By using drill socket

By using drill chuck

Drilling operations

Operations that can be performed in a drilling machine are

Drilling:

Drilling
Reaming
Boring
Counter boring
Countersinking
Tapping

It is an operation by which holes are produced in solid metal by means of revolving

tool called Drill. Fig. 9 shows the various operations on drilling machine.

Reaming:
Reaming is accurate way of sizing and finishing the pre-existing hole.
Multi tooth cutting tool. Accuracy of 0.005mm can be achieved

Boring:
Boring is a process of enlarging an existing hole by a single point cutting tool.
Boring operation is often preferred because we can correct hole size, or alignment
and can produce smooth finish. Boring tool is held in the boring bar which has the
shank. Accuracy of 0.005mm can be achieved.

Fig. 9 Various operations on drilling machine

Counter Bore :-

This operation uses a pilot to guide the cutting action to accommodate the
heads of bolts. Fig. 10 illustrates the counter boring, countersunk and spot facing
processes.

Countersink:-

Special angled cone shaped enlargement at the end of the hole to

accommodate the screws. Cone angles of 60, 82, 90, 100, 110, 120

Fig. 10 Counter boring, countersunk and spot facing

Tapping:-

Tapping is the process by which internal threads are formed. It is performed

either by hand or by machine. Minor diameter of the thread is drilled and then
tapping is done. Fig. 11 show the tapping processes.

Fig. 11 Hand taps and tapping process using tap wrench

Fig. 12 Various operations performed on drilling machine

Boring
Boring machines cut the inside of a bore to enlarge its diameter. Boring machines
are developed to make a bore in the shortest time and produce the highest possible
surface finish and tolerances. There are many types of boring machines. Examples
include a line boring machine, tunnel boring machine, horizontal boring machine,
directional boring machine, cylinder boring machine, jig boring machine, portable
boring machine, vertical boring machine and a coupling boring machine. A line
Boring machine bores holes in heavy construction equipment such as cranes and
endloaders, and is very economical equipment. A tunnel boring machine is capable
of drilling a bore in everything from hard rock to sand and produces a smooth tunnel
wall. A horizontal boring machine is a time-saver machine used to bore holes in
highly rigid construction. A directional boring machine includes a frame and a drive
mechanism that is slideable and is mounted on the frame. A cylinder boring
machine is mainly used for reboring engine cylinders in automobiles. A jig boring
machine is used to accurately enlarge existing holes and make their diameters
highly accurate. They perform operations such as drilling, boring, and countersinking holes in metal work pieces. A portable boring machine is a flexible, powerful,
and easy to use machine that is available with a pneumatic or hydraulic drive. A
vertical boring machine is designed for manual vertical drilling and it has a drill
chuck. A coupling boring machine is designed to bore precision couplings. Other
boring machines are commonly available.

There are several ways in which boring machines function. A line boring machine is
capable of measuring bores using calibrated internal and external micrometers and
its size ranges from 50mm to 2000mm in diameter. A tunnel boring machine
consists of one or two shields and trailing support mechanisms. Some of the
specifications of a horizontal boring machine includes a boring spindle diameter
of100mm, maximum torque on the spindle is 1100Nm, and range of spindle speed
is 10 1100 RPM. A cylinder boring machine has a boring diameter 65-140mm and
a spindle speed of 250r/min and 380r/min. A jig boring machine maintains high
accuracy between multiple holes, and the tolerance is .005 mm. Some
specifications of a vertical boring machine includes a maximum drilling stroke of 2
inches, supply voltage of 220V, and spindle rotation of 3300 RPM. Boring machines
are designed and manufactured to meet most industry specifications.
Boring machines are used in many applications. Examples include pile top drilling,
doweling, and concentric reboring of holes on dozers, backhoes, and endloaders.
Boring machines adhere to International Standards Organization (ISO) standards.

A horizontal boring machine or horizontal boring mill is a machine

tool which bores holes in a horizontal direction. There are three main types table,
planer and floor.[1]The table type is the most common and, as it is the most versatile, it is
also known as the universal type.[2]
A horizontal boring machine has its work spindle parallel to the ground and work table.
Typically there are three linear axes in which the tool head and part move. Convention
dictates that the main axis that drives the part towards the work spindle is the Z axis,
with a cross-traversing X axis and a vertically traversing Y axis. The work spindle is
referred to as the C axis and, if a rotary table is incorporated, its centre line is the B
axis.
Horizontal boring machines are often heavy-duty industrial machines used for roughing
out large components but there are high-precision models too. Modern machines use
advanced CNC control systems and techniques. Charles DeVlieg entered the Machine
Tool Hall of Fame for his work upon a highly precise model which he called a JIGMIL.
The accuracy of this machine convinced the USAF to accept John Parson's idea
for numerically controlled machine tools.[3]

Reaming:

A reamer is a type of rotary cutting tool used in metalworking. Precision reamers are
designed to enlarge the size of a previously formed hole by a small amount but with a
high degree of accuracy to leave smooth sides. There are also non-precision reamers
which are used for more basic enlargement of holes or for removing burrs. The process
of enlarging the hole is called reaming. There are many different types of reamer and
they may be designed for use as a hand tool or in a machine tool, such as a milling
machineor drill press.
A typical reamer consists of a set of parallel straight or helical cutting edges along the
length of a cylindrical body. Each cutting edge is ground at a slight angle and with a
slight undercut below the cutting edge. Reamers must combine both hardness in the
cutting edges, for long life, and toughness, so that the tool does not fail under the
normal forces of use. They should only be used to remove small amounts of material.
This ensures a long life for the reamer and a superior finish to the hole.
The spiral may be clockwise or counter-clockwise depending on usage. For example, a
tapered hand reamer with a clockwise spiral will tend to self feed as it is used, possibly
leading to a wedging action and consequent breakage. A counter-clockwise spiral is
therefore preferred even though the reamer is still turned in the clockwise direction.
For production machine tools, the shank type is usually one of the following: a standard
taper (such as Morse or Brown & Sharpe), a straight round shank to be held by a collet,
or a straight round shank with a flat for a set screw, to be held by a solid toolholder. For
hand tools, the shank end is usually a square drive, intended for use with the same type
of wrench used to turn a tap for the cutting of screw threads.

Grinding Machines are also regarded as machine tools. A distinguishing feature of grinding
machines is the rotating abrasive tool. Grinding machine is employed to obtain high accuracy
along with very high class of surface finish on the workpiece. However, advent of new
generation of grinding wheels and grinding machines, characterised by their rigidity, power and
speed enables one to go for high efficiency deep grinding (often called as abrasive milling) of not
only hardened material but also ductile materials. Conventional grinding machines can be
broadly classified as: (a) Surface grinding machine (b) Cylindrical grinding machine (c) Internal
grinding machine (d) Tool and cutter grinding machine 29.1 Surface grinding machine: This
machine may be similar to a milling machine used mainly to grind flat surface. However, some
types of surface grinders are also capable of producing contour surface with formed grinding
wheel. Basically there are four different types of surface grinding machines characterised by the
movement of their tables and the orientation of grinding wheel spindles as follows: Horizontal
spindle and reciprocating table Vertical spindle and reciprocating table Horizontal spindle and
rotary table Vertical spindle and rotary table 29.1.1 Horizontal spindle reciprocating table
grinder Figure 29.1 illustrates this machine with various motions required for grinding action. A
disc type grinding wheel performs the grinding action with its peripheral surface. Both traverse
and plunge grinding can be carried out in this machine as shown in Fig. 29.2 Version 2 ME, IIT
Kharagpur A: rotation of grinding wheel B: reciprocation of worktable C: transverse feed D:
down feed A D C B Fig.29.1: Horizontal spindle reciprocating table surface grinder A A B B D D
A: rotation of grinding wheel B: reciprocation of worktable C: transverse feed D: down feed Fig.
29.2 Surface grinding (a) traverse grinding (b) plunge grinding (a) C (b) 29.1.2 Vertical spindle
reciprocating table grinder This grinding machine with all working motions is shown in Fig.
29.3. The grinding operation is similar to that of face milling on a vertical milling machine. In
this machine a cup shaped wheel grinds the workpiece over its full width using end face of the
wheel as shown in Fig. 29.4. This brings more grits in action at the same time and consequently a
higher material removal rate may be attained than for grinding with a peripheral wheel. Version 2
ME, IIT Kharagpur C A B B B C A Fig. 29.3 Vertical spindle reciprocating table surface grinder

A: rotation of grinding wheel B: reciprocation of worktable C: down feed of grinding wheel Fig.
29.4 Surface grinding in Vertical spindle reciprocating table surface grinder 29.1.3 Horizontal
spindle rotary table grinder Surface grinding in this machine is shown in Fig.29.5. In principle
the operation is same as that for facing on the lathe. This machine has a limitation in
accommodation of workpiece and therefore does not have wide spread use. However, by
swivelling the worktable, concave or convex or tapered surface can be produced on individual
part as illustrated in Fig. 29.6 A: rotation of grinding wheel B: table rotation C: table
reciprocation D: down feed of grinding wheel A C D B Fig. 29.5 Surface grinding in Horizontal
spindle rotary table surface grinder Version 2 ME, IIT Kharagpur Fig. 29.6 Grinding of a tapered
surface in horizontal spindle rotary table surface grinder A: rotation of grinding wheel B: table
rotation C: table reciprocation D: down feed of grinding wheel : swivel angle D A C B 29.1.4
Vertical spindle rotary table grinder The principle of grinding in this machine is shown in Fig.
29.7. The machine is mostly suitable for small workpieces in large quantities. This primarily
production type machine often uses two or more grinding heads thus enabling both roughing and
finishing in one rotation of the work table. A: rotation of grinding wheel B: work table rotation
C: down feed of grinding wheel A C B Fig. 29.7 Surface grinding in vertical spindle rotary table
surface grinder 29.1.5 Creep feed grinding machine: This machine enables single pass grinding
of a surface with a larger downfeed but slower table speed than that adopted for multi-pass
conventional surface grinding. This machine is characterised by high stiffness, high spindle
power, recirculating ball screw drive for table movement and adequate supply of grinding fluid.
A further development in this field is the creep feed grinding centre which carries more than one
wheel with provision of automatic wheel changing. A number of operations can be performed on
the workpiece. It is implied that such machines, in the view of their size and complexity, are
automated through CNC. Version 2 ME, IIT Kharagpur 29.1.6 High efficiency deep grinding
machine: The concept of single pass deep grinding at a table speed much higher than what is
possible in a creep feed grinder has been technically realized in this machine. This has been
made possible mainly through significant increase of wheel speed in this new generation
grinding machine. 29.2 Cylindrical grinding machine This machine is used to produce external
cylindrical surface. The surfaces may be straight, tapered, steps or profiled. Broadly there are
three different types of cylindrical grinding machine as follows: 1. Plain centre type cylindrical
grinder 2. Universal cylindrical surface grinder 3. Centreless cylindrical surface grinder 29.2.1
Plain centre type cylindrical grinder Figure 29.8 illustrates schematically this machine and
various motions required for grinding action. The machine is similar to a centre lathe in many
respects. The workpiece is held between head stock and tailstock centres. A disc type grinding
wheel performs the grinding action with its peripheral surface. Both traverse and plunge grinding
can be carried out in this machine as shown in Fig.29.9. A: rotation of grinding wheel B: work
table rotation C: reciprocation of worktable D: infeed A B C Fig. 29.8 Plain centre type
cylindrical grinder D A Fig. 29.9 cylindrical (a) traverse grinding and (b) plunge grinding A A D
D B C B (a) (b) A: rotation of grinding wheel B: workpiece rotation C: reciprocation of
worktable D: infeed Version 2 ME, IIT Kharagpur 29.2.2 Universal cylindrical surface grinder A:

