Thermodynamic II

Chapter 3
Version 4

CHAPTER 3:GAS POWER CYCLE II (INTERNAL

COMBUSTION ENGINES)
3.1

Reciprocating Engines
Reciprocating engine basically is a piston-cylinder device.
Characteristic: simple, versatile and wide range of application.
It is the powerhouse of the vast majority of automobiles.
Basic component of reciprocating engine is shown in figure 3.1:

Figure 3.1 : Basic components of reciprocating engine.

The piston reciprocates in the cylinder between 2 fixed position

called the top dead center (TDC)-the position of the piston
when it forms the smallest volume in the cylinder and the
bottom dead center (BDC)-the position of the piston when it
forms the largest volume in the cylinder.
The distance between the TDC and BDC is the largest distance
that the piston can travel in one direction, and it is called the
Stroke of the engine.
The diameter of the piston is called the bore.
The air or air-fuel mixture is drawn into the cylinder through the
intake valve, and the combustion products are expelled from
the cylinder through the exhaust valve.
The minimum volume formed in the cylinder when the piston is
at TDC is called the clearance volume.(Figure 3.2)
The volume displaced by the piston as it moves between TDC
and BDC is called the displacement volume. (Figure 3.2)

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The ratio of the volume formed in the cylinder to the minimum

(clearance) volume is called the compression ratio (volume
ratio) r of engine:
r

Vmax VBDC

Vmin
VTDC

(3.1)

Figure 3.2: Displacement and Clearance volume.

The Mean Effective Pressure (MEP): a fictitious pressure that,

if it acted on the piston during the entire power stroke, would
produce the same amount of net work as that produced during
the
actual
cycles
(Figure
3.3).

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Figure 3.3

That is,
Wnet MEPxPiston _ areaxStrok e MEPxDisplacement _ volume (3.2)

or
MEP

(kPa)

(3.3)

MEP can be used as a parameter to compare the performances of

reciprocating engines of equal size.
The engine with a larger value of MEP will deliver more net work
per cycle and thus will perform better.
Reciprocating engines are classified (depending on how the
combustion process in the cylinder is initiated) as:
a)
b)

Wnet
wnet

Vmax Vmin v max v min

Spark-ignition engine (SI)

Compression-ignition engine (CI)

In term of stroke, there are 2 categories of engines; 4 strokes

engine and 2 stroke engines:
a)
4 stroke engines.
The piston executes 4 complete strokes (2 mechanical
cycles) within the cylinder, and the crankshaft
completes 2 revolutions for each thermodynamic cycle.
A schematic of each stroke as well as P-v diagram for an
actual 4 stroke engine in given in figure 3.4.

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Figure 3.4: Actual 4 stroke SI engine

b)

Initially, both the intake and the exhaust valves are

closed, and the piston is at its lowest position (BDC).
During the compression stroke, the piston moves
upward, compressing the air-fuel mixture.
Shortly before the piston reaches its highest position
(TDC), the spark plug fires and the mixture ignite,
increasing the pressure and temperature of the system.
The high-pressure gases for the piston go down, which
is turn force the crankshaft to rotate, producing a useful
work output during the expansion or power stroke.
At the end of this stroke, the piston is at its lowest
position (the completion of the first mechanical cycle),
and the cylinder is filled with combustion products.
Now, the piston moves upward one more time, purging
the exhaust gases through the exhaust valve (the
exhaust stroke), and down a second time, drawing in
fresh-fuel mixture through the intake valve (the intake
stroke).
Notice that the pressure in the cylinder is slightly above
the atmospheric value during the exhaust stroke and
slightly below during the intake stroke.

2 stroke engines.
In 2 stroke engines, all 4 functions described above are
executed in just 2 strokes:
i)

The power stroke

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ii)

The compression stroke

In these engines, the crankcase is sealed, and the
outward motion of the piston is used to slightly
pressurize the air-fuel mixture in the crankcase, as
shown in figure 3.5(a).

