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Promoting Sustainable
Consumption: Determinants
of Green Purchases by Swiss
Consumers
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Carmen Tanner
Northwestern University
ABSTRACT
Given that overconsumption in industrial countries is a main cause
of environmental degradation, a shift toward more sustainable
consumption patterns is required. This study attempts to uncover
personal and contextual barriers to consumers purchases of green
food and to strengthen knowledge about fostering green purchases.
Survey data are used to examine the influence of distinct categories
of personal factors (such as attitudes, personal norms, perceived
behavior barriers, knowledge) and contextual factors (such as
socioeconomic characteristics, living conditions, and store
characteristics) on green purchases of Swiss consumers. Results
from regression analysis suggest that green food purchases are
facilitated by positive attitudes of consumers toward (a)
environmental protection, (b) fair trade, (c) local products, and
(d) availability of action-related knowledge. In turn, green behavior
is negatively associated with (e) perceived time barriers and
(f) frequency of shopping in supermarkets. Surprisingly, green
purchases are not significantly related to moral thinking, monetary
barriers, or the socioeconomic characteristics of the consumers.
Implications for policy makers and for companies and marketers
engaged in the promotion and commercialization of green products
are discussed. 2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Perceived Barriers. Several studies have posited that notions of perceived control or perceived behavioral barriers are additional signicant
predictors of environmental behavior (e.g., Axelrod & Lehman, 1993;
Grob, 1995; Hines et al., 1986/87; Kalafatis, Pollard, East, & Tsogas,
1999). Likewise, Roberts (1996) suggests that in order to motivate behavioral changes, consumers must be convinced that their behavior has
an impact on the environment or will be effective in ghting environmental degradation.
Knowledge. Environmental knowledge has been found to be positively
related to environmental behavior, but the literature also reports contradictory ndings on the question of how ecological knowledge is related to environmental behavior (Arbuthnot & Lingg, 1975; Hines et al.,
1986/87; Grob, 1995; Maloney & Ward, 1973). Schahn and Holzer (1990)
demonstrated the importance of distinguishing between knowledge
about facts and knowledge about actions. The term factual knowledge
refers to knowledge about denitions and causes/consequences of environmental problems (e.g., what is the greenhouse effect?), whereas action-related knowledge is used to refer to information about possible
actions (e.g., which human behaviors are related to the greenhouse effect). Unlike factual knowledge, action-related knowledge is more likely
to affect behavior.
Personal Norm. Numerous studies have revealed that a personal
norm a feeling of moral obligation is a powerful motivator of environmental behavior (e.g., Hopper & Nielson, 1991; Stern & Dietz, 1994;
Stern, Dietz, & Black, 1986; Vining & Ebreo, 1992). In a recent study
on recycling and consumerism, Ebreo et al. (1999) found that the degree
to which people feel obliged to recycle is related to conservation-related
product attributes. These investigations suggest that environmentally
friendly behavior may be characterized as morally demanding.
Overall, a large body of studies asserts that personal factors are necessary and essential to foster behavioral changes, even though the correspondence between attitudinal variables and behavior is often moderate. Other research, however, suggests that contextual factors of the
social, economic, or physical environment within which people act also
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Research Goals
The present study is designed to uncover personal and contextual factors that inuence green food purchases by Swiss consumers.
The personal factors incorporated in this study were based upon previous research and on interviews with Swiss consumers. The interviews
were conducted with customers of a Swiss supermarket and an organic
food store (N 27) about their purchasing motives and about product
features they take into account in purchase decisions. In accordance
with previous studies, specic rather than general measures have been
developed (Ebreo et al., 1999; Mainieri et al., 1997). Generally, the personal factors incorporated can be divided into four categories: (a) attitudes toward food products, (b) personal norms, (c) perceived barriers,
and (d) ecological knowledge.
As for the contextual factors, the study used the following three
groups of socio-cultural conditions as indicators of external barriers.
Socioeconomic Characteristics. Previous literature identied education, occupational level (e.g., high rank, low rank), employment status
(e.g., full-time, part-time), and income as the classical dimensions of
social class in Western industrial societies (see Lamprecht & Stamm,
1994). They are indicators of purchasing power and time constraints.
Living Conditions. Place of residence and household size were used
as two features that may indicate differences in buying opportunities
and household activities (see e.g., Uusitalo, 1986).
Store Types. Because different stores necessarily differ in what they
supply, they are likely to affect consumers purchases. It is assumed that
green purchases would be harder to make in a supermarket than in
other kinds of stores (e.g., organic food stores). However, in the present
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case, what is particularly interesting is that prominent Swiss supermarkets have recently increased the merchandising of green products.