swivelling wheel head B: swivelling wheel head slide C: swivelling head stock D: rotation of
grinding wheel D Fig. 29.10 important features of universal cylindrical grinding machine
Universal cylindrical grinder is similar to a plain cylindrical one except that it is more versatile.
In addition to small worktable swivel, this machine provides large swivel of head stock, wheel
head slide and wheel head mount on the wheel head slide. This allows grinding of any taper on
the workpiece. Universal grinder is also equipped with an additional head for internal grinding.
Schematic illustration of important features of this machine is shown in Fig.29.10. 29.2.3 Special
application of cylindrical grinder Fig. 29.11 Thread grinding with (a) single rib (b) multi-ribbed
wheel (a) (b) A: rotation of grinding wheel B: rotation of workpiece C: Downfeed D:
Longitudinal feed of wheel A A C C B B D Principle of cylindrical grinding is being used for
thread grinding with specially formed wheel that matches the thread profile. A single ribbed
wheel or a multi ribbed wheel can be used as shown in Fig. 29.11. Roll grinding is a specific case
of cylindrical grinding wherein large workpieces such as shafts, spindles and rolls are ground.
Crankshaft or crank pin grinders also resemble cylindrical grinder but are engaged to grind crank
pins which are eccentric from the centre line of the shaft as shown in Fig. 29.12. The eccentricity
is obtained by the use of special chuck. Fig. 29.12 Grinding of crank pin A: rotation of wheel B:
rotation of crank pin A B Version 2 ME, IIT Kharagpur Cam and camshaft grinders are
essentially subsets of cylindrical grinding machine dedicated to finish various profiles on disc
cams and cam shafts. The desired contour on the workpiece is generated by varying the distance
between wheel and workpiece axes. The cradle carrying the head stock and tail stock is provided
with rocking motion derived from the rotation of a master cam that rotates in synchronisation
with the workpiece. Newer machines however, use CNC in place of master cam to generate cam
on the workpiece. 29.2.4 External centreless grinder This grinding machine is a production
machine in which out side diameter of the workpiece is ground. The workpiece is not held
between centres but by a work support blade. It is rotated by means of a regulating wheel and
ground by the grinding wheel. In through-feed centreless grinding, the regulating wheel
revolving at a much lower surface speed than grinding wheel controls the rotation and
longitudinal motion of the workpiece. The regulating wheel is kept slightly inclined to the axis of
the grinding wheel and the workpiece is fed longitudinally as shown in Fig. 29.14. C B A A:
rotation of grinding wheel B: workpiece rotation C: reciprocation of worktable Fig.29.14:
Centreless through feed grinding Parts with variable diameter can be ground by Centreless infeed
grinding as shown in Fig. 29.15(a). The operation is similar to plunge grinding with cylindrical
grinder. End feed grinding shown in Fig. 29.15 (b) is used for workpiece with tapered surface.
Fig. 29.15 Centreless (a) infeed and (b) end feed grinding (a) A B (b) A B C A: rotation of
grinding wheel B: rotation of regulating wheel C: feed on workpiece Version 2 ME, IIT
Kharagpur The grinding wheel or the regulating wheel or both require to be correctly profiled to
get the required taper on the workpiece. 29.2.5 Tool post grinder A self powered grinding wheel
is mounted on the tool post or compound rest to provide the grinding action in a lathe. Rotation
to the workpiece is provided by the lathe spindle. The lathe carriage is used to reciprocate the
wheel head. 29.3 Internal grinding machine This machine is used to produce internal cylindrical

surface. The surface may be straight, tapered, grooved or profiled. Broadly there are three
different types of internal grinding machine as follows: 1. Chucking type internal grinder 2.
Planetary internal grinder 3. Centreless internal grinder 29.3.1 Chucking type internal grinder
Figure 29.16 illustrates schematically this machine and various motions required for grinding
action. The workpiece is usually mounted in a chuck. A magnetic face plate can also be used. A
small grinding wheel performs the necessary grinding with its peripheral surface. Both transverse
and plunge grinding can be carried out in this machine as shown in Fig. 29.17. A: rotation of
grinding wheel B: workpiece rotation C: reciprocation of worktable D: infeed Fig. 29.16 Internal
centreless grinder Fig. 29.17 Internal (a) traverse grinding and (b) plunge grinding 29.3.2
Planetary internal grinder Planetary internal grinder is used where the workpiece is of irregular
shape and can not be rotated conveniently as shown in Fig. 29.18. In this machine the workpiece
B B D B D A D A A C C Version 2 ME, IIT Kharagpur does not rotate. Instead, the grinding
wheel orbits the axis of the hole in the workpiece. A B Fig. 29.18 Internal grinding in planetary
grinder A: rotation of grinding wheel B: orbiting motion of grinding 29.3.3 Centreless internal
grinder This machine is used for grinding cylindrical and tapered holes in cylindrical parts (e.g.
cylindrical liners, various bushings etc). The workpiece is rotated between supporting roll,
pressure roll and regulating wheel and is ground by the grinding wheel as illustrated in Fig. 29.19
A B C A: grinding wheel rotation B: workpiece rotation C: wheel reciprocation Fig. 29.19
Internal centreless grinding 29.4 Tool and cutter grinder machine Tool grinding may be divided
into two subgroups: tool manufacturing and tool resharpening. There are many types of tool and
cutter grinding machine to meet these requirements. Simple single point tools are occasionally
sharpened by hand on bench or pedestal grinder. However, tools and cutters with complex
geometry like milling cutter, drills, reamers and hobs require sophisticated grinding machine
commonly known as universal tool and cutter grinder. Present trend is to use tool and cutter
grinder equipped with CNC to grind tool angles, concentricity, cutting edges and dimensional
size with high precision. Version 2 ME, IIT Kharagpur Grinding wheel Tool holding 3-D vice
Fig. 29.20 Pictorial view of a tool and cutter grinder Exercise 29 Q1. State the basic advantage of
a creep feed grinder over a conventional surface grinder. Q2. State the specific application of a
planetary internal grinder. Q3. What are the characteristic features of a universal cylindrical
grinder? Q4. State the disadvantages of centreless cylindrical grinding machine? Q5. Is
transverse feed provided in vertical spindle reciprocating table surface grinder? Answer of the
questions given in Exercise 29 Ans. to Q1. Productivity is enhanced and life of the grinding
wheel is extended. Ans. to Q2. Planetary internal grinders find application for grinding holes in
workpieces of irregular shape or large heavy workpieces. Ans. to Q3. Characteristic features of a
universal cylindrical grinder not possessed by plain cylindrical grinder are: Swivelling wheel
head Swivelling wheel head slide Swivelling head stock Version 2 ME, IIT Kharagpur Ans. to
Q4. Disadvantages of a centreless cylindrical grinder are: It does not grind concentrically with
centres. Large diameter short workpiece are difficult to control in the process It may not
improve workpiece perpendicularity. Ans to Q5. Usually no transverse feed is provided in such
machine.

Milling cutters are cutting tools

typically used in milling machines to perform milling operations and occasionally in other machine
tools. They remove material by their movement within the machine or directly from the cutter's
shape.

Contents
[hide]

1 Milling Machine Tooling Overview

2 End Mills:

3 Cutters:

4 Mill cutting speed and feeds

5 Cutter Material Identification / Selection:

6 Centercutting and Non-Centercutting Endmills

7 References

Milling Machine Tooling Overview

Various types of mill cutters:

Tool/Step

Description

Milling Cutters (excluding end mills): Used for a variety of

operations from facing styles (squaring and smoothing faces),
as well as cutting angles and shapes, as well as grooves and
slots.[1]

Milling Cutters

Slitting Cutters: Used for cutting a narrow slit into material, not
used for removing lots of material.

Slitting Cutter

Gear Cutters: Used for cutting teeth into stock to make a gear.[2]

Gear Cutter

End Mills: End mills are tools which have cutting teeth at one
end, as well as on the sides, they are used for a variety of things
including facing an edge, and cutting slots or channels.[3]

End Mills

End Mills:
An endmill is a type of milling cutter, a cutting tool used in industrial milling applications. It is
distinguished from the drill bit in its application, geometry, and manufacture. While a drill bit can only
cut in the axial direction, a milling bit can generally cut in all directions, though some cannot cut

axially. End mills are used in milling applications such as profile milling, tracer milling, face milling,
and plunging.
Mill end:

Tool/Step

Description

This is a flute diagram. It shows what a two flute, three flute,

four flute, six flute, and eight flute mill end looks like from the
bottom. Then, the arrows show that you want to go to the right
when cutting a harder material and cut to the left to take off
more chips.
Flute Diagram

There are many types of End Mills to choose from, and with
each style there are a variety of materials including High-Speed
Steel, Cobalt Steel, and Carbide. There are also many options
for how many flutes there are ranging from 2 to 8 normally.
Lastly, for each style there are roughing and finishing end mills.
[4]

End Mill Type

Roughing End Mills: Leave a rough finish but cut much faster
than the finishing end mill. It is recommended to use one of
these to start with, and then move to a finishing one.
Roughing End Mill

Finishing End Mills: Leave a nice finish on the stock you are
working with..
Finishing End Mill

Square End Mills: Used for milling a perfectly square corner at

the bottom of your channel.[5]
Square End Mill

Ball End Mills: Machine rounded details into your stock. [6]

Ball End Mill

Rounded Edge End Mills: Rounded edges on the tips of the

flutes reduce chipping and lengthen the life of the tool. Also
known as corner radius end mills, they work well for making
molds. Use on cast iron, cast steel, and heat-treated steel.
Sometimes called Bull Nose End Mills.[7]
Rounded Edge (Bull Nose) End
Mill

Tapered End Mills: Machine angled slots in dies and molds. Also
known as taper degree end mills.[8]

Tapered End Mill

Drilling End Mill: A 90 point angle turns these end mills into
drills for slotting, side milling, beveling, and profiling.[9]

Drillin End Mill

Chamfer End Mill: Make beveled and angled cuts without the
need for hand deburring. Two flutes provide better chip
clearance, while four flutes produce a finer finish.[10]

Chamfer End Mill

Corner Rounding End Mill: Round off sharp corners on the edge
of your stock[11]

Corner Ronding End Mill

Concave Radius End Mill: Machine rounded, outward-curved

edges into your stock[12]

Concave Radius End Mill

Convex Radius End Mill: Machine hollow, inward-curved edges

into your stock.[13]

Convex Raduis End Mill

Cutters:
Various types of mill cutters:

Tool/Step

Description

Used for cutting Woodruff keyseats and other precise

notches in shafts, as well as slots.
Straight-tooth cutters work well on high-carbon steel and
cast iron. Carbide cutters are made of premium subkeyseat cutter

micrograin carbide for fast, smooth cuts. Staggered-tooth

cutters have an alternating right- and left-hand helix for
efficient cuts in mild steel, aluminum, and brass. [14]
Narrow-Width Keyseat Cutters: Used for cutting narrow
Woodruff keyseats. [15]

Narrow width keyseat

T-Slot Cutters: Used for milling T-slots in machine tool

tables, indexing tables, and other work holding surfaces and
products.
T-Slot Cutter

Note: Before using the cutter, mill a slot in the work surface
so the neck of the cutter can enter the cut. [16]
Dovetail Cutters: Machine slots for components that require
a sliding fit.[17]

Dovetail Cutter

Bevel Cutters: Make uniform bevel cuts in your stock.[18]

Bevel Cutter

V-Slot Cutters: A single pass cuts a V-shaped slot. Also

known as double-angle milling cutters, they can also mill
notches, serrations, angles, and chamfers.[19]
V-slot Cutter

Staggered-Tooth milling Cutters: With peripheral and side

teeth, cutters remove chips for consistent cutting width.
Cutters are for deep slots and other applications requiring
maximum chip clearance. Also known as side-milling
cutters, they have alternating right- and left-hand helical
teeth to remove more metal at higher feeds/speeds than
straight-tooth cutters. The keyway lets you interlock two or
more cutters of the same diameter so you can customize the
thickness of the cutter to match the slot width you require.[20]

Staggered-Toother Milling Cutter

Straight-Tooth Milling Cutters: Cutters are thinner, have

more teeth, and leave a finer finish than staggered-tooth
cutters. Use for thin slots and plunge cuts.