Figure 3.5(a): Schematic of a 2- stroke reciprocating engine.

Intake and exhaust valve are replaced by openings of

the cylinder wall.
During the latter part of the power stroke, the piston
uncovers first the exhaust port, allowing the exhaust
gases to be partially expelled, and then the intake port,

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allowing the fresh air-fuel mixture to rush in and drive

most of the remaining exhaust gases out of the cylinder.
This mixture is then compressed as the piston moves
upward during the compression stroke and is
subsequently ignited by a spark plug.
The 2 stroke engines are generally less efficient than
their 4 stroke counterparts because of the incomplete
expulsion of the exhaust gases and the partial expulsion
of the fresh air-fuel mixture with the exhaust gases.
However, they are relatively simple and inexpensive,
and they have high power-to-weight and power-tovolume ratios, which make them suitable for
applications requiring small size and weight.
Figure 3.5(ii) shows the indicator (P-V) diagram for
actual 2-stroke engine.

Figure 3.5(b)

3.2

Otto Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Spark Ignition Engines

In SI engines, the combustion of the air-fuel mixture is initiated
by a spark plug.
The Otto cycle is the ideal cycle for SI reciprocating engines.
The thermodynamics analysis of the actual 4-stroke or 2-stroke
cycles described above is not a simple task.

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The analysis can be simplified significantly if the air-standard

assumptions are utilized.
The resulting cycle, which closely resembles the actual operating
conditions, is the ideal Otto cycle.
It consist of 4 internally reversible processes:
a)
b)
c)
d)

1-2
2-3
3-4
4-1

Isentropic compression
Constant-volume heat addition
Isentropic expansion
Constant-volume heat rejection

Figure 3.6: Ideal Otto cycle for SI engine.

The execution of the Otto cycle in a piston-cylinder device

together with a P-v diagram is illustrated in figure 3.6.
The T-s diagram of the Otto cycle is given in figure 3.7.

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Figure 3.7: T-s diagram of the ideal Otto cycle.

The Otto cycle is executed in a closed system, and disregarding

the changes in kinetic and potential energies, the energy balance
for any of the processes is expressed, on a unit-mass basis, as

qin qout win wout u

(kJ/kg)

No work is involved during the two heat transfer processes since

both take place at constant volume.
Therefore, heat transfer to and from the working fluid can be
expressed as
qin u 3 u 2 C v T3 T2
q out u 4 u1 C v T4 T1

wnet
q
T T
T T T 1
1 out 1 4 1 1 1 4 1
qin
qin
T3 T2
T2 T3 T2 1

k 1

v
3
v4

k 1

T4
T1

(3.8)

Substituting these equations into the thermal efficiency relation

and simplifying give

th ,Otto 1
r

(3.7)

Processes 1-2 and 3-4 are isentropic, and v2=v3 and v4=v1. Thus,
T1 v 2

T2 v1

(3.5)
(3.6)

Then the thermal efficiency of the ideal Otto cycle under the cold
air standard assumption becomes

th,Otto

(3.4)

1
r k 1

Vmax V1 v1

Vmin V2 v 2

(3.9)

(3.10)

r is the compression ratio and k is the specific heat

ratio ,Cp/Cv.

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The thermal efficiency of an ideal Otto cycle depends on the

compression ratio of the engine and the specific heat ratio of the
working fluid (if different from air).
Figure 3.8(a) and 3.8(b) shows schematic diagram and P-V
diagram for 2-Stroke SI engine, however figure 3.8(c) and 3.8(d)
are for 4-Stroke SI engine.
The figures are illustrated to observe the difference between 2Stroke and 4-Stroke SI Engine in term of Otto cycles P-V
diagram.

Figure 3.8(a)
Figure 3.8(b)

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Figure 3.8(c)

Figure 3.8(d)
Example 3.1:
An ideal Otto cycle has a compression ratio of 8. At the beginning of
the compression process, air is at 100 kPa and 17 C, and 800 kJ/kg
of heat is transferred to air during the constant-volume heataddition process. Accounting for the variation of specific heats of air
with temperature, determine:
a) The maximum temperature and pressure that occur during the
cycle.
b) The net work output.
c) The thermal efficiency.
d) The mean effective pressure for the cycle.