This has raised the question, in the minds of some, as to whether store
type matters (the position here is that it still does).
Overall, this study is designed to examine the relative importance of
those variables in facilitating or inhibiting the consumers tendency to
make green purchases.
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METHOD
Participants and Procedure
Survey data for rural and urban households in and around the city of
Bern were collected in November 1996. For 6500 randomly selected
households, the households primary shopper was asked to volunteer.
Then, 745 questionnaires were sent to those who had returned a consent
form (response rate: 12%).1 Of these, a total of 547 German-speaking
Swiss adults returned the completed questionnaire. Sixty-eight percent
of the respondents were female. Respondents mean age was 47 years
(range: 18 90 years); 59% lived in the city of Bern, whereas 41% lived
in rural settings. Even though representativeness was not the goal (nding people holding the role of the gatekeeper was the main goal), the
composition of this sample was compared with census data from the
Swiss Statistical Yearbook 1997. This showed quite a good match. Noteworthy differences were related to gender, household size, and education. Not surprisingly, the proportion of women in our sample (68%) was
found to be higher than in the Swiss population (51%). This indicates
that shopping on behalf of the household is still done more by women
than by men. Compared to the Swiss population, our sample had a somewhat smaller percentage of single-person households (20% vs. 32%), and
a larger proportion of people with higher education (45% vs. 30%).
Survey Instrument
After two pretests, a nal draft of the questionnaire was created to assess personal and contextual dimensions.
Personal Factors. The rst section of the questionnaire contained
questions assessing personal dimensions. Usually, respondents indicated their level of agreement on a 5-point scale that ranged from 1
(strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Negatively formulated ques1
People were rst asked to conrm their participation in the study by sending back a consent form.
This procedure was necessary because the research consisted of two parts: a questionnaire and
a diary study. Permission to keep the participants address was needed. Clearly, the response
rate is low, but compares favorably with other studies.
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Contextual Factors. Ten questions were used as indicators of contextual barriers. In terms of stores, participants were asked where they
mainly buy milk products, vegetables, and meat. Respondents could
choose from among several options that constitute a broad array of possible shopping opportunities in Switzerland, such as supermarkets and
smaller retailers, organic food stores, farmers markets, farmers, fairtrade stores, and health food stores, as well as food procurement by selfproduction. The scores were combined in an index of frequency of supermarket use that ranged from 0 (no supermarket) to 3 (exclusively
supermarkets). Finally, the questionnaire included questions assessing
the respondents socioeconomic dimensions (education, occupational
2
In general, the various eco-labels of this type used in Switzerland indicate differences in agricultural practice. The standards differ considerably. Although some labels stand for products that
are characterized by limited use of chemical fertilizer and pesticides, other labels stand for agricultural practices that include the complete avoidance of chemical fertilizer, pesticides, and
greenhouse production. In the case of meat, the logos indicate whether the animals were humanely kept. Other logos indicate fair trade practices.
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Frequency measures (e.g., how often . . .) as behavioral indicators correspond to the measures
most often used in previous research. One reviewer correctly emphasized that such a measure
is inuenced by frequency of shopping. Using a dichotomous response format reduces this problem.
The variety of possible responses was obviously reduced by converting the polytomous response
format into a dichotomous one. Kaiser and Wilson (2000) found that a polytomous format does
not necessarily enhance a behavior scales reliability or increase the proportion of tting participants. Furthermore, using a dichotomous format reduces the problem of confounding frequency
of purchases with frequency of shopping.
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RESULTS
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Environmental protection
Rejection of GE food
Fair trade
Health
Regional products
Taste
Perceived monetary barrier
Perceived time barrier
Action-related knowledge
Factual knowledge
Condence in label
Personal norm
Supermarket use
Education
Employment status
Occupational level
Place of residence
Household size
Household income
Green purchases
.34
.47
.35
.21
.27
.58
.26
.25
.31
.20
48
.21
.44
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
.35
.36
.43
.25
.38
.30
.26 .21 .40 .14
.23 .39 .24 .23
.17
.12
.11
.11
.22
.31
.19
.20
.25 .12
.29
.21
.16 .30
.28
.19
.16 .25
.24
.38
.59
.45
.34 .29 .36
.21
.29
.20
.15 .22 .13 .11
.16
.15 .13
.18
.20
.12
.18
.18
.12
.32
.19 .22
.13
.14
.27
.30
.17
.15
.15 .31
.16
.13 .13
.26 .15
.35
.25
.29
.43
.31
.34 .18 .31 .27
.24
.32 .24
.30 .42
.16
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Note: N of the bivariate correlations between N 360 and N 547. Table contains only correlations p .01.