Straight-Tooth Milling Cutter

Large-Diameter High-Speed Steel Face Milling Cutters:

Used for facing a piece of stock. They are also known as
shell cutters, these tools have a large diameter for face and
side milling.[21]

Large-Diameter High-Speed Steel

Face Milling Cutters

Large-Diameter Replaceable Carbide-Insert Face Milling

Cutters: These cutters remove metal 2-5 times faster than
comparable high-speed steel face mills as shown above. All
cutter bodies accept octagon, round, and square carbide
inserts.[22]
Large-Diameter Replaceable
Carbide-Insert Face Milling Cutter

Square Tool Bit Flat-Surface Cutters:These are used with

square tool bits for machining flat surfaces. Compared to
standard end mills, they make wider cuts, produce less
vibration, cut thin materials easily, and can be run at faster
speeds. [23]
Square tool bit flat

This is a Fly Cutter; Works well to take of material in one

pass on a larger surface, this tool can be hard on the
machine when working with hard metals because of how far
away the cutter is from the center of the tool.

Fly Cutter

This is a Carbide Face Mill; it does not make as large of cuts

as most fly cutters, but leaves a very nice finish, and is
faster to cut with.

Carbide Face Mill

Slitting Cutters: These cutters do not have side teeth which

make them a good choice for thin slitting and slotting jobs.
They are ground concave for free cutting through your stock.
To determine how many teeth your cutter should have,
follow these guidelines: 1. Always have at least three teeth
in the cut. 2. Use more teeth for thin and hard materials. 3.
Use fewer teeth for soft materials and larger sections.

[24]

Slitting Cutter

Gear Cutters: Used to create a gear. Determine the cutter

number you need based on the number of teeth in your
gear. The cutter number has to do with the pitch of the cut,
and there are many options.[25]

Gear Cutter

Milling cutters come in several shapes and many sizes. There is also a choice of coatings, as well
as rake angle and number of cutting surfaces.

Shape: Several standard shapes of milling cutter are used in industry today, which are
explained in more detail below.

Flutes / teeth: The flutes of the milling bit are the deep helical grooves running up the cutter,
while the sharp blade along the edge of the flute is known as the tooth. The tooth cuts the
material, and chips of this material are pulled up the flute by the rotation of the cutter. There is
almost always one tooth per flute, but some cutters have two teeth per flute. [1] Often, the
words flute and tooth are used interchangeably. Milling cutters may have from one to many
teeth, with 2, 3 and 4 being most common. Typically, the more teeth a cutter has, the more

rapidly it can remove material. So, a 4-tooth cutter can remove material at twice the rate of a 2tooth cutter.

Helix angle: The flutes of a milling cutter are almost always helical. If the flutes were
straight, the whole tooth would impact the material at once, causing vibration and reducing
accuracy and surface quality. Setting the flutes at an angle allows the tooth to enter the material
gradually, reducing vibration. Typically, finishing cutters have a higher rake angle (tighter helix) to
give a better finish.

Center cutting: Some milling cutters can drill straight down (plunge) through the material,
while others cannot. This is because the teeth of some cutters do not go all the way to the centre
of the end face. However, these cutters can cut downwards at an angle of 45 degrees or so.

Roughing or Finishing: Different types of cutter are available for cutting away large
amounts of material, leaving a poor surface finish (roughing), or removing a smaller amount of
material, but leaving a good surface finish (finishing). A roughing cutter may have serrated teeth
for breaking the chips of material into smaller pieces. These teeth leave a rough surface behind.
A finishing cutter may have a large number (4 or more) teeth for removing material carefully.
However, the large number of flutes leaves little room for efficient swarf removal, so they are
less appropriate for removing large amounts of material.

Coatings: The right tool coatings can have a great influence on the cutting process by
increasing cutting speed and tool life, and improving the surface finish. Polycrystalline
diamond (PCD) is an exceptionally hard coating used on cutters which must withstand high
abrasive wear. A PCD coated tool may last up to 100 times longer than an uncoated tool.
However the coating cannot be used at temperatures above 600 degrees C, or on ferrous
metals. Tools for machining aluminium are sometimes given a coating of TiAlN. Aluminium is a
relatively sticky metal, and can weld itself to the teeth of tools, causing them to appear blunt.
However it tends not to stick to TiAlN, allowing the tool to be used for much longer in aluminium.

Shank: The shank is the cylindrical (non-fluted) part of the tool which is used to hold and
locate it in the tool holder. A shank may be perfectly round, and held by friction, or it may have a
Weldon Flat, where a set screw, also known as a grub screw, makes contact for increased
torque without the tool slipping. The diameter may be different from the diameter of the cutting
part of the tool, so that it can be held by a standard tool holder.

End mill

Slot, end mill, and ballnose cutters

Main article: End mill

End mills (middle row in image) are those tools which have cutting teeth at one end, as well as on
the sides. The words end mill are generally used to refer to flat bottomed cutters, but also include
rounded cutters (referred to as ball nosed) and radiused cutters (referred to as bull nose, or torus).
They are usually made from high speed steel or cemented carbide, and have one or more flutes.
They are the most common tool used in a vertical mill.

Roughing end mill

Roughing end mills quickly remove large amounts of material. This kind of end mill utilizes a wavy
tooth form cut on the periphery. These wavy teeth form many successive cutting edges producing
many small chips, resulting in a relatively rough surface finish. During cutting, multiple teeth are in
contact with the workpiece reducing chatter and vibration. Rapid stock removal with heavy milling
cuts is sometimes called hogging. Roughing end mills are also sometimes known as ripping cutters.

Ball nose cutter

Ball nose cutters or ball end mills (lower row in image) are similar to slot drills, but the end of the
cutters are hemispherical. They are ideal for machining 3-dimensional contoured shapes
in machining centres, for example in moulds and dies. They are sometimes called ball mills in shopfloor slang, despite the fact that that term also has another meaning. They are also used to add a
radius between perpendicular faces to reduce stress concentrations.
There is also a term bull nose cutter, which refers to a cutter having a corner radius that is fairly
large, although less than the spherical radius (half the cutter diameter) of a ball mill; for example, a
20-mm diameter cutter with a 2-mm radius corner. This usage is analogous to the term bull nose

center referring to lathe centers with truncated cones; in both cases, the silhouette is essentially a
rectangle with its corners truncated (by either a chamfer or radius Don).

Slab mill[edit]

High speed steel slab mill

Slab mills are used either by themselves or in gang milling operations on manual horizontal or
universal milling machines to machine large broad surfaces quickly. They have been superseded by
the use of cemented carbide-tipped face mills which are then used in vertical mills or machining
centres.

Side-and-face cutter

Side and face cutter

The side-and-face cutter is designed with cutting teeth on its side as well as its circumference. They
are made in varying diameters and widths depending on the application. The teeth on the side allow
the cutter to make unbalanced cuts (cutting on one side only) without deflecting the cutter as would
happen with a slitting saw or slot cutter (no side teeth).

Cutters of this form factor were the earliest milling cutters developed. From the 1810s to at least the
1880s they were the most common form of milling cutter, whereas today that distinction probably
goes to end mills.

Involute gear cutter

Involute gear cutter number 4:

10 diametrical pitch cutter
Cuts gears from 26 through to 34 teeth
14.5 degree pressure angle

There are 8 cutters (excluding the rare half sizes) that will cut gears from 12 teeth through to a rack
(infinite diameter).

Hob

Hobbing cutter

Main article: Hobbing

Aluminium chromium titanium nitride (AlCrTiN) coated hob using Cathodic arc deposition technique

These cutters are a type of form tool and are used in hobbing machines to generate gears. A cross
section of the cutter's tooth will generate the required shape on the workpiece, once set to the
appropriate conditions (blank size). A hobbing machine is a specialised milling machine.

Thread mill
Main article: Threading (manufacturing) Thread milling

A diagram of a solid single-form thread cutting tool

A solid multiple-form thread milling cutter.

Whereas a hob engages the work much as a mating gear would (and cuts the blank progressively
until it reaches final shape), a thread milling cutter operates much like an endmill, traveling around
the work in a helical interpolation.

Face mill

Face mill tipped with carbide inserts

A face mill is a cutter designed for facing as opposed to e.g., creating a pocket (end mills). The
cutting edges of face mills are always located along its sides. As such it must always cut in a
horizontal direction at a given depth coming from outside the stock. Multiple teeth distribute the chip
load, and since the teeth are normally disposable carbide inserts, this combination allows for very
large and efficient face milling.

Fly cutter
A fly cutter is composed of a body into which one or two tool bits are inserted. As the entire unit
rotates, the tool bits take broad, shallow facing cuts. Fly cutters are analogous to face mills in that
their purpose is face milling and their individual cutters are replaceable. Face mills are more ideal in
various respects (e.g., rigidity, indexability of inserts without disturbing effective cutter diameter or
tool length offset, depth-of-cut capability), but tend to be expensive, whereas fly cutters are very
inexpensive.
Most fly cutters simply have a cylindrical center body that holds one tool bit. It is usually a standard
left-hand turning tool that is held at an angle of 30 to 60 degrees. Fly cutters with two tool bits have
no "official" name but are often called double fly cutters, double-end fly cutters, or fly bars. The latter
name reflects that they often take the form of a bar of steel with a tool bit fastened on each end.
Often these bits will be mounted at right angles to the bar's main axis, and the cutting geometry is
supplied by using a standard right-hand turning tool.
Regular fly cutters (one tool bit, swept diameter usually less than 100 mm) are widely sold in
machinists' tooling catalogs. Fly bars are rarely sold commercially; they are usually made by the
user. Fly bars are perhaps a bit more dangerous to use than endmills and regular fly cutters because
of their larger swing. As one machinist put it, running a fly bar is like "running a lawn mower without
the deck",[2] that is, the exposed swinging cutter is a rather large opportunity to take in nearby hand
tools, rags, fingers, and so on. However, given that a machinist can never be careless with impunity
around rotating cutters or workpieces, this just means using the same care as always except with
slightly higher stakes. Well-made fly bars in conscientious hands give years of trouble-free, costeffective service for the facing off of large polygonal workpieces such as die/mold blocks.

Woodruff cutter

Woodruff key cutters and keys

Woodruff cutters are used to cut the keyway for a woodruff key.

Hollow mill
Hollow milling cutters, more often called simply hollow mills, are essentially "inside-out endmills".
They are shaped like a piece of pipe (but with thicker walls), with their cutting edges on the inside
surface. They are used on turret lathes and screw machines as an alternative to turning with a box
tool, or on milling machines or drill presses to finish a cylindrical boss (such as a trunnion).

Dovetail cutter
A dovetail cutter is an endmill whose form leaves behind a dovetail slot, such as often forms the
ways of a machine tool.

Shell mill

A face mill shell. The rectangular cutout area on the back side is the pocket that engages the lugs/tangs of the
arbor.