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Solution:
The P-v diagram of the ideal Otto cycle described is shown in the
figure below. We note that the air contained in the cylinder forms a
closed system.
Assumptions:
i)
The air standard assumptions are applicable.
ii)
Kinetic and potential energy changes are negligible.
iii)
The variation of specific heats with temperature is to be
accounted for.

Analysis:
a) The maximum temperature and pressure in an Otto cycle occur
at the end of the constant-volume heat addition process (state
3). But first we need to determine the temperature and pressure
of air at the end of the isentropic compression process (state 2),
using data from Table A-17:
T1=290K

u1=206.91 kJ/kg
Vr1=676.1
Process 1-2(isentropic compression of an ideal gas):
T2 652.4 K
v r1 676.1

84.51
u 2 475.11kJ / kg
r
8

vr 2 v2 1

v r1 v1 r

vr 2

P 2 v2
Pv
1 1
T2
T1

T
P2 P1 2
T1

v1

v2

652.4 K
8 1799.7 kPa
290 K

100kPa

Process 2-3 (constant-volume heat addition):

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qin=u3-u2
800 kJ/kg = u3-475.1 kJ/kg
u3=1275.11 kJ/kg
T3=1575.1K
vr3=6.108
P3 v3
Pv
2 2
T3
T2

T
P3 P2 3
T2

v2

v3

1575.1K
1 4.345MPa
652.4 K

1.7997 MPa

b) The net work output for the cycle is determined either by finding
the boundary (P dv) work involved in each process by integration
and adding them or by finding the net heat transfer that is
equivalent to the net work done during the cycle. We take the
latter approach. However, first we need to find the internal
energy of the air at state 4:
Process 3-4 (isentropic expansion of an ideal gas):
vr 4 v4

r
v r 3 v3

vr4=rvr3=(8)(6.108)=48.864

T4=795.6K

u4=588.74 kJ/kg
Process 4-1 (constant-volume heat rejection):
-qout=u1-u4

qout=u4-u1
qout=588.74-206.91=381.83 kJ/kg
Thus,
wnet = qnet = qin qout = 800 -381.83= 418.17 kJ/kg
c) The thermal efficiency of the cycle is determined from its
definition
th ,Otto

wnet 418.17 kJ / kg

0.523
qin
800kJ / kg

Under the cold-air-standard assumptions (constant specific heat

values at room temperature), the thermal efficiency would be

th ,Otto 1

1
r

k 1

1 r 1k 1 8

11.4

0.565

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Which is considerably different from the value obtained above.

Therefore, care should be exercised on utilizing the cold-air
standard assumptions.
d) The mean effective pressure is determined from its definition
where, wnet
wnet
wnet
3
MEP RT
1 (0.287
kPa
Thus,
.m kg .K )( 290 K )
3

v1 v 2 v v1
v1
v 1 1 .m 3 0.832m / kg
418.17
/rkgkPa1 1kPa
1 kJ100
r
P
1

574.4kPa
MEP
1kJ
(0.832m 3 / kg )(1 1 / 8)

3.3 Diesel Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Compression-Ignition

Engines.

Figure 3.9: Diesel engine

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The diesel cycle is the ideal cycle for CI reciprocating engines.