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WILEJ
Table 1.
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R2
0.61
0.31
0.30
0.18
0.20
0.48
0.45
0.33
0.24
0.16
0.16
0.12
10.20
7.79
5.43
3.86
3.81
3.03
.19
.29
.34
.36
.38
.41
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differences. This provides additional support for the claim that monetary dimensions, at least for the Swiss sample, do not play such a dominant role, as might be expected. However, the ndings do provide evidence that food purchases are remarkably susceptible to conditions in
the stores where consumers mainly shop for edibles. Specically, consumers who mainly shop in supermarkets show a lower level of green
purchases.
The question may arise as to whether the measure of supermarket
use is a measure of preference rather than a situational inuence. This
problem was recently addressed in a more thorough analysis of external
factors (Tanner et al., in press) by making further use of the adoption
of the Rasch model to the measurement of green purchases. An important feature of the Rasch model is that it brings up a measure that
makes use of aggregation both across behaviors (e.g., estimating the
number of environmentally friendly behaviors one person undertakes)
and across people (e.g., estimating the number of people who undertake
one specic behavior). Although the former is especially useful to study
personal inuences on the individuals extent of environmental behavior, the latter is especially valuable to disclose situational inuences
that are responsible for facilitating and inhibiting certain performances
(for more details, see Kaiser & Biel, 2000; Kaiser & Wilson, 2000). This
measure was adopted to test whether supermarket use still proved to
be an essential factor. In fact, the importance of stores was conrmed.
In addition, place of residence and household size were found to be additional essential factors. Again, social status and income were not relevant (Tanner et al., in press). This analysis provides further evidence
that supermarket use is likely to reect a situational inuence rather
than the consumers preferences. Nevertheless, subsequent research
would be valuable to get further clarication.
It is not surprising that what people buy is strongly related to where
they shop. What does come as a surprise, however, is the fact that supermarket use actually diminishes the likelihood of green food purchases despite the recent shift in Swiss supermarket practices toward
supplying more environmentally friendly goods. A closer look, however,
reveals that when it comes to green food products, many supermarkets
have tended to pay primary attention to the production of food (organic
versus conventional production), while neglecting other product features affecting sustainability (such as conservation, packaging, origin
of the products) It is of paramount importance not to neglect these other
environmentally signicant aspects.
These ndings suggest a number of implications on how to foster sustainable food purchases among Swiss consumers.
1. The study strongly suggests that green marketing should address
women, because they are still the main group responsible for shopping the gatekeepers.
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CONCLUSION
Given that per-capita consumption in industrial countries is a main
cause of environmental degradation, the need for sustainable development will require alternative consumption patterns. Because of the complexity of the factors involved, it is clear that no simple remedies will
sufce to accomplish the long-term goals. Rather, multifaceted effort
will have to be carried out by a broad coalition of interrelated actors.
Alterations in peoples attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors may stimulate
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changes in the political and economic systems, which in turn might encourage lifestyle changes. On the other hand, product manufacturers
can affect the market and consumers by encouraging new developments.
It seems that there is considerable potential for green consumerism to
develop, but that its growth is inhibited by various barriers. Furthermore, this research emphasizes to address three questions to initiate
expansion of green purchases:
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REFERENCES
Abramovitz, J. N., Brown, L. R., Dunn, S., Flavin, C., French, H., Gardner, G.,
Halweil, B., Hwang, A., Larsen, J., Lenssen, N., Mastny, L., Mattoon, A.,
McGinn, A. P., Nierenberg, D., Renner, M., Roodman, D. M., Sampat, P.,
Sheehan, M. O., Young, J. E., & Starke, L. (2001). Vital signs 2001. New
York: Norton.
Arbuthnot, J., & Lingg, S. (1975). A comparison of French and American environmental behavior, knowledge and attitudes. International Journal of
Psychology, 10, 411 423.
Axelrod, L. J., & Lehman, D. R. (1993). Responding to environmental concerns:
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APPENDIX 1
Items, Means, Standard Deviations, Internal Consistencies, and Factor
Loadings of the Personal Subscales (English Translations of Original Items).
Mean
SD
Alpha
3.80
0.84
0.63
0.66
0.64
0.69
3.97
Fair trade
Solidarity with third-world countries is important to me.
I would refrain from buying bananas or coffee if I were not sure whether growers and
workers were fairly paid.