A shell mill is any of various milling cutters (typically a face mill or endmill) whose construction takes
a modular form, with the shank (arbor) made separately from the body of the cutter, which is called a
"shell" and attaches to the shank/arbor via any of several standardized joining methods.
This modular style of construction is appropriate for large milling cutters for about the same reason
that large diesel engines use separate pieces for each cylinder and head whereas a smaller engine
would use one integrated casting. Two reasons are that (1) for the maker it is more practical (and
thus less expensive) to make the individual pieces as separate endeavors than to machine all their
features in relation to each other while the whole unit is integrated (which would require a larger
machine tool work envelope); and (2) the user can change some pieces while keeping other pieces
the same (rather than changing the whole unit). One arbor (at a hypothetical price of USD100) can
serve for various shells at different times. Thus 5 different milling cutters may require only USD100
worth of arbor cost, rather than USD500, as long as the workflow of the shop does not require them
all to be set up simultaneously. It is also possible that a crashed tool scraps only the shell rather than
both the shell and arbor. This would be like crashing a "regular" endmill and being able to reuse the
shank rather than losing it along with the flutes.
Most shell mills made today use indexable inserts for the cutting edgesthus shank, body, and
cutting edges are all modular components.

Grinding

There are two main material types for grinding wheels: Aluminum
Oxide and Silicon Carbide.
Aluminum Oxide is used to grind materials such as hard steel, wrought iron and
toughbronze. These materials are considered to have a high tensile strength.
Depending on the purity factor, it can also be used to grind cast iron as well as stellite,
which is used in dies and gages. Aluminum Oxide it the most common abrasive used
in grinding wheels.
Silicon carbide grinding wheels are used to grind low tensile
strength materials, such as aluminum, brass and softer bronzes. It is
also used on most non-ferrous metal*s.
Other specialty materials are Cubic Boron Nitride, diamond, and
gel ceramicabrasive.
The Three Elements of Grinding Wheel

Grain

Bond

Pore

Very hard, functions as

Bonds and

Functions as a "chip

the "cutting edge" in

grinding work.

holds abrasive
grains.

pocket" and helps cool

the grinding wheel.

A grinding wheel consists of three elements: abrasive grain, bond and pore, as shown in figure 1. As the wheel turns in high
speed, its innumerable grains quickly grind workpiece to beautiful finish and precise measurement.

Mechanism of grinding whetstone

This process is called grinding process. As the processing progresses, the grains wear out and chip off and in consequence new
grains or the "cutting edge" arise constantly, making it possible to continue the grinding work in the same condition. The selfsharpening cutting edge is the unique characteristic of grinding wheel, not found in any other cutting tools.

The Five Factors of Grinding Wheel

Characteristics of grinding wheel are determined by the following five factors.
The Five Factors of Grinding Wheel

Grain

Grain Size

Grade

Structure

Bond

Nature of
abrasive
grain

Size of
abrasive
grain(F or
#)

Retention
strength of
abrasive
grains

Proportion of
grains to the
entire wheel

Nature of
bonding
agent

Grain
Nature of Abrasive Grains and Their Properties and Application

QB
Alumina compound
abrasive of new
formula.
Multi crystal
New abrasive.
cerami Demonstrates an
c
outstanding ability
abrasiv in heavy-duty
e grain grinding as well as
precision grinding
of alloyed steel,
tool
steel, stainless
steel, etc.
Fused
alumin
a
abrasiv
e grain

WA
Highly friable and
sharp cutting edge.
Precision grinding
of general
quenched steel
A
Standard abrasive,
excellent in
toughness.
Free hand grinding,
heavy-duty
grinding and
precision
grinding of general
purpose steel
19A
Compound
abrasive with extra
cutting ability.
Precision grinding
of general purpose
steel and quenched

steel
HA
Compound
abrasive with
toughness.
High cutting ability.
Heavy-duty
grinding of general
purpose steel and
quenched steel
KW
Both friable and
tough. High cutting
ability.
Precision grinding
of quenched steel
and alloyed steel.
PW,RA
Tough grain with
high cutting ability.
Precision grinding
of alloyed steel and
tool steel
SA,KE
Single crystal
abrasive grain with
hardness
and high
toughness.
Grinding of hard-togrind materials
such as alloyed
steel,
tool steel,
quenched steel

GC
Ultra high hardness
and highly friable.
Grinding of sintered
hardmetals, cast
Silicon iron, non-ferrous
carbide metal, ceramic, etc.
abrasiv
e grain C
Standard silicon
carbide abrasive.
Grinding of cast
iron, non-ferrous
metal, ceramic, etc.
Grain Size
Grain size is the size of abrasive grain and generally designated by "F" or "mesh (#)". Grain sizes are classified as shown in
following tables in accordance with their ranges and grain size distribution.
Coarse (unit:micro meter)

Grain Size

Grain Diameter

F8

2,800-2,000

F 10

2,360-1,700

F 12

2,000-1,400

F 14

1,700-1,180

F 16

1,400-1,000

F 20

1,180-850

F 24

850-600

F 30

710-500

F 36

600-425

F 46

425-300

F 54

355-250

F 60

300-212

F 70

250-180

F 80

212-150

F 90

180-125

F100

150-106

F120

125-90

F150

106-63

F180

90-53

F220

75-45

Fine (unit:micro meter)

Grain Size

d-50 value

d-94 value

#240

57.0+-3.0

40min.

#280

48.0+-3.0

33min.

#320

40.0+-2.5

27min.

#360

35.0+-2.0

23min.

#400

30.0+-2.0

20min.

#500

25.0+-2.0

16min.

#600

20.0+-1.5

13min.

#700

17.0+-1.3

11min.

#800

14.0+-1.0

9.0min.

#1000

11.5+-1.0

7.0min.

#1200

9.5+-0.8

5.5min.

#1500

8.0+-0.6

4.5min.

#2000

6.7+-0.6

4.0min.

#2500

5.5+-0.5

3.0min.

#3000

4.0+-0.5

2.0min.

#4000

3.0+-0.4

1.3min.

d-50 value = particle diameter at 50% point of cumulative height

d-94 value = particle diameter at 94% point of cumulative height

Grain size is closely related to the roughness of a finished surface. Generally coarser wheel results in a greater efficiency and a
less smooth finished surface.
The figure on the right shows the general application of grain size for each grinding work.

Grain Sizes and Their Application

Grade
The grade represents the retaining strength of bonding agent which holds the abrasive grains. The higher the grade (stronger in
retention), the harder the wheel and vice versa. The grade is described in alphabetical order; A being the softest and Z being the
hardest.

Very Soft

Soft

Medium

Hard

Very Hard

ABCDEFG

HIJK

LMNO

PQRS

TUVWXYZ

The grade is the factor which has the greatest influence on the cutting sharpness of a grinding wheel; thus, the selection of grade
must be done deliberatively. As a general rule, hard material requires a low grade wheel and soft material is best ground by a high
grade wheel. The common trend of grade selection is as shown in Table above.
Depending on the use, there are cases where the pores are filled with fillings. In such cases, the grade code is followed by the
subsidiary code indicating the filling.
e.g. H + S (subsidiary code: S...Sulfur, P...Paraffin, R...Resin)
Structure
The proportion of the volume of grain within the given volume of the entire grinding wheel is called grain ratio.
The grain ratio is distributed into 15 grades, namely from 0 to 14, which being the structure number of the grinding wheel. The
larger the number, the lower the grain ratio i.e. larger space between grains. Space between grains has great influence on the
grinding efficiency and incidence of heating.

Bond
The bonding agent holds abrasive grains together so that the abrasive grains can show the sufficient grinding efficiency.
Kinds and properties of bonds currently used are as follows;

1. Ceramic Bond
(1) Vitrified Method (Vitrified Bond)
Vitrified bond is represented by symbol "V".
In this method, ceramics such as feldspar and clay is fired to bond abrasive grains together.
Vitrified bonded products are widely used in general grinding field including precision grinding,
because the bond allows easy adjustment of grade and structure, and vitrified bonded products have
numerous pores which prevent burn, and they won't be affected by either water, alkali, acid or oil.

We have every kind of grains including QB ceramic grain available.

We provide products suitable for your workpiece.

2. Synthetic Resin Bond

(1) Resinoid Method (Resinoid Bond)
Resinoid bond is represented by symbol "B".
In this method, products are made by hardening or thermosetting bakelite (phenol formalin).
Compared to vitrified, resinoid bonded products are elastic and high tensile and can be used under
high operation speed. Thus, resinoid bond is suitable for thin grinding wheels such as cutting wheels
and depressed centered wheels. Since resinoid bonded wheels are easily affected by heat and oil, you
have to be careful about grinding fluid.

(2) Rubber Method (Rubber Bond)

Rubber bond is represented by symbol "R".
In this method, products are made by hardening or thermosetting natural or synthetic rubber tempered with grains.
Since rubber bonded wheels are easily affected by heat and oil, you have to be careful about grinding fluid.

(3) Foaming Method

Foaming method bond is represented by symbol "UP".
In this method, products are made with synthetic resin (such as urethane resin).
Since the products are highly elastic and water resistant, they are used for grinding of non-ferrous materials such as aluminum.

Grinding Wheels
STANDARD
TYPES OF
GRINDING
WHEELS
Grinding wheels
come in many
different sizes,
shapes, and
abrasives (Figure
8-7). Some of the
various types are
listed below.

Dish
The chief use of the dish wheel, type number 12, is in tool work. Its
thin edge can be inserted into narrow places, and it is convenient
for grinding the faces of form-relieved milling cutters and broaches.
Saucer
The saucer wheel, type number 13, is also known as a saw
gummer because it is used for sharpening saws.

Straight
Straight wheels,
numbers 1, 5, and
7, are commonly
applied to internal,
cylindrical,
horizontal spindle,
surface, tool, and
offhand grinding
and snagging. The
recesses in type
numbers.5 and 7
accommodate
mounting flanges.
Type number 1
wheels from
0.006-inch to l/8inch thick are used
for cutting off stock
and slotting.
Cylinder
Cylinder wheels,

Figure 8-7. Standard types of grinding wheels.

ABRASIVE MATERIALS
The abrasive grains are the cutting took of a grinding wheel.
They actually cut small pieces or chips off the work as the wheel
rotates. The shape of each grain is irregular with several sharp
cutting edges. When these edges grow dull, the forces acting on
the wheel tend to fracture the abrasive grains and produce new

type number 2,
may be arranged
for grinding on
either the
periphery or side
of the wheel.
Tapered
Tapered wheels,
type number 4,
take tapered
safety flanges to
keep pieces from
flying if the wheel
is broken while
snagging.
Straight Cup
The straight cup
wheel, type
number 6, is used
primarily for
surface grinding,
but can also be
used for offhand
grinding of flat
surfaces. Plain or
beveled faces are
available.
Flaring Cup
The flaring cup
wheel, type
number 11, is
commonly used
for tool grinding.
With a resinoid

cutting edges.

bond, it is useful
for snagging. Its
face may be plain
or beveled.

ABRASIVES
Most grinding wheels are made of silicon
carbide or aluminum oxide, both of which
are artificial (manufactured) abrasives.
Silicon carbide is extremely hard but
brittle. Aluminum oxide is slightly softer but
is tougher than silicon carbide. It dulls
more quickly, but it does not fracture easily
therefore it is better suited for grinding
materials of relatively high tensile strength.

Silicate
Silicate bond releases the abrasive
grains more readily than vitrified bond.
Silicate bonded wheels are well suited
for grinding where heat must be kept to
a minimum, such as grinding edged
cutting tools. It is not suited for heavyduty grinding. Thin cutoff wheels are
sometimes made with a shellac bond
because it provides fast cool cutting.

ABRASIVE GRAIN SIZE

Resinoid

Abrasive grains are selected according

to the mesh of a sieve through which they
are sorted. For example, grain number 40
indicates that the abrasive grain passes
through a sieve having approximately 40
meshes to the linear inch. A grinding wheel
is designated coarse, medium, or fine
according to the size of the individual
abrasive grains making up the wheel.