The CI engine is very similar to the SI engine, differing mainly in
the method of initiating combustion.
In spark ignition engines (gasoline engines), the air-fuel mixture
is compressed to a temperature that is below the auto-ignition
temperature of the fuel, and the combustion process is initiated
by firing a spark plug.
In CI engines (diesel engines), the air is compressed to a
temperature that is above the auto-ignition temperature of the
fuel, and the combustion starts on contact as the fuel is injected
into this hot air.
A fuel injector in diesel engine replaces the spark plug and the
carburetor.
In gasoline engines, a mixture of air and fuel is compressed
during the compression stroke, and the compression ratios are
limited by onset of auto-ignition or engine knock.
In diesel engines, only air is compressed during the compression
stroke, eliminating the possibility of auto-ignition.
The fuel injection process in diesel engines starts when the
piston approaches TDC and continues during the first part of the
power stroke.
Therefore, the combustion process in these engines takes place
over a longer interval.
Because of this longer duration, the combustion process in the
ideal diesel cycle is approximated as a constant-pressure heataddition process.
In fact, this is the only process where the Otto and the Diesel
cycles differ.
The remaining three processes are the same for both ideal
cycles.

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That is, 1-2 is isentropic compression, 3-4 is isentropic expansion,

and 4-1 is constant volume heat rejection.
The similarity between the two cycles is also apparent from the
T-s and P-v diagrams of the Diesel cycle, shown in figure 3.10(a),
3.10(b) and 3.10(c).
Figure

3.10(a)

Figure 3.10(b)

Figure 3.10(c)

Noting that the Diesel cycle is executed in a piston-cylinder

device, which forms a closed system, the amount of heat
transferred to the working fluid at constant pressure and rejected
from it at constant volume can be expressed as
qin wb ,out u 3 u 2

qin P2 v3 v 2 u 3 u 2 h 3 h2 C P T3 T2

(3.11)

And
q out u1 u 4

(3.12)

q out u 4 u1 CV T4 T1

Then the thermal efficiency of the ideal Diesel cycle under the
cold-air standard assumptions becomes

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th ,diesel

wnet
q
T T
T T T 1
1 out 1 4 1 1 1 4 1
q in
q in
k T3 T2
kT2 T3 T2 1

(3.13)

We now define a new quantity, the cut off ratio, rc, as the ratio of
the cylinder volume after (volume when the fuel flow is cut off)
and before (volume when the fuel flow is started) the combustion
process:
V3 v3

(3.14)
V2 v 2
Utilizing this definition and the isentropic ideal gas relations for
process 1-2 and 3-4, we see that the thermal efficiency relation
reduces to
rc

th , Diesel

1 rck 1
1 k 1

r k rc 1

(3.15)

Where r is the compression ratio define by equation (3.10).

Under the cold-air standard assumptions, the efficiency of a
Diesel cycle differs from the efficiency of an Otto cycle by the
quantity in the brackets.
This quantity is always greater than 1.
Therefore, th ,Otto th , Diesel when both cycles operate on the same
compression ratio.

Example 3.2: The Ideal Diesel Cycle

An ideal Diesel cycle with air as the working fluid has a compression
ratio of 18 and a cutoff ratio of 2. At the beginning of the compression
process, the working fluid is at 101.325 kPa, 27 C, and 1916 cm3.
Utilizing the cold air standard assumptions, determine:
a) The temperature and pressure of the air at the end of each
process.
b) The net work output and the thermal efficiency.
c) The mean effective pressure.
Solution:
The P-V diagram of the ideal Diesel cycle described is shown in figure
below. We note that the air contained in the cylinder forms a closed
system.

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Assumptions:
1) The cold air standard assumptions are applicable and thus air can
be assumed to have constant specific heat at room temperature.2)
Kinetic and potential energy changes are negligible.
Analysis:
The gas constant of air is R=0.287 kJ/kg.K and its other properties at
room temperature are Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg.K, Cv = 0.718 kJ/kg.K and k =
1.4 (Table A-2a).
a) The temperature and pressure values at the end of each process
can be determined by utilizing the ideal gas isentropic relations for
process 1-2 and 3-4. But first we determine the volumes at the end of
each process from the definitions of the compression ratio and cutoff
ratio:
V1 1917

106.5cm 3
r
18
V3 rcV2 2 106.5 213cm 3
V2

V4 V1 1917cm 3

Process 1-2 (isentropic compression of an ideal gas, constant specific

heats):

