Professional Documents
Culture Documents
DR V.K.MAHESHW Ph.D
PRINCIPAL
LECTURER
PRINCIPAL
College of Education
College of Education
College of Educatiion
D.I.M.S.
D.I.M.S. MEERUT
M.I.T.MEERUT
INDIA
INDIA
INDIA
MEERUT
Although no one, and no teacher, can predict the future with any certainty,
people in leadership capacities such as teachers are required to make guesses
about the probable future and plan appropriately. Teachers therefore need to
plan their curriculum according to the more likely future their students face
while at the same time acknowledging that the students have a future. The
competent leader cannot plan according to past successes, as if doing so will
force the past to remain with him. The most competent leader and manager,
in fact, is not even satisfied with thoughts of the future, but is never satisfied,
always sure that whatever is being done can be improved.
course .Thus ,the term curriculum has the sense of competition and achievement of
goal inherent in it.
morally." it is obvious, then that, the aim of curriculum is to provide experience to the educand
so that he may achieve complete development. By calling the curriculum an experience, the fact
is made explicit that it includes not merely books, but all those activities and relationship
which are indulged in by the educand, both inside and outside the school
.Curriculum is not an end in itself, but a means to an end. Curriculum Is a means or tool.
It is apparent from the foregoing definitions that because it is created - in order to achieve the
aims of education. That is why, one finds that different educationists have suggested different
kinds of curricula to conform to the aims and objectives ascribed to education; Explaining the
concept of curriculum as a tool of education, Cunningham writes, "The curriculum is the tool
in the hands of the artist (the teacher) to mould his material (the pupil) according to his ideal
(objective) in his studio (the school)." Here the educator is compared to an artist and the
curriculum as one of the instruments of tools used by him to develop the educand according
to, and in conformity with the aims of education. It is evident that the curriculum will change
with every change -in the aims of education.
.
his liberal standpoint, one finds that is preparing the curriculum one has much wider
background than would otherwise be possible.
THE PURPOSE OF CURRICULUM
Clarifying the purpose of curriculum, it has been pointed out in the report of the
Secondary Education Commission( 1952-53 India) that, "The starting point for curricular
reconstruction must, therefore, be the device to bridge the gulf between the school subjects
and to enrich the varied activities that make up the warp and woof of life." Hence, the
curricular should be so designed that it strains the educand to face the situations of real life, a
curriculum can be said to have the following major purposes
Synthesis of subjects and life. The aim of the curriculum is to arrange and provide those
subjects For an edueand's study which will enable the educand to destroy any gulf between
school life and life outside the school. The opinion of the Secondary Education
Commission has already been quoted.
.Harmony between individual and activity. In a democracy, such social qualities as social
skills, cooperation, the desire to be of service, sympathy, etc., are very significant because
without them, no society can continue to exist. On the other hand, development of the
individual's own character and personality arc also very important. Hence, the curriculum
must create an environment and provide those books which enable the individual to achieve
his own development at the same time as he learns these social qualities.
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of education must aim to develop the democratic values of equality, liberty and fraternity, so
that the educands may. develop into fine democratic citizens. But the development should not
only aim at national benefit. The curriculum must also aim to introducing a spirit of
internationalism in the cducand.
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educationists have insisted that it must be designed to satisfy the needs and requirements of
the educand. It is seen that one finds a great variety of interests, skills, abilities, attitudes,
aptitudes,' etc., among educands. A curriculum, should be so designed as satisfy the general
and specific requirements of the educands.
.
what is required for this is to create in the educand a faith in the various desirable values.
Hence, one of the objectives of education is to create in the educand a definite realization of
the prevailing system of values.
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environment suitable to the educand. Primarily the environment must assist the educand in
achieving the maximum possible development of his facilities, abilities and capabilities.
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Different educationists have expressed their own views about the fundamental
principles of curriculum construction, the difference being created by their different
philosophies of education. Briefly, the main principles of curriculum construction are the
following:
. Principle of utility. T.P. Nunn, the educationist, believes that the principles of
utility is the most important principle underlying the formation of a curriculum. He writes,
"While the plain man generally likes his children to pick up some scraps of useless learning
for purely decorative purpose, he requires, on the whole, that they shall be taught what will
be useful to them in later life, and he is inclined to give 'useful' a raher strict interpretation."
As a general rule, parents are in favour of including all those subjects in the curriculum
which are likely to prose useful for their child in his life, and by means of which he can be
fade a responsible member of society.
.Principle of Training in the proper patterns of conduct. According to Crow and
frow, the main principle underlying the construction of a curriculum is that, through
education the educand should be able to adopt the patterns of behaviour proper to different
circumstances. Man is a social animal who has to constantly adapt himself to the social
environment. Therefore, education must aim at developing all these qualities in the educand
which will facilitate this adaptation to the social milieu. The child is by nature self-centred,
but education must tech him to attend the needs and requirements of others besides himself.