Resinoid bond is strong and flexible. It

is widely used in snagging wheels (for
grinding irregularities from rough
castings), which operate at 9,500
SFPM. It is also used in cutoff wheels.

BONDING MATERIAL
Bond
The abrasive particles in a grinding
wheel are held in place by the bonding
agent. The percentage of bond in the
wheel determines, to a great extent, the
"hardness" or "grade" of the wheel. The
greater the percentage and strength of the

Rubber
In rubber-bonded wheels, pure rubber is
mixed with sulfur. It is extremely flexible
at operating speeds and permits the
manufacture of grinding wheels as thin
as 0.006 inch for slitting nibs. Most
abrasive cutoff machine wheels have a
rubber bond.
GRADES OF HARDNESS
The grade of a grinding wheel
designates the hardness of the bonded

bond, the harder the grinding wheel will

be. "Hard" wheels retain the cutting grains
longer, while "soft" wheels release the
grains quickly. If a grinding wheel is "too
hard" for the job, it will glaze because the
bond prevents dulled abrasive particles
from being released so new grains can be
exposed for cutting. Besides controlling
hardness and holding the abrasive, the
bond also provides the proper safety factor
at running speed. It holds the wheel
together while centrifugal force is trying to
tear it apart. The most common bonds
used in grinding wheels are vitrified,
silicate, shellac, resinoid, and rubber.
Vitrified
A vast majority of grinding wheels have
a vitrified bond. Vitrified bonded wheels
are unaffected by heat or cold and are
made in a greater range of hardness than
any other bond. They adapt to practically
all types of grinding with one notable
exception: if the wheel is not thick enough,
it does not withstand side pressure as in
the case of thin cutoff wheels.

The grade of hardness should be

selected as carefully as the grain size. A
grinding abrasive wheel that is too soft will
wear away too rapidly, the abrasive grain
will be discarded from the wheel before its
useful life is realized. On the other hand, if
the wheel is too hard for the job, the
abrasive particles will become dull
because the bond will not release the
abrasive grain, and the wheel's efficiency

material. Listed below are examples of

those grades:
A soft wheel is one on which the
cutting particles break away rapidly
while a hard wheel is one on which the
bond successfully opposes this breaking
away of the abrasive grain.
Most wheels are graded
according to hardness by a letter
system. Most manufacturers of grinding
abrasive wheels use a letter code
ranging from A (very soft) to Z (very
hard). Vitrified and silicate bonds usually
range from very soft to very hard,
shellac and resinoid bonds usually
range from very soft to hard, and rubber
bonds are limited to the medium to hard
range.

Figure 8-8 illustrates sections of three

grinding abrasive wheels with different
spacing of grains. If the grain and bond
materials in each of these are alike in
size and hardness, the wheel with the
wider spacing will be softer than the
wheel with the closer grain spacing.
Thus, the actual hardness of the grinding
wheel is equally dependent on grade of
hardness and spacing of the grains or

will be impaired.

structure.

GRINDING WHEEL ABRASIVE

Figure 8-8. Grinding wheel abrasive.

ABRASIVE WHEEL STRUCTURE

Bond strength of a grinding wheel is not
wholly dependent upon the grade of
hardness but depends equally on the

MARKINGS
Every grinding wheel is marked by
the manufacturer with a stencil or a
small tag. The manufacturers have

structure of the wheel, that is, the spacing

of the grain or its density. The structure or
spacing is measured in number of grains
per cubic inch of wheel volume.

worked out a standard system of

markings, shown in Figure 8-9.
For an example use a wheel marked
A36-L5-V23. The A refers to the
abrasive which is aluminum oxide. The
36 represents the grain size. The L
shows the grade or degree of
hardness, which is medium. The 5
refers to the structure of the wheel and
the V refers to the bond type.

Figure 8-9. Standard system of markings.

STANDARD SHAPES OF GRINDING

WHEEL FACES
Figure 8-10 illustrates standard shapes of
grinding wheel faces. The nature of the
work dictates the shape of the face to be
used. For instance, shape A is commonly
used for straight cylindrical grinding and
shape E for grinding threads.

Tensile Strength of Material

The tensile of material to be ground is
the main factor in the selection of the
abrasive to be used. Two types of
abrasives are suited to different
materials as shown below.
Silicon Carbide

SELECTION OF GRINDING WHEELS

Gray and chilled iron

Conditions under which grinding wheels

are used vary considerably, and a wheel
that is satisfactory on one machine may
be too hard or soft for the same operation
on another machine. The following basic
factors are considered when selecting
grinding wheels, though it should be
understood that the rules and conditions
listed are flexible and subject to
occasional exceptions.

Brass and soft bronze

Aluminum and copper
Marble and other stone
Rubber and leather
Very hard alloys
Cemented carbides
Unannealed malleable iron

Figure 8-10. Standard shapes of grinding wheel faces.

Aluminum Oxide

Surfacing operations require open

structure (wide grain spacing).

Carbon steels
Alloy steels
High speed steels
Annealed malleable iron
Wrought iron

Cylindrical grinding and tool and cutter

grinding are best performed with wheels of
medium structure (medium grain spacing).
Factors Affecting Bonding Material
The factors described below affect the
selection of bonding material for the wheel

Hard bronzes
Factors Affecting the Grain Size
Grain size to be chosen when
selecting a grinding wheel depends
upon the factors described below.
The softer and more ductile
the material, the coarser the grain
size.
The larger the amount of stock
to be removed, thecoarser the grain
size.
The finer the finish desired,
the finer the grain size.
Factors Affecting the Grade of
Hardness
The factors described below will
determine the proper grade of
hardness of the grinding wheel.
The harder the material, the
softer the wheel.
The smaller the arc of contact,
the harder the grade should be. The
arc of contact is the arc, measured
along the periphery of the wheel, that
is in contact with the work at any
instance. It follows that the larger the
grinding wheel, the greater the arc of
contact and, therefore, a softer wheel
can be used.
The higher the work speed

desired.
Thin cutoff wheels and other wheels
subject to bending strains require resinoid,
shellac, or rubber bonds.
Solid wheels of very large diameters
require a silicate bond.
Vitrified wheels are usually best for
speeds up to 6,500 SFPM and resinoid,
shellac, or rubber wheels are best for speeds
above 6,500 SFPM.
Resinoid, shellac, or rubber bonds are
generally best where a high finish is required.
Selection
Refer to Table 5-1 in Appendix A for specific
requirements for typical grinding and
materials (grinding wheel selection and
application).
INSPECTION OF GRINDING WHEELS
When a grinding wheel is received in the
shop or removed from storage, it should be
inspected closely for damage or cracks.
Check a small wheel by suspending it on one
finger or with a piece of string. Tap it gently
with a light nonmetallic instrument, such as
the handle of a screwdriver (Figure 8-11).

with relation to the wheel speed, the

milder the grinding action and the
harder the grade should be.
The better the condition of the
grinding machine and spindle
bearings, the softer the wheel can be.
Factors Affecting the Structure
The structure or spacing of the
abrasive grains of wheel depends
upon the four factors described
below.

Figure 8-11. Checking for cracks.

The softer, tougher, and more

ductile the material, the wider the
grain spacing.
The finer the finish desired,
the closer, or more dense, the grain
spacing should be.

Check a larger wheel by striking it with a wooden mallet. If

the wheel does not give a clear ring, discard it. All wheels do
not emit the same tone; a low tone does not necessarily mean
a cracked wheel. wheels are often filled with various resins or
greases to modify their cutting action, and resin or grease
deadens the tone. Vitrified and silicate wheels emit a clear
metallic ring. Resin, rubber, and shellac bonded wheels emit a
tone that is less clear. Regardless of the bond, the sound of a
cracked wheel is easy to identify.
MOUNTING GRINDING WHEELS
The proper mounting of a grinding wheel is very important.
An improperly mounted wheel may become potentially
dangerous at high speeds.

The spindle
hole in the wheel
should be no more
than 0.002 inch
larger than the
diameter of the
spindle, since a
loose fit will result in
difficulty in
centering the wheel.
If the spindle hole is
oversize, select
another wheel of
the proper size. If
no others are
available, fit a

The specified wheel size for the particular grinding machine

to be used should not be exceeded either in wheel diameter or
in wheel width. Figure 8-12 illustrates a correctly mounted
grinding wheel.

suitable bushing
over the spindle to
adapt the spindle to
the hole.
Paper
blotters of the
proper size usually
come with The
grinding wheel. If
the proper blotters
are missing, cut
them from heavy
blotter paper (no
more than 0.025inch thick:) and
place them between
the grinding wheel
and each flange.
The blotters must
be large enough to
cover the whole
area of contact
between the flanges
and the wheel.
These blotters
serve as cushions
to minimize wheel
breakage.

Figure 8-12. Correctly mounted wheel.

The following four items are methods and procedures for

mounting grinding wheels:
Note that the wheel is mounted between two flanges
which are relieved on their inner surfaces so that they support
the wheel only at their outer edges. This holds the wheel more
securely with less pressure and with less danger of breaking.
For good support, the range diameter should be about one-

When
installing the
grinding wheel on
the wheel spindle,
tighten the spindle
nut firmly, but not
so. tight that undue
strain will be put on
the wheel.

third of the wheel diameter.

WHEEL
DRESSERS
Grinding wheels
wear unevenly
under most general
grinding operations
due to uneven
pressure applied to
the face of the
wheel when it cuts.
Also, when the
proper wheel has
not been used for
certain operations,
the wheel may
become charged
with metal particles,
or the abrasive
grain may become
dull before it is
broken loose from
the wheel bond. [n
these cases, it is
necessary that the
wheel be dressed
or trued to restore
its efficiency and
accuracy.
Dressing is
cutting the face of a
grinding wheel to
restore its original
cutting qualities.
Truing is restoring
the wheel's
concentricity or
reforming its cutting

face to a desired
shape. Both
operations are
performed with a
tool called an
abrasive wheel
dresser (Figure 813).
Mechanical
Dresser
The hand-held
mechanical dresser
has alternate
pointed and solid
discs which are
loosely mounted on
a pin. This dresser
is used to dress
coarse-grit wheels
and wheels used in
hand grinding
operations.
Abrasive Stick
Dresser
The abrasive stick
dresser comes in
two shapes: square
for hand use, and
round for
mechanical use. It
is often used
instead of the more
expensive diamond
dresser for dressing
shaped and form
wheels. It is also

used for general

grinding wheel
dressing.

Abrasive Wheel Dresser

>The abrasive wheel dresser is a
bonded silicon carbide wheel that is
fastened to the machine table at a slight
angle to the grinding wheel and driven by
contact with the wheel. This dresser
produces a smooth, clean-cutting face that
leaves no dressing marks on the work.

Figure 8-14. Position of diamond dresser.

When using a diamond dresser to

dress or true a grinding wheel, the wheel
should be turning at, or slightly less than,
normal operating speed never at the
higher speed. For wet grinding, flood the
wheel with coolant when you dress or
true it. For dry grinding, the wheel should
be dressed dry. The whole dressing
operation should simulate the grinding
operation as much as possible.
Whenever possible, hold the dresser by
some mechanical device. It is a good

idea to round off wheel edges with a

handstone after dressing to prevent
chipping. This is especially true of a fine
finishing wheel. Do not round off the
edges if the work requires sharp corners.
The grinding wheel usually wears more
on the edges, leaving a high spot
towards the center. When starting the
dressing or truing operation, be certain
that the point of the dressing tool touches
the highest spot of the wheel first, to
prevent the point from digging in.

Figure 8-13. Dressing tools

Diamond Dresser
The diamond dresser is the most
efficient for truing wheels for precision
grinding, where accuracy and high finish
are required.
A dresser may have a single diamond or
multiple diamonds mounted in the end of a
round steel shank. Inspect the diamond
point frequently for wear. It is the only
usable part of the diamond, and is worn
away it cannot dress the wheel properly.