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V
T2 T1 1
V2
V
P2 P1 1
V2

k 1

300 K 18

1.4 1

101.32518

1 .4

953K
5796kPa

Process 2-3 (constant pressure heat addition to an ideal gas):

P3 P2 5796kPa
V
P2V2 P3V3

T3 T2 3 953K 2 1906 K
T2
T3
V2

Process 3-4 (isentropic expansion of an ideal gas, constant specific

heats):
V
T4 T3 3
V4
V
P4 P3 3
V4

k 1

213
1906

1917
213

1917

5796

1.4 1

792 K
1.4

267 kPa

b) The net work for a cycle is equivalent to the net heat transfer. But
first we find the mass of air:
PV
101.325kPa 1917 x10 6 m 3 2.256 x10 3 kg
m 1 1
RT 1
0.287kJ / kg.K 300 K
Process 2-3 is a constant pressure heat addition process, for which the
boundary work and u terms can be combined into h . Thus,
Qin m h3 h2 mC p T4 T1

2.256 x10 3 0.718 792 300 0.797 kJ

Thus,

Wnet Qin Q out 2.16 0.797 1.36kJ

Then the thermal efficiency becomes

th

Wnet 1.36

0.631@ 63.1%
Q net 2.16

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c) The mean effective pressure is determined from its definition

MEP

Wnet
Wnet
1.36

751kPa
Vmax Vmin V1 V2 1917 106.5

Therefore, a constant pressure of 751kPa during the power stroke

would produce the same net work output as the entire Diesel cycle.
3.4

Mean Effective Pressure (MEP)

MEP is defined as the height of a rectangle on a P-v diagram,
having an area equals to that of the air standard cycle drawn on
the same diagram, as shown in figure 3.11.

Figure 3.11

We observed from figure 3.11 that,

a)
Length of rectangle ABCD = Length of cycle 1234
b)
Area of rectangle ABCD = Area of cycle 1234
c)
Height AB = MEP.

The MEP is used as a mean to compare the performance of

similar internal combustion (IC) engines of different sizes.
The work output o the cycle per kg of air can be expressed in
term of the MEP as

W area _ ABCDA MEP(v1 v 2 )

(3.16)

The term (v1-v2) is proportional to the swept volume of the

cylinder.
Thus equation (3.16) indicates that the MEP gives a measure of
work output per swept volume.

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3.5

The ve sign in equation (3.16) indicates that the work is done on

the air.
Indicator Diagram
Much can be learnt from a record of the cylinder pressure and
volume; the results can be analyzed to reveal the rate at which
work is being done on the piston by the gas, and the rate at
which combustion is occurring.
In its simplest form, the cylinder pressure is plotted against
volume, to give an indicator diagram.
Figure 3.12 is an indicator diagram from a spark ignition engine
operating at part throttle, with an inset to clarify the pressure
difference between the exhaust stroke and the induction stroke
(intake stroke) the pumping loop.

Figure 3.12

The shaded area in figure 3.12 represents the work done on the
piston by the gases during the expansion stroke, and for the
change in volume shown, this is greater than the work done on
the gases during the compression process.
The difference in areas at the given volume increment will
represent the net work done on the piston by the gases.
Thus the area enclosed by the compression and expansion
processes (the power loop) is proportional to the work done on
the piston by the gas.
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3.6

The pumping loop is enclosing by processes in an anticlockwise

direction, and it can be seen that this represents net work done
by the piston on the gases.
Criteria of Performance
When choosing an engine, or any engineering plant, it is
necessary to refer to the relevant performance characteristic.
In order that different types of engines or different engines of the
same type may be compared, certain performance criteria must
be defined.
They are obtained by measurement of the quantities concerned
during bench tests, and calculation is by standard procedures.

3.6.1 Torque (T)

An engine is required to drive external equipment, so it is
important to know how much torque the engine will deliver at the
various running conditions.
The torque is measured by coupling a measuring device, called
brake or dynamometer.