One criterion of an educated individual is that he should be able to adapt himself to different
situations with which he is comforted. In his context, the term conduct must be understood in
its widest sense. Only then can this principle of curriculum construction be properly
understood. "All our activities in social, economic, family and cultural environment
constitute behaviour or conduct, and it is the function of education of teach us how he
behaves in different situation."
. Principle of Synthesis of play and work. Of the various modern techniques of eduction,
some try to educate through work and others through play. But a great majority of
educationists agree that the curriculum should aim at achieving a balance between play and
work. In other words, the work given to the educand should be performed in such a manner
that the child may believe it to be play. There is a difference between work and play. That is
why, parents want to engage the child in work instead of allowing him to play all the time, but
the child is naturally inclined to spend his time in playing. Keeping this in view, T.P. Nunn
has written, "The school should be thought* of not as a knowledge-monger's shop, but a place
where the young a-e disciplined in certain forms of activity. All subjects should be laugh; in
the 'play way' care being taken that the 'way' leads continuously from the irresponsible frolic
of childhood to the disciplined labours of manhood."
.Principle of Synthesis of all activities of life. In framing a curriculum, attention
should be paid to the inclusion, in it, of all1 the various activities of life, such as contemplation,
learning, acquisition of various kinds of skill, etc. In the individual and social sphere of life,
every individual has to perform a great variety of activities, and this success in life is
determined by the success of all these activities. 'Hence, the curriculum should not neglect any
form of activity related to any aspect of life. A curriculum constructed on this basis will be both
comprehensive and closely related to life. In other words, it should include all the activities
that educand is likely to require in later life.
. Principle of individual differences. Modern educational psychology has brought to
light, and stressed the significance of individual differences that exist between one individual
and another. It has been discovered that people differ in respect of theft mental processes,
interests, aptitudes, attitudes, abilities, skills, etc., and these differences are innate. All modern
education is paid centric that is, it is centred around the 'child. Psychologists insist that the
curriculum should be so designed as to provide an opportunity for complete and
comprehensive development to widely differing individuals. One of the basic qualities of such a
curriculum is flexibility; for it must be flexible, in order to accommodate, educands of low,
verage or high intelligence and ability, and to provide each one a chance to develop all his the
greatest possible extent.
. Principle of Constant development. Another basis for curriculum construction is the
principle o a dynamic curriculum, based on the realization that no curriculum can prove adequate
for all times and in all Places. For this reason, the should be flexible and changeable. This is all the
more true in the modern context when new discoveries in the various branches of science are
taking place everyday. Hance, it becomes necessary to reshape the curriculum fairly, frequently in
order to incorporate the latest development.
.Principle of Creative training. Another important principle of curriculum construction is
that of creative training. Raymont has correctly stated that a curricuhm appropriate for the
needs of today and the future must definitely have a positive bias towards creative subjects.
And, one of the aim of education is to develop the creative faculty of the educand. All that is
finest in human culture is the creation of man's creative abilities. Children differ from other
in respect of this ability. Hence, in franking a curriculum, attention must be paid to the fact
that it should encourage each educand to develop his creative ability as far as is possible.
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construction. The innate complexity make it necessary that the .curriculum should be valid,
because no one kind of curriculum can develop all to facilities of an individual. Hence, at
every level the curriculum rust have variety, it will, on the one hand, provide an opportunity
development of the different faculties of the educand, while on the other, it will retain his
interest in education.
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education is training fr leisure, because it is believed that education is not merely for
employment or work. Hence, it is desirable that the curriculum should also include a training
in those activities which will make the individual's leisure more pleasurable. A great variety
of social, artic and sporting activities can be included in this kind of training., Brides,
educands should be encouraged to foster some of the other Bsides, so that they can put their
leisure to constructive and pleasant use.
Principle of Related to community life. Curriculum can also be based on the principle that
school and community life must be intimately related to each there. One cannot forget that
the school is only a miniature form of immunity. Hence, the school curriculum should
include all those activate which are performed by members of larger community outside the'
boundaries of the school. This will help in evolving social qualities e>the individual, in
developing the social aspect of his personal band finally, in helping his final adaptation to
the social environs & into which he must ultimately go.
Principle of Evolution of democratic values. The construction of a curriculum in a
democratic society is conditioned by the need to develop omocratic qualities in the
individual. The curriculum should be, so dogged that it develops a democratic feeling and
creates a positive h in democratic values. The progrmmes devise in the college qualities the
educand so that he may be able to participate usefully and successfully in democratic life. In
all the democratic societies of the wool this is the chief consideration in shaping the curricula
for primary, secondary and higher education.