Feed the dresser tool point

progressively, 0.001 inch at a time, into
the wheel until the sound indicates that
the wheel is perfectly true. The rate at
which you move the point across the
face of the wheel depends upon the
grain and the grade of the wheel and the
desired finish. A slow feed gives the
wheel a fine finish, but if the feed is too
slow, the wheel may glaze. A fast feed
makes the wheel free cutting, but if the
feed is too fast, the dresser will leave tool
marks on the wheel. The correct feed
can only be found by trial, but a uniform
rate of feed should be maintained during
any one pass.

Slant the diamond 3 to 15 in the

direction of rotation and 30 to the plane of
the wheel as shown in Figure 8-14 to
prevent chatter and gouging. Rotate the
diamond slightly in it's holder between
dressing operations to keep it sharp. A dull
diamond will force the abrasive grains into
the bond pores and load the face of the
wheel, reducing the wheel's cutting ability.

BUFFING AND POLISHING WHEELS

Buffing and polishing wheels are formed of
layers of cloth felt or leather glued or
sewed together to form a flexible soft
wheel.
Buffing wheels are generally softer than
polishing wheels and are often made of
bleached muslin (sheeting), flannel, or
other soft cloth materials. The material is
cut in various diameters and sewed
together in sections which are put together
to make up the buffing wheel. The buffing
wheel is often slotted or perforated to
provide ventilation.
Polishing wheels are made of canvas,
felt, or leather sewed or glued together to
provide various wheel grades from soft to
hard. The harder or firmer wheels are
generally used for heavier work while the
softer and more flexible wheels are used
for delicate contour polishing and finishing
of parts on which corners and edges must
be kept within rather strict specifications.

Buffing and polishing wheels are charged

with abrasives for operation. The canvas
wheels are generally suitable for use with
medium grain abrasives, while felt,
leather, and muslin wheels are suitable
for fine grain abrasives. Buffing abrasives
are usually made in the form of cakes,
paste, or sticks which are applied to the
wheel in this form. Polishing abrasives
are fixed to polishing wheels with a glue.
WIRE WHEELS
A wire wheel consists of many strands
of wire bound to a hub and radiating
outward from the hub in the shape of a
wheel. The wire wheel is used in place of
a grinding wheel for cleaning operations
such as removal of rust or corrosion from
metal objects and for rough-polishing
castings, hot-rolled steel, and so forth.
The wire wheel fastens to the wheel
spindle of the grinding machine in the
same manner as a grinding wheel.

A lathe machine is an important machine tool in a workshop as it is basically used to shape the metal
articles. Initially the basic operation was to cut cylindrical metal stock which was then further
developed to produce screw threads, tapered work, drilled holes, knurled surfaces and crank shafts. It
provides a variety of rotating speeds and a facility to manually and automatically move the cutting tool
into the work piece. The workshop owners and the workers should be thoroughly familiar about the
different lathe tools and its operations to accomplish the jobs of cutting, shaping and fabricating metal
sheets. So below given are the different types used for different applications and you can choose one
for your workshop according to the nature of the job to be completed.

Light Duty Lathe Machine

These are generally small size with a swing of 10 inches or less, mounted to a bench or table top.
These are made of quality tested material and is used in electronic, electrical and automobile
industries. It can be used in almost all machining jobs but may be limited due to the size of the
material that can be turned.
Medium Duty Lathe Machines
It consist of a strong bed casting made of close grained cast iron. Even under high pressure and heavy
load, it can give best performance without vibrations. It can be used in different industrial and
mechanical applications like turning, shaping, facing, boring and threading of all kinds of metals. It
has been successful in performing many difficult tasks of metal cutting and shaping in many
manufacturing units.
Heavy Duty Lathe Machine
These are manufactured from highest grades of material like iron and steel. It is designed for
performing many tasks efficiently like screw cutting, sliding and surfacing operations. It has
dimensional accuracy due to which it ensures high tensile strength and longer service life. Moreover,
heavy duty are quite easy to install and operate.
Extra Heavy Duty Lathe Machine
These are considered as highly efficient which are used in steel & paper mills, oil country, ship
building, power plants, mining and textile industries. This type is available in various models of
different technical specifications referring to type of bed, length and width of bed, lead screw diameter
etc. Extra heavy duty lathe machines are manufactured using high grade durable material which
enables it to have a long service life. Moreover, these are well known for their low maintenance, long
working life and accuracy in performance.
Roll Turning Lathe Machine
These are suitable for extra heavy duty jobs like sliding, surfacing and screw cutting jobs. These are
dimensionally accurate, abrasion resistant, corrosive resistant and has high tensile strength. It can be
used to its full capability because it embraces great toughness, ample power & control to drive the
carbide tipped machine tools.
All Geared Lathe Machine
These are used in different operations such as sanding, drilling, cutting, etc. Moreover, these are
further categorized as light duty all geared, medium duty all geared, heavy duty all geared as extra

heavy duty all geared. It work with excellent accuracy, perfection and smoothness. If maintained
properly this type can work round the clock.
CNC Lathe Machine
These are well known for higher production and lower costs. Moreover, it fulfils the requirement of
quick results with high quality in many industries like electrical, automobiles, electronics etc. CNC
lathe machines are highly used for manufacturing high quality components or parts as it operates with
the help of a computer program. Therefore, it enables production of large quantities with less effort.
If you are in search of more information about lathe machines and different types is in order to select
just suiting to your workshop requirement, then visit http://www.bhavyamachinetools.com, there you
will find it made of high quality accessories providing high performance and incurring low maintenance
cost..

Types of Milling Machines

KNEE-TYPE MILLING MACHINE
Knee-type milling machines are characterized by a vertically adjustable worktable resting on a saddle which is
supported by a knee. The knee is a massive casting that rides vertically on the milling machine column and can be
clamped rigidly to the column in a position where the milling head and milling machine spindle are properly adjusted
vertically for operation.
The plain vertical machines are characterized by a spindle located vertically, parallel to the column face, and
mounted in a sliding head that can be fed up and down by hand or power. Modern vertical milling machines are
designed so the entire head can also swivel to permit working on angular surfaces,
The turret and swivel head assembly is designed for making precision cuts and can be swung 360 on its base.
Angular cuts to the horizontal plane may be made with precision by setting the head at any required angle within a
180" arc.
The plain horizontal milling machine's column contains the drive motor and gearing and a fixed position horizontal
milling machine spindle. An adjustable overhead arm containing one or more arbor supports projects forward from the
top of the column. The arm and arbor supports are used to stabilize long arbors. Supports can be moved along the
overhead arm to support the arbor where support is desired depending on the position of the milling cutter or cutters.
The milling machine's knee rides up or down the column on a rigid track. A heavy, vertical positioning screw
beneath past the milling cutter. The milling machine is excellent for forming flat surfaces, cutting dovetails and
keyways, forming and fluting milling cutters and reamers, cutting gears, and so forth. Many special operations can be
performed with the attachments available for milling machine use.the knee is used for raising and lowering. The
saddle rests upon the kneeand supports the worktable. The saddle moves in and out on a dovetail to control cross
feed of the worktable. The worktable traverses to the right or left upon the saddle for feeding the workpiece past the
milling cutter. The table may be manually controlled or power fed.
UNIVERSAL HORIZONTAL MILLING MACHINE

The basic difference between a universal horizontal milling machine and a plain horizontal milling machine is the
addition of a table swivel housing between the table and the saddle of the universal machine. This permits the table
to swing up to 45 in either direction for angular and helical milling operations. The universal machine can be fitted
with various attachments such as the indexing fixture, rotary table, slotting and rack cutting attachments, and various
special fixtures.
RAM-TYPE MILLING MACHINE
The ram-type milling machine is characterized by a spindle mounted to a movable housing on the column to
permit positioning the milling cutter forward or rearward in a horizontal plane. Two popular ram-type milling machines
are the universal milling machine and the swivel cutter head ram-type milling machine.
UNIVERSAL RAM-TYPE MILLING MACHINE
The universal ram-type milling machine is similar to the universal horizontal milling machine, the difference being,
as its name implies, the spindle is mounted on a ram or movable housing.
SWIVEL CUTTER HEAD RAM-TYPE MILLING MACHINE
The cutter head containing the milling machine spindle is attached to the ram. The cutter head can be swiveled
from a vertical spindle position to a horizontal spindle position or can be fixed at any desired angular position between
vertical and horizontal. The saddle and knee are hand driven for vertical and cross feed adjustment while the
worktable can be either hand or power driven at the operator's choice.

The grinding machine is a type of tool that is utilized for grinding work pieces. It basically
use an abrasive wheel as the cutting tool. The rough surface of the abrasive wheel shreds
off small portions of the work piece as required. It is also known as a grinder.
A grinder is generally used to precisely shape and finish the given materials with low surface
roughness and high surface quality. It is primarily a finishing operation that removes
relatively small quantities of metal, to deliver highly accurate products. However, certain
grinding applications also involve swiftly eliminating high volumes of metal.
It comprises of a bed with a fixed guide to hold the work piece; and a power driven wheel
that spins at a predetermined speed. The head of the grinder can be set to move across a
fixed work piece; or the work piece can be moved while the head remains in a stationary
position. The position of the grind head or table can be fine controlled by using a hand
wheel, or a computerized numeric controller.

It generate considerable amounts of heat; hence

coolants are used to cool the work piece to avoid overheating, prevent accidents and
maintain its tolerance. In some high accuracy grinding machines such as the hydraulic
cylindrical grinders and surface grinders; the final processes generate relatively little heat;
thus coolants are not needed as the temperature is tolerable.
Grinders are used in engineering, electrical, automobile and many other industries. The
various types of these tools are as follows:
A bench grinder is manually operated and normally has two wheels of different grain sizes
that are fixed on a floor stand or work bench; to perform roughing and finishing operations.
It is mainly used to shape tool bits; and repair or make various tools.
A belt grinder includes a machining process to grind metals and other materials, with the
help of coated abrasives. Belt grinding is a versatile process that involves several kinds of
applications such as stock removal and finishing.
A jig grinder is used for finishing jigs, dies, and fixtures. It grinds holes and can be used for
complicated surface grinding and finishing work. A gear grinder is used to remove the last
few inches of material while manufacturing high precision gears.
There are two types of cylindrical grinders, one that has a center and the other is center
less. A cylindrical grinding machine may have multiple grinding wheels. Here the work piece
is rotated and fed through the wheels to form a cylinder. It is widely utilized to manufacture
accurate objects like tubes, rods, bushings, bearings, and other parts.

An efficient surface grinder may be manually

operated or CNC controlled. It has a head that is lowered, while the work piece moves back
and forth; past the wheel on a table. Tool and cutter grinder, and the D-bit grinder perform
the functions of a drill bit grinder, or other special tool room operations..

Grinding principle:

Belt grinder, which is usually used as a machining method to process metals and other
materials, with the aid of coated abrasives. Sanding is the machining of wood; grinding is
the common name for machining metals. Belt grinding is a versatile process suitable for all
kind of applications like finishing, deburring, and stock removal.

Bench grinder, which usually has two wheels of different grain sizes for roughing and
finishing operations and is secured to a workbench or floor stand. Its uses include shaping
tool bits or various tools that need to be made or repaired. Bench grinders are manually
operated.

Cylindrical grinder, which includes both the types that use centers and
the centerless types. A cylindrical grinder may have multiple grinding wheels. The
workpiece is rotated and fed past the wheel(s) to form a cylinder. It is used to make
precision rods, tubes, bearing races, bushings, and many other parts.