T = Fd x R

(3.17)

Fd = net dynamometer load (Tangential force)

R = torque arm length (Radius at which
tangential force act)

Figure 3.13 is torque graphs (a) for a variable speed engine

and (b) for a constant speed engine.

Figure 3.13

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3.6.2 Indicated Work (Wi)

The term indicated work is used to define the net work done on
the piston per cycle.

Net indicated work, Wi = power loop pumping loop = PdV

(3.18)
Net indicated work, Wi = gross indicated work pumping work
(3.19)

3.6.3 Indicated Mean Effective Pressure (imep)

The definition of indicated work lead to the definition of a

fictional pressure, the indicated mean effective pressure
(imep), which is defined by
Wi imep V s

imep

(3.20)

Wi
Vs

(3.21)

Where, Vs = swept volume = Vmax Vmin.

The imep is a hypothetical pressure that would produce the
same indicated work, if it were to act on the piston throughout
the expansion stroke.

3.6.4 Indicated Power ( W i )

Indicated power ( W i ) is defined as the rate of work done by the

combustion gases on the piston.
It shows the power actually developed in the cylinders.
It is evaluated based on the indicator (P-V) diagram obtained
during engine testing, typically shown in figure 3.14.

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Figure 3.14: Indicator diagram for a reciprocating engine

For two stroke engines, the indicated power is given by

W i , 2 imep A L N nc

(3.22)

For four stroke engines, the indicated power is given by

Wi , 4

1
imep A L N nc
2

(3.23)

Where,

A = area of the piston

L = length of stroke of the piston
N = rotational speed of the engine (rev/s)
nc = number of cylinder
imep = indicated MEP.

Figure 3.15 is graphs of indicated power (a) for a variable speed

engine and (b) for a constant speed engine.

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Figure 3.15

3.6.5 Brake Power ( W b )

Brake power ( W b ) is the actual mechanical power output from

the engine, measured at its output shaft.
The engine is usually attached to a brake dynamometer, which
apply brake load, and measures the torque exerted by the
engine.
We have,

Wb 2 N T

(3.24)

Where,

N = engine rotational speed (rev/s)

T = torque measured by the dynamometer
T = Fd x R
Fd = net dynamometer load (Tangential force)
R = torque arm length (Radius at which
tangential force act)

If neglecting electrical losses, electric dynamometer (generator)

power output will generally be very close to the brake power of
the engine.

Wb P VI

Where,

V = generated voltage
I = current output

The brake power will, in fact, be less than the indicated power
because losses occur from the cylinders to shaft, such as friction
and running auxiliary equipment.
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3.6.6 Thermal Efficiency

The thermal efficiency of an engine is important because it

determines how efficiently the fuel is being used in the engine.
There are two cases to consider: The indicated thermal
efficiency and the brake thermal efficiency.
Figure 3.16 shows the graph for thermal efficiency versus
variable speed and constant speed engines.
The curve increases to a maximum value then decreases as
shown in the figure.
It displays a maximum value of the thermal efficiency, the
condition at which the engine is running at its best and with the
maximum economy.

Figure 3.16
3.7.6.1 Brake Thermal Efficiency ( b)

The brake thermal efficiency (b) is the measure of the

overall efficiency of the engine.
It is defined as

W
Brake _ power _ output
b
b
Rate _ of _ energy _ sup plied E

(3.25)

The rate of thermal energy supplied to the engine, E

is
given by

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(3.26)

E m f CV

Where,

= Mass flow rate of fuel

CV = calorific value of the fuel
mf

Substituting gives the brake thermal efficiency,

Wb

(3.27)

m f CV

3.7.6.2 Indicated Thermal Efficiency ( i)

Based on the definition of the brake thermal efficiency, the

indicated thermal efficiency is defined as

Wi

(3.28)

m f CV

3.6.7 Relative Efficiency

The relative efficiency or efficiency ratio as it is some times

called, is the ratio of the actual efficiency obtained from the
engine to the theoretical efficiency of the engine.
In the case of internal combustion engines the theoretical
efficiency is taken from the theoretical cycle.