It is evident from the foregoing account of the various liaises of curriculum
construction that this should be duly conditioned by careful thinking on all aspects individual
and social life variety, play and work, earning of livelihood, leisure, etc.
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
Curriculum development means a continuous or: never ending process. Its outcome is
known through students' achievement of learning. Its assessment is made on the basis of
change of behavior of the learners
In curriculum development, the main focus of the curriculum is to develop the students. the
curriculum is designed to realize the objective in terms of change of their behaviour.
providing learning experiences. The content is the means to select the method of teaching
and level of the pupils. ;
3. Process of Evaluation. The evaluation of change of behavior is made to ascertain
about the realization of the teacher learning objectives. The level of pupils performance
indicates the effectiveness of method of teaching and learning experiences
4. c The interpretation of performance provides the teacher to improve and modify
the form of the curriculum. The curriculum is developed and teaching objectives are also
revised. The methodology of teaching is changed in view of the objectives to be achieved.
Bases of Development of Curriculum
The development of curriculum is the commitment for realizing desired objectives of
education. The objectives arc based on various considerations and factors. The same
considerations are equally important in planning or deciding the basic structure of
curriculum. The following are the bases of transaction of curriculum:
1. Social philosophy of the society.
2. National needs or State needs.
3. Nature of course of study.
4. Type of examination system.
5. Form of the government.
6. Theory and assumptions of human organization.
7. Growth and development stage of students.
8. Recommendations of national commissions and committee of education.
The above basis of curriculum management and educational objectives are theoretical
and practical. The last basis is more practical in transaction of curriculum.
Objectives of Curriculum Development
-Curriculum should provide the means for the all round develop of a child. Teaching
should be organized with the help of curriculum
. Curriculum must involve the human experiences, culture and, civilization which are to be
transferred to new generation.
. Curriculum should be the means to develop the moral character, dicipline honesty,
cooperation, friendship, tolerance and sympathy with others.
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. Curriculum should help in developing the ability of thinking, wisdom casoning, judgement
and other mental abilities.
. It should consider the stages of growth and development of child for development attitude,
interest, values and creative ability.
. It should provide the awareness and understanding of physical and social environment and
its components.
. It should develop the right type of feeling and beliefs towards religions, new values and
traditions.
. It should help to develop democratic feeling ad democratic way of life among students.
. It should integrate the knowledge of various teaching subjects in view of their future life.
. It should determine the mode of interaction between teacher and students in school: The
mode of teaching is decidedly the nature of curriculum
Components of Curriculum Development
There at three components of educational process i.e. teacher, students and curriculum. It
'has three types of objectives, cognitive, affective and psychomotor. Educational process
involves three major activities teaching, training and instruction
According to B.S. Bloom, it is a tripolar process (1) Educational process, (2) Learning
experiences and (3) Change of behavior. It is also a triangular process, shown in the
following diagram.
The teaching process is done through interaction between teacher and students\. The
In the curriculum development, the level of students, needs of the society and nation,
the nature of content and means of voicing learning experiences are considered as important
factors, "use are essential in identifying the objectives of teaching-learning. Several types of
teaching objectives are attained by the same content.. Teaching is organized from memory to
refelctive level on the same content of subject-matter.
The specific or behavioral objective are realized by organizing specific teaching task and
activities. Thus curriculum development involves from basic elements.
(1) Objectives
(2) Content
(3) Method or strategies of teaching, and
(4) Evaluation. These elements are interdependent.
.The
Objective. The subjects content structure, levels of students, and type of examination
components are considered in the identification of objectives of teaching and learning. These
objectives are specific. These are vritten in behavioural terms so as to develop learning
structures aid conditions.
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analysed into sub-content and into elements. These elements anarragncd in a logical
sequence. The behavioural objectives are written with the help of these elements of the
Strategy of teaching. Specific objectives of teaching are attained with the elp of
appropriate teaching strategy. The behavioral objectives rovide the awareness and insight
about the specific learning conditions the strategy is employed for providing learning
experiences and bringig desirable behavioral change.
. Evaluation. The level of student's attainment is evaluated by employ the criteria referenced
test. It shows the effectiveness of strategy of teaching and other components. The
interpretation of evaluation provide he feedback to the curriculum and its components. These
are improved and modified to attain the objectives of teaching and learning It is the
empirical basis for the curriculum development.
. The difference between curriculum transaction and curriculum development has been
summarized in the following table:
Transaction V/s Development of Curriculum
1.
2.
3.
Curriculum Transaction
It is a broad concept and area of
curriculum.
Management of curriculum is done at
initial stage of introduction of new
courses at school stages and higher
levels.
Management of curriculum
employs the following steps:
(i) Planning,
(ii) Organizing,
(iii) Administering,
(iv) Guiding and,
(v) Controlling.
4.
5.
6.
1.
2.
3.