Surface grinder which includes the wash grinder. A surface grinder has a "head" which
is lowered to a workpiece which is moved back and forth under the grinding wheel on a
table that typically has a controllable permanent magnet for use with magnetic stock but can
have a vacuum chuck or other fixturing means. The most common surface grinders have a
grinding wheel rotating on a horizontal axis cutting around the circumference of the grinding
wheel. Rotary surface grinders, commonly known as "Blanchard" style grinders, have a
grinding head which rotates the grinding wheel on a vertical axis cutting on the end face of
the grinding wheel, while a table rotates the workpiece in the opposite direction underneath.
This type of machine removes large amounts of material and grinds flat surfaces with noted
spiral grind marks. It can also be used to make and sharpen metal stamping die sets, flat
shear blades, fixture bases or any flat and parallel surfaces. Surface grinders can be
manually operated or have CNC controls.

Tool and cutter grinder and the D-bit grinder. These usually can perform the minor
function of the drill bit grinder, or other specialisttoolroom grinding operations.

Jig grinder, which as the name implies, has a variety of uses when finishing jigs, dies,
and fixtures. Its primary function is in the realm of grinding holes and pins. It can also be
used for complex surface grinding to finish work started on a mill.

Gear grinder, which is usually employed as the final machining process when
manufacturing a high-precision gear. The primary function of these machines is to remove
the remaining few thousandths of an inch of material left by other manufacturing methods
(such as gashing or hobbing).

Die grinder, which is a high-speed hand-held rotary tool with a small diameter grinding
bit. They are typically air driven (using compressed air), but can be driven with a small
electric motor directly or via a flexible shaft.

Grinding wheel specifications

Wear:

Attritions wear Attritions wear is responsible for the so-called "glazed" wheel that
occurs when flat areas are worn on the abrasive grains but the forces are not high
enough to break the dull grains out of the wheel face. Attritions wear of the wheel
occurs most often when fine cuts are taken on hard abrasive materials. Taking
heavier cuts or using a softer wheel that will allow the grains to break out can often
avoid it.
Grain fracture The forces that cause the grain to shatter may arise from the
cutting forces acting on the wheel, thermal conditions, shock loading, welding action
between the grit and the chip, or combinations of these factors. In finish grinding,
this type of wheel wear is desirable, because it keeps sharp edges exposed, and still

results in a low rate of wheel wear. In time, the wheel may become 'loaded' and
noisy, and require dressing.
A loaded wheel should be dressed by taking a few deep cuts with the diamond so that
the metal-charged layer is removed, and the chips are not just pushed further into
the wheel. Then, it should be finish-dressed according to the application
requirements.
Bond fracture It is desirable to have worn grit break out of the wheel so that new
cutting edges will be exposed. This breaking down of the bond should progress fast
enough so that heat generation is sufficiently low to avoid surface damage. On the
other hand, bond breakdown should be slow enough so that wheel costs are not
prohibitive. Normally, this means choosing the proper wheel grade for the job.
Certain bond hardness is required to hold the grain in place. Softer wheels crumble
too fast, while harder wheels hold the dull grit too long.
Coded abrasives
Typical examples of coated abrasives are sandpaper and emery cloth. The grains
used in coated abrasives are more pointed than those used for grinding wheels. The
grains are electro-statically deposited on flexible backing material, such as paper or
cloth. The matrix or coating is made of resin.
Coated abrasives are available as sheets, belts and disks and usually have a much
more open structure than the abrasives on grinding wheels. Coated abrasives are
used extensively in finishing flat or curved surfaces of metallic or nonmetallic parts,
and in woodworking. The surface finishes obtained depend primarily on the grain
sizes.
Abrasive belt machining Coated abrasives are also used as belts for high-rate
material removal. Belt grinding has become an important production process, in
some cases replacing conventional grinding operations such as the grinding of
camshafts. Belt speeds are usually in the range of 2,500 to 6,000 ft/min. Machines
for abrasive-belt operations require proper belt support and rigid construction to
minimize vibration.
Grindability
Grindability, in a like manner as machinability, may be thought of as the ease with

which material can be removed from the workpiece by the action of the grinding
wheel. Surface finish, power consumption, and tool (wheel) life can be considered as
fundamental criteria of the grindability of metals. In addition, there are the
important factors of chip formation and susceptibility to damaging the workpiece.
Chip formation, which leads to a loaded wheel, is detrimental.
The most important machine setting affecting machinability, the cutting speed, is
not as important an influence on grindability because grinding is done at more or
less constant speed. Instead, the important factor becomes the nature of the grinding
wheel. The type of grit, grit size, bond material, hardness and structure of the wheel
all influence the grindability of the workpiece. The problems of tool material and
configuration variables were discussed in connection with machinability.
In grinding operations like snagging and cut-off work, the surface finish, and even
the metallurgical damage the workpiece, may become relatively unimportant. Wheel
life and the rate of cut obtainable then become the criteria of grindability.
The best way to determine grindability is to start with the selection of the proper
wheel. Beginning with the manufacturer's recommended grade for the conditions of
the job and then trying wheels on each side of this grade will do this. Any
improvement or deterioration in the grinding action, as evidenced by wheel wear,
surface finish, or damage to the workpiece, can be noted. After the proper wheel has
been chosen, wheel life data may be obtained. Usually, this can be done during the
production run.
Some of the factors to consider in establishing grindability ratings are discussed in
the following examples relative to the performance metals.
Cemented carbide material cannot be ground with aluminum-oxide grit wheels.
Although it can be ground with pure silicon-carbide wheels, the grinding ratio is very
low and the material is easily damaged. Carbide is easily ground with diamond
wheels if light cuts are taken to prevent damage to the workpiece material. However,
diamond-grit wheels are quite expensive, and the overall grindability of this material
is very low.

High-speed steel can be ground quite successfully with aluminum-oxide grit wheels.
The grinding ratio is low, the relative power consumption is high, and the possibility
of damage to the workpiece is always present. Overall grindability is quite low.
Hardened steel (medium hard alloy or plain carbon steels) is easily ground with
aluminum-oxide wheels. The grinding ratio is good, and damage to the workpiece is
not a serious problem. The grindability rating is good.
Soft steels (annealed plain carbon steels) grind with relatively low power
consumption. Aluminum-oxide wheels are satisfactory, and the grinding ratio is
quite high, but surface damage may be encountered. As a group, these materials are
rated as having good grindability.
Aluminum alloys (soft) grind with quite low power consumption, but they tend to
load the wheel quickly. Wheels with a very oven structure are needed. Grinding
ratios are good. Silicon-carbide grit works well, and belt grinding outperforms wheel
grinding in many cases.

MIG WELDING
1. This welding is known as metal inert gas welding.
2. Metal rod is used as electrode and work piece used as another electrode.
3. It is gas shielded metal arc welding.
4. Continuous feed electrode wire is used which are fast feeding.
5. The welding area is flooded with a gas which will not combine with the metal.
TIG WELDING
1. This is known as tungsten inert gas welding.
2. Tungsten rod is used as electrode.
3. It is gas shielded tungsten arc welding.
4. Welding rods are used which are slow feeding.

5. Gas is used to protect the welded area form atmosphere.

Whats the difference between Mig and Tig

Welding?
The major difference between Mig and Tig welding is that one process uses a continuously feeding wire
(MIG) and the other you use long welding rods and slowly feed them into the weld puddle (TIG). MIG and
TIG welding both use an electric arc to make the weld.
MIG welding is a very simple and easy process to learn compared to learning how to TIG weld. The
technical names for these are metal inert gas (MIG), and tungsten inert gas (TIG).
A MIG welder works by using a continuously feeding spool of welding wire that burns, melts and fuses
both the base and parent metals together. You can weld a variety of materials such as mild steel,
stainless steel and aluminum.
A range of material thicknesses can be welded from thin gauge sheet metal right up to heavier structural
plates.
TIG welding on the other hand is more commonly used for your thinner gauge materials. Items that are
made with this process are things like kitchen sinks and tool boxes. The biggest benefit is that you can
get your power down really low and not blow through the metal.
Pipe welding and other heavier tasks can also be performed, you just need to have a unit that is capable
of putting out the amount of power that you need.
The main difference between MIG and TIG welding is that one method uses a continuously feeding
electrode and is a very fast way of putting down welds. The other way is a much more fine and delicate
welding technique.
The most versatile machine is the TIG welder as you can weld many different types of metals. The
downside is that it is very slow. For anybody wanting to do some welding at home your better choice of
machine to buy would have to be the wire feeding MIG welder.

The type of chip formation during the metal cutting process depends upon

Properties of material

Cutting speed, feed, and depth of cut

Tool geometry

A machining environment such as temperature and type of cutting fluid used.

Other less significant factors that affect chip formation are coefficient of friction and the surface finish
of cutting tool. The chips produced during the machining can be broadly classified into the following
types.

finish is best, power consumption is low and tool life high with this type of chip, this is most
preferred type. Other factors responsible for promoting its production are bigger Rake angle,
finer Feed and Keen cutting edge of the tool.

Welding defects
Cracks
Defects related to fracture.

arc strike cracking

Arc strike cracking occurs when the arc is struck but the spot is not welded. This occurs
because the spot is heated above the material's upper critical temperature and then
essentially quenched. This forms martensite, which is brittle and may lead to higher
chances of micro-cracks. Usually the arc is struck in the weld groove so this type of
crack does not occur, but if the arc is struck outside of the weld groove then it must be
welded over to prevent the cracking. If this is not an option then the arc spot can be
postheated, that is, the area is heated with an oxy-acetylene torch, and then allowed to
cool slowly.[6]
Cold cracking

Residual stresses can reduce the strength of the base material, and can lead to
catastrophic failure through cold cracking, as was the case with several of the World
War IILiberty ships' hulls. Cold cracking is limited to steels and is associated with the
formation of martensite as the weld cools. The cracking occurs in the heat-affected zone
of the base material. To reduce the amount of distortion and residual stresses, the
amount of heat input should be limited, and the welding sequence used should not be
from one end directly to the other, but rather in segments. [7]

susceptible microstructure (e.g. martensite)

hydrogen present in the microstructure (hydrogen embrittlement)

service temperature environment (normal atmospheric pressure): -100 to +100 F

high restraint

Eliminating any one of these will eliminate this condition.

Crater crack

Crater cracks occur when a crater is not filled before the arc is broken. This causes the
outer edges of the crater to cool more quickly than the crater, which creates sufficient

stresses to form a crack. Longitudinal, transverse and/or multiple radial cracks may
form.[8]
Fusion-line cracks

The following is an excerpt from a research on Damage Behavior of Welded Joints with
Defects on Fusion Line
Two kinds of welded joints damage models,with notch and crack on fusion line,were
applied to analyse the influences of the mechanical property heterogeneity and
geometric heterogeneity such as intensity matching, base metal rupture strain,base
metal strain-hardening exponential and welding line width on the damage distribution
and the relationship between damage parameter and rupture paremater. In addition, in
the presence of entire damage zone method, the crack extension behaviors of the
welded joints were investigated.
Base metal mechanical property has great effects on the damage distribution of the
welded joints. On condition of similar load,the welded joints damage value increases
with the decreasing base metal rupture strain and the increasing base metal strainhardening exponential and intensity matching.
For under-matched welded joints,the damage concentration zone of the welded joints
near the notch will transfer from the welded metal side to the base metal side as the
base metal rupture strain decreases and strain-hardening exponential increases. but for
over-matched welded joints, the damage concentration zone will transfer from the base
metal side to the welded metal side as the base metal rupture strain increases and
strain-hardening exponential decreases.
On the other hand, the varied welded line width has little effect on the damage
distribution of the welded joints.For the welded joints with crack on fusion line,when
loaded and when the crack mouth opening distance reaches the same level,the
maximum damage value in front of the crack increases as the base metal strainhardening exponential and intensity matching increase,but decreases as the base metal
rupture strain increases.