Actual _ efficiency
(3.29)
Theoritical _ efficiency
3.6.8 Mechanical Efficiency ( m)
Re lative _ Efficiency

Dividing equation (3.26) by equation (3.27), we obtain

b m i

(3.30)

By referring equation (3.30) the mechanical efficiency of an IC

engine can be defined in a number of ways:

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Wb

Wi

b bmep

i
imep

(3.31)

Where,

W i imep Vs n

(3.32)

Wb

(3.33)

m f CV

Wi

(3.34)

m f CV

CV = The calorific value of the fuel.

m f = The mass flow rate of the fuel.

m f CV

is the total amount of chemical energy stored in the

fuel.
The closer mechanical efficiency approaches unity the better, for
this implies smaller losses.
Typical IC engines have mechanical efficiency of 80% to 90%.
Figure 3.17 shows the graph for mechanical efficiency versus
variable speed and constant speed engines.

Figure 3.17

The graph increase from zero to maximum then generally begins

to fall off in a smooth curve.
There is a maximum mechanical efficiency condition for most
engines.
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Beyond this condition, friction is beginning to increase rapidly

and the engine is becoming overloaded.

Example 3.3:
During a test on a 4-stroke cycle oil engine the following data and
results were obtained::
Mean height of indicator diagram
Indicator calibration
Swept volume of cylinder
Speed of engine
=
Effective brake load
Effective brake radius
Fuel consumption
=
Calorific value of fuel
Cooling water circulation
Cooling water inlet temperature
Cooling water outlet temperature
Specific heat capacity of water
Energy to exhaust gases

=
21 mm
=
27 kN/m2 per mm
=
14 litres
6.6 rev/s
=
77 kg
=
0.7 m
0.002 kg/s
=
44,000 kJ/kg
=
0.15 kg/s
=
38C
=
71C
=
4.18 kJ/kg.K
=
33.6 kJ/s

Determine:
a)
b)
c)

Indicated power output.

Brake power output.
Mechanical efficiency.

3.6.9 Brake Mean Effective Pressure (bmep)

Not all the work done by the gas on the piston is available as
shaft work, since there are frictional losses in the engine.
These losses can be quantified by using the brake mean
effective pressure (bmep).
bmep is a hypothetical pressure that acts on the piston during
the expansion stroke, and would lead to the same brake work
output in a frictionless engine.
The bmep gives that amount of the imep which has been
effective in producing output at the brake.
In other words, bmep is defined as

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Wb
bmep
Vs n

(3.35)

Where,

W b = actual power after consider friction and

others factor
(brake power).
Vs = swept volume of the entire engine.
N (cycle/s) will be;
Four stroke engine:
n4

N (rpm)
120

(3.36)

Two stroke engine:

n2

N (rpm)
60

(3.37)

The product of mechanical efficiency m and the indicated mean

effective pressure (imep), give the brake mean effective
pressure,
bmep m imep

Hence the engine brake power ( W b ) of a two and four stroke

engine can now be expressed in term of the brake mean
effective pressure as

(3.39)
W b , 2 bmep A L N nc

W b,4

3.6.10

(3.38)

1
bmep A L N nc
2

(3.40)

Frictional Mean Effective Pressure (fmep)

The difference between the net imep and bmep is due to friction
and this leads to the definition of frictional mean effective
pressure (fmep).
fmep (net _ imep) (net _ bmep)

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3.6.11

Friction Power ( W f )

Friction power ( W f ) is the amount of power needed to overcome

friction resistance in many moving parts of the engine. We have,

(3.42)
Wf W i W b

3.6.12

Specific Fuel Consumption (sfc).