When buying coffee, I pay attention to fair
trade labels (e.g., Max Havelaar).
I would be willing to pay a higher price to
support small growers from third-world
countries.
2.97
Health
It is important to me that food products contain no preservatives.
I avoid products containing too much sugar.
When making purchases, I pay attention to
whether the food products contain unhealthy substances.
Health issues play an important role for me
when I make up my menus.
3.44
Regional products
It is important to me to support local farmers
when making purchase.
It is good to support domestic agriculture by
buying regional products.
Consumers should show solidarity with domestic farmers.
It is not important to me whether food products are grown locally or not ().
3.98
Loadings
0.98
0.78
0.76
0.87
0.85
0.89
0.79
0.83
0.70
0.77
0.79
0.82
0.63
0.78
0.60
0.76
0.45
0.89
0.86
0.87
0.86
0.88
0.73
899
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APPENDIX 1. (Continued)
Food taste
When making purchases I would primarily
buy products which taste good.
When making purchases, I am guided by
what I like.
People should eat what they like, even if
what they eat is unhealthy ()
When making purchases I am guided by my
taste of gourmet cooking.
Perceived Barriers
Perceived monetary barriers
I cannot afford to pay more for organic products.
Green products are still too expensive.
People should buy green products, even
though they are more expensive ().
Perceived time barrier
I have too little time for cooking.
I have little time available for preparation of
meals.
Because of lack of time, I am dependent on
food products that do not need much time
for preparation.
Personal norm
Everybody has a responsibility to contribute
to environmental preservation by avoiding
packaged food products.
Everybody should make a contribution to
promoting green food production by buying
only green products.
Consumers have the right to buy exotic
fruits.
I feel morally obligated to refrain from eating
the meat of animals kept inhumanely.
Knowledge
Factual Ecological Knowledgea
More energy is used for producing and transporting food products than the body receives through nutrition. (yes/no)
Less energy is used for meat production than
for the equivalent amount of vegetables.
(yes/no)
What is gray energy? (multiple choice)
Action-related ecological knowledgea
Milk in plastic packaging is more harmful for
the environment than milk in cardboard
cartons (yes/no).
900
Mean
SD
Alpha
3.01
0.83
0.73
Loadings
0.70
0.76
0.64
0.81
2.61
0.84
0.60
0.71
0.81
0.77
2.34
0.96
0.75
0.86
0.60
0.76
3.24
0.83
0.64
0.78
0.82
0.48
0.68
1.58
0.29
0.64
0.75
0.55
0.73
1.57
0.34
0.64
0.46
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APPENDIX 1. (Continued)
Mean
SD
Alpha
0.65
Loadings
0.71
0.58
3.03
0.91
0.80
0.67
0.85
0.86
0.81
Note: () Reversed in coding. Subscales ranged from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree), except for
factual and action-related knowledge.
aFactual and action-related knowledge scales were changed into a dichotomous response format of 1 (wrong)
and 2 (correct). Original items were in German.
APPENDIX 2
List of Behavioral Items (English Translation of Original Items).
Purchases of unbottled milk.
Purchases of fair trade products.
Purchases of milk in plastic packaging.
Purchases of milk in a cardboard carton. ()
Purchases of products with an eco-label.
Purchases of meat from humanely kept animals.
Purchases of organically grown food.
Purchases of open cheese.
Purchases of packaged cheese. ()
Purchases of exotic fruits. ()
Purchases of fresh, locally grown vegetables.
Purchases of imported beer. ()
Purchases of convenience foods. ()
Purchases of canned food. ()
Purchases of frozen meat. ()
Purchases of frozen sh. ()
Purchases of frozen vegetables in summer. ()
Purchases of sh in cans. ()
Purchases of meat in cans. ()
Note: The items were assessed on a unidimensional scale with the use of the Rasch model. The original 6point scale was converted to a dichotomous response format, with 1 indicating less environmentally friendly
purchase and 2 indicating more environmentally friendly purchase. The consumers extent of green purchases
is then based on the aggregation of positive behaviors a person undertakes. Original items were in German. ()
Reversed in coding.
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This research was supported by the Swiss National Science Foundation (Grant
Nos. 5001-44666 and 8210-61241). The authors are grateful to Niels Jungbluth
for performing the measurement of the environmental impact of food products,
and Florian Kaiser for his support regarding the measure of green purchases
based on the Rasch model. The authors also thank Judith Levi for valuable
help with the language.
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Correspondence regarding this article should be sent to: Carmen Tanner, Falkenhoeheweg 18, 3012 Bern, Switzerland (ctanner@bluewin.ch).
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