The establishment of the failure principle on the welded structure should take
mechanical property heterogeneity into serious consideration. The numerical
calculations of the crack extension behavior which is based on the entire damage zone
viewpoint reveal that the crack extension path is parallel to the fusion line on condition
of plane stress but on condition of plane strain the angle between the crack extension
path and the fusion line is approximate 45.The numerical calculations and analysis
indicate that micro-damage parameter and macro -rupture parameter both can describe
the stress-strain behaviors,and their relationship intensively relies on mechanical
property heterogeneity. The investigation on the micro-damage parameter and macro
-rupture parameter is undoubtedly supplement to the safety evaluation and life-span
prediction of the welded joints,which is of great theory significance. [9]
Hat crack

Hat cracks get their name from the shape of the cross-section of the weld, because the
weld flares out at the face of the weld. The crack starts at the fusion line and extends up
through the weld. They are usually caused by too much voltage or not enough speed.[8]
Hot cracking

Hot cracking, also known as solidification cracking, can occur with all metals, and
happens in the fusion zone of a weld. To diminish the probability of this type of cracking,
excess material restraint should be avoided, and a proper filler material should be
utilized.[7] Other causes include too high welding current, poor joint design that does not
diffuse heat, impurities (such as sulfur and phosphorus), preheating, speed is too fast,
and long arcs.[10]
Underbead crack

An undercut crack, also known as a heat-affected zone (HAZ) crack, [11] is a crack that
forms a short distance away from the fusion line; it occurs in low alloy and high alloy
steel. The exact causes of this type of crack are not completely understood, but it is
known that dissolved hydrogen must be present. The other factor that affects this type
of crack isinternal stresses resulting from: unequal contraction between the base metal

and the weld metal, restraint of the base metal, stresses from the formation of
martensite, and stresses from the precipitation of hydrogen out of the metal.[12]
Longitudinal crack

Longitudinal cracks run along the length of a weld bead. There are three types: check
cracks, root cracks, and full centerline cracks. Check cracks are visible from the surface
and extend partially into weld. They are usually caused by high shrinkage stresses,
especially on final passes, or by a hot cracking mechanism. Root cracks start at the root
and extent part way into the weld. They are the most common type of longitudinal crack
because of the small size of the first weld bead. If this type of crack is not addressed
then it will usually propagate into subsequent weld passes, which is how full cracks (a
crack from the root to the surface) usually form.[8]
Reheat cracking

Reheat cracking is a type of cracking that occurs in HSLA steels,

particularly chromium, molybdenum and vanadium steels, during postheating. The
phenomenon has also been observed in austenitic stainless steels. It is caused by the
poor creep ductility of the heat affected zone. Any existing defects or notches aggravate
crack formation. Things that help prevent reheat cracking include heat treating first with
a low temperature soak and then with a rapid heating to high temperatures, grinding
or peening the weld toes, and using a two layer welding technique to refine the
HAZ grain structure.[13][14]
Root and toe cracks

A root crack is the crack formed by the short bead at the root(of edge preparation)
beginning of the welding, low current at the beginning and due to improper filler material
used for welding.Major reason for happening of these types of cracks is hydrogen
embrittlement. These types of defects can be eliminated using high current at the
starting and proper filler material. Toe crack occurs due to moisture content present in
the welded area,it as a part of the surface crack so can be easily detected. Preheating
and proper joint formation is must for eliminating these types of defects.

Transverse crack

Transverse cracks are perpendicular to the direction of the weld. These are generally
the result of longitudinal shrinkage stresses acting on weld metal of low ductility. Crater
cracks occur in the crater when the welding arc is terminated prematurely. Crater cracks
are normally shallow, hot cracks usually forming single or star cracks. These cracks
usually start at a crater pipe and extend longitudinal in the crater. However, they may
propagate into longitudinal weld cracks in the rest of the weld.

Distortion
Welding methods that involve the melting of metal at the site of the joint necessarily are
prone to shrinkage as the heated metal cools. Shrinkage then introduces residual
stresses and distortion. Distortion can pose a major problem, since the final product is
not the desired shape. To alleviate certain types of distortion the workpieces can be
offset so that after welding the product is the correct shape. [15] The following pictures
describe various types of welding distortion: [16]
Transverse shrinkage

Angular distortion

Longitudinal shrinkage

Fillet distortion

Neutral axis distortion

Gas inclusion
Gas inclusions is a wide variety of defects that includes porosity, blow holes,
and pipes (or wormholes). The underlying cause for gas inclusions is the entrapment of
gas within the solidified weld. Gas formation can be from any of the following causes:
high sulphur content in the workpiece or electrode, excessive moisture from the
electrode or workpiece, too short of an arc, or wrong welding current or polarity.[11]

Inclusions
There are two types of inclusions: linear inclusions and rounded inclusions. Inclusions
can be either isolated or cumulative. Linear inclusions occur when there is slag or flux in
the weld. Slag forms from the use of a flux, which is why this type of defect usually
occurs in welding processes that use flux, such as shielded metal arc welding, fluxcored arc welding, and submerged arc welding, but it can also occur in gas metal arc
welding. This defect usually occurs in welds that require multiple passes and there is
poor overlap between the welds. The poor overlap does not allow the slag from the
previous weld to melt out and rise to the top of the new weld bead. It can also occur if
the previous weld left an undercut or an uneven surface profile. To prevent slag
inclusions the slag should be cleaned from the weld bead between passes
via grinding, wire brushing, or chipping.
Isolated inclusions occur when rust or mill scale is present on the base metal.[18]

Lack of fusion and incomplete penetration

Lack of fusion is the poor adhesion of the weld bead to the base metal; incomplete
penetration is a weld bead that does not start at the root of the weld groove. Incomplete
penetration forms channels and crevices in the root of the weld which can cause serious
issues in pipes because corrosive substances can settle in these areas. These types of
defects occur when the welding procedures are not adhered to; possible causes include
the current setting, arc length, electrode angle, and electrode manipulation. [19] Defects
can be varied and classified as critical or non critical. Porosity (bubbles) in the weld are
usually acceptable to a certain degree. Slag inclusions, undercut, and cracks are
usually non acceptable. Some porosity, cracks, and slag inclusions are visible and may

not need further inspection to require their removal. Small defects such as these can be
verified by Liquid Penetrant Testing (Dye check). Slag inclusions and cracks just below
the surface can be discovered by Magnetic Particle Inspection. Deeper defects can be
detected using the Radiographic (X-rays) and/or Ultrasound (sound waves) testing
techniques.

Lamellar tearing
Lamellar tearing is a type of welding defect that occurs in rolled steel plates that have
been welded together due to shrinkage forces perpendicular to the faces of the plates.
Since the 1970s, changes in manufacturing practices limiting the amount

[20]

of sulfur used have greatly reduced the incidence of this problem. [21]
Lamellar tearing is caused mainly by sulfurous inclusions in the material. Other causes
include an excess of hydrogen in the alloy. This defect can be mitigated by keeping the
amount of sulfur in the steel alloy below 0.005%.[21] Adding rare earth
elements, zirconium, or calcium to the alloy to control the configuration of sulfur
inclusions throughout the metal lattice can also mitigate the problem. [22]
Modifying the construction process to use casted or forged parts in place of welded
parts can eliminate this problem, as Lamellar tearing only occurs in welded parts. [20]

Undercut
Undercutting is when the weld reduces the cross-sectional thickness of the base metal
and which reduces the strength of the weld and workpieces. One reason for this type of
defect is excessive current, causing the edges of the joint to melt and drain into the
weld; this leaves a drain-like impression along the length of the weld. Another reason is
if a poor technique is used that does not deposit enoughfiller metal along the edges of
the weld. A third reason is using an incorrect filler metal, because it will create
greater temperature gradients between the center of the weld and the edges. Other
causes include too small of an electrode angle, a dampened electrode, excessive arc
length, and slow speed.

Laps and lapping tools are used for precision surface finishing, often in conjunction with loose
abrasive compounds. Lap is a soft material that is charged with an abrasive and is used for
cutting harder material. A lapping machine uses a charged lead piece as lap for cutting a
hardened steel piece. The lead piece is charged with emery. A cast iron plate, called as lapping
plate is smoothened using a lapping tool placed in the lapping machine. Emery powder is
sprinkled on the cast iron plate and the work piece is then rubbed against the cast iron plate to
provide finishing to the surface. There are many types of laps and lapping tools. Examples
include, a flat lapping tool, a valve lapping tool, a barrel lapping tool, and a lapping ring tool. A
flat lapping tool is used to generate extremely flat and smooth surface on work pieces of carbon,
ferrous, and non-ferrous metals. A valve lapping tool is a very accurate lapping tool, which is
used for restoring valve sealing. A barrel lapping tool is used to finish the surface of a work
piece, which is pushed inside the gun barrel. The work piece pushed inside the gun barrel
removes any machinery imperfections that are left in the barrel during its manufacture. A lapping
ring tool is a tool used to set the ring properly in the piston grooves. Other laps and lapping tools
are commonly available.
There are several ways in which laps and lapping tools function. A lapping compound is applied
on the work piece to be finished. A lapping compound is applied for maintaining consistent

finishing properties on a work piece. The work piece is then fixed in the lapping machine for
developed surface finishing. Laps and lapping tools should have a variable speed in the range of
10 to 600 rpm. Laps and lapping tools should be of solid cast aluminum and have a stylish
tabletop design. Laps and lapping tools are designed and manufactured to meet most industry
standards.
Laps and lapping tools are used in many applications. Examples include usage in silicon wafers,
fiber optic components, and piston rings. In addition, laps and lapping tools are widely used in
the sharpening of lawn mover blades, mechanical seals, and back lapping.
Cylindrical Lapping is a two motion (rotation and reciprocation), low pressure, abrasive
machining process which utilises a lapping tool along with an abrasive in a compound
form. The lapping process results in stock removal ranging from a few Microns to
several Tenths of a millimetre. Any desired surface finish can be achieved.
The following imperfections in cylindrical geometry can be corrected with helical laps:

Correction of I.D. or O.D.

Correction of out of round conditions

Correction of bell-mouthed bores

Correction of barrel-shaped bores

Improvement in straightness of I.D. and O.D.

In addition to geometrical improvements, lapping can also provide:

Improvement and refinement of surface finish quality

Close tolerance accuracy at minimal cost compared to other finishing methods.

Cylindrical geometries that have been achieved with helical laps:

0.00014mm. roundness

0.00028mm. straightness

Surface finish better than 0.025 Ra

Introduction To Cylindrical Lapping

Bore Lapping
Dressing of Laps
Blind Hole Lapping
Removing Helilaps from Arbors
Helilap Design
External Lapping
Helilap Data Sheet

Helical Laps are extremely versatile. They can be used on any machine with rotating
spindle capacity, such as a drill, lathe or honing machine. Helical Laps can be used on
virtually any material. Cast Iron, tool steel, carbide, stainless steel and ceramics are a
few.
Internal Helical Laps are manufactured with radial grooves or without radial grooves.
Radial grooves are advantageous in applications requiring stock removal greater than
0.01mm. Helical Laps without radial grooves are recommended for applications where
the bore has interruptions or cross-holes. Expansion of internal Helical Laps is achieved
by moving the lap (manufactured with tapered I.D) up an arbor which has a mating
tapered O.D.
External Helical laps can be contracted by tightening an adjusting screw on the external
lap holder. External laps are manufactured with either a straight or helical slot. Helical
slots are most beneficial when lapping a shaft with a keyway. External laps should be
shorter than the length of the O.D. being lapped, but long enough to span recesses or
interruptions.
- See more at: http://www.kemet.co.uk/blog/toolroom/cylindrical-lapping-using-helilapstechnical-article#sthash.Tjvts3IH.dpuf