A knowledge of the fuel consumed by an engine and the time it

takes to consume this fuel is essential when assessing the
qualities of the engine.
This characteristic enables the direct computation of the rate at
which fuel will be used.
The specific fuel consumption can be defined in two ways as
below:
a) The brake specific fuel consumption of an internal
combustion engine is defined as the ratio of the fuel mass
flow rate to the brake power output of the engine,

bsfc

mf

(3.43)

Wb

b) The indicated specific fuel consumption of an internal

combustion engine is defined as the ratio of the fuel mass
flow rate to the indicated power output of the engine,

isfc

mf

(3.44)

Wi

The engine is running more efficiently at the lower specific fuel

consumption.
Figure 3.18 show the graphs for fuel consumption (a) for variable
speed engine and (b) for a constant speed engine.
However figure 3.19 shows the graph of specific fuel
consumption.

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Figure 3.18

Figure 3.19

3.7

The graph for specific fuel consumption has a drooping

characteristic, displaying a minimum value.
This minimum value will show the operating speed or brake
power at which the engine is operating at its best and most
economical condition.
It will correspond with the maximum thermal efficiency condition.
INCREASING ENGINE PERFORMANCE
Any car that you buy today from a normal automobile
manufacturer has a number of compromises built into it. These
compromises are caused by several factors:

The attempt to fit the car into a certain price range

The need to meet emissions standards

The desire to provide maximum life and reliability

These compromises often give you lots of room for improvement
in terms of performance! There are many different ways to
create more horsepower from a stock engine. Here are several
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examples (generally in order from least to most

difficult/expensive):
Change your computer chip -- sometimes, but certainly not
always, you can change a car's performance by changing the
ROM chip in the engine control unit (ECU). You usually buy these
chips from aftermarket performance dealers. It is valuable to
read an independent review of the chip you are contemplating,
because some chips are all hype and no performance.
Let air come in more easily - As a piston moves down in the
intake stroke, air resistance can rob power from the engine.
Some newer cars are using polished intake manifolds to
eliminate air resistance there. Bigger air filters and reduced
intake piping can also improve air flow.
Let exhaust exit more easily - If air resistance or backpressure makes it hard for exhaust to exit a cylinder, it robs the
engine of power. If the exhaust pipe is too small or the muffler
has a lot of air resistance then this can cause back-pressure.
High-performance exhaust systems use headers, big tail pipes
and free-flowing mufflers to eliminate back-pressure in the
exhaust system.
Change the heads and cams -- Many stock engines have
one intake valve and one exhaust valve. Buying a new head that
has four valves per cylinder will dramatically improve airflow in
and out of the engine and this can improve power. Using
performance cams can also make a big difference.
Stuff more into each cylinder - If you can cram more air
(and therefore fuel) into a cylinder of a given size, you can get
more power from the cylinder (in the same way that you would
by increasing the size of the cylinder). Turbo chargers and super
chargers pressurize the incoming air to effectively cram more air
into a cylinder. Many manufacturers make aftermarket turbos
and super chargers for many different cars.
Cool the incoming air - Compressing air raises its
temperature. You would like to have the coolest air possible in
the cylinder because the hotter the air is the less it will expand
when combustion takes place. Therefore many turbo charged
and super charged cars have an intercooler. An intercooler is a
special radiator through which the compressed air passes to cool
it off before it enters the cylinder.

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Make everything lighter - Lightweight parts help the engine

perform better. Each time a piston changes direction it uses up
energy to stop the travel in one direction and start it in another.
The lighter the piston, the less energy it takes. Lighter parts also
allow the engine to rev faster, giving it more horsepower.
Increase the compression ratio - Higher compression ratios
produce more power, up to a point. The more you compress the
air/fuel mixture, however, the more likely it is to spontaneously
burst into flame (prior to the spark plug igniting it). Higher
octane gasolines prevent this sort of early combustion. That is
why high-performance cars generally need high octane gasoline their engines are using higher compression ratios to get more
power.
Increase displacement - More displacement means more
power because you can burn more gas during each revolution of
the engine. You can increase displacement by making the
cylinders bigger.

As soon as you start to try increasing displacement, you might

consider the economics of buying a new high-performance
engine and trying to fit it into your car -- it may be easier and
cheaper!

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