Curriculum Development
It is a specific and narrow concept of
curriculum.
Curriculum development is a cyclic
process use for improving and
modifying the courses at particular
state of level.
It is a cyclic process using
the following four steps:
(i) 'Objectives,
(ii) Instructional. methods,
(iii) Evaluation method,
(iv) Feedback.
It is used for spcific course for specific
stage. Relatively it is an easy
andiimple task.
MODELS OF CURRICULUM
Curriculum models are just as instructional designs. They bring competency in
educational process and teaching-learning. They are he best ways to proceed in formulating
theories of teaching taming, instruction should begin with what is known about leaning and
instruction. Teaching models are the basis of teaching theories. The curriculum models are
very useful for teachers for planning and agenizing educational process. They can use
models in the traction of curriculum preparing an outline for guiding students' activity and
developing instructional procedure for realizing objectives. Curriculum models are very
close to models of teaching.
HILDA TABA MODEL OF CURRICULUM
Hilda Taba developed Inductive Teaching Model which backbone to social studies
curriculum.
(i) Focus. Its main focus is to develop the mental abilities and lay emphasis upon concept
formation. It involves cognitive tasks in concept formation.
(ii) Syntax. The teaching is organized in nine phases. The first three phases are concerned
with the concept formation involving enumeration, grouping and labeling categories. The
second three phases are related to the interpretation of data by identifying relationship,
explaining relationship and drawing inferences. The last three .phases arc concerned with an
application of principles by hypothesizing, explaining and verifying the hypothesis.
(iii) Social System. In the all nine phases, the classroom climate is conducive to learning and
cooperative. A good deal of freedom should be given for pupil-activities. The teacher is
usually the controller and initiator of information. Teaching activities arc arranged in a
logical sequence in advance.
(iv) Support System. The teacher should help the students in dealing with the more
complex data and information. He should encourage them in processing the data,
basically designed to develop thinking capacity. A particular mental and cognitive task
requires specific strategy to improve thinking.
(v) Classroom Application. Taba designed his model to create inductive thinking among
learners. It helps to organize social studies curriculum so that cognitive process may be
facilitated. The learning experiences are the basis of information to arrange the content in an
effective sequence. The first three phases arc useful in dealing with elementary classes,
while the last three phases are useful for higher classes especially for science and language
curriculum.
(vi) Evaluation. Hilda Taba has developed teaching model as well as curriculum model. His
curriculum model is based on the evaluation concept.
Step 4. The utility of the curriculum is evaluated on the basis of changes of behavior .'These
are evidences for realizing the education objectives. The examination system is objectivescentred. It is both qualitative and quantitative. An attempt is made to assess the total change
of behavior.
Stages of Curriculum Development
Stage 1. Deciding the kinds of evaluation data needed.
Stage 2. Selecting or constructing the needed instruments and procedure.
Stage 3. Analysing and interpreting the data to develop the hypothesis regarding needed
change.
Stage 4. Converting hypothesis into action.
Hilda Taba curriculum model is based on the evaluation approach of B.S.Bloom designed
for examination reform. E.vidences collected in different stages are used to diagnose the
weaknesses of T curriculum . These evidences are further used for formulating hypothesis.
The structure of the curriculum is mollified on the basis ol verification of the hypothesis.
Thus, an empirical approach is used for the curriculum development. The hypothesis indicate
the type of modification needed in curriculum development.
The above steps and stages are used in sequences. This model of curriculum is highly
empirical. The modification is done on the basis of evidences.
ADMINISTRATIVE MODEL OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
Management refers to conscious preference from variety of alternative plus proposals
and further the more that such choices involve purpose full commitment to recognize and
derive objectives. Management employs strategies to achieve the objectives.
It indicates the various activities performed under the development of curriculum:
1. Planning a Curriculum.
2.Formulating Educational Objectives.
3. Organizing the Tasks.
4. Employing Strategies and Techniques.
5. Selecting and Appointing Workers.
6. Executing and Coordinating among workers.
After the system analysis, the investigator attempts to design and tentative solution of
the problem. A new solution of the problem is subjected to testing. A tentative solution and
retesting the tentative solution continues until an analyst reaches to an optimal solution.
Once optimal solution is obtained, the analyst departs that loop.
Evaluation
The formal evaluation of the new solution is made for checking out its workability. It
involves implementation of tentative solution in some .aspect of the system. The analyst
proceeds through the same steps of loop as mentioned earlier. It is advisable to evaluate all
new system solutions in small scale of the required operations.
System Operations
The new design has been implemented within the system for formal evaluation and
acceptance for the solution of the problem. It involves two aspects:
1.
2.
Economics, Psychology, Sociology, Physical education, Art, and Drawing etc. The structure
of content of these subjects is determined for the curriculum development.
2. Experiences. The curriculum provides the following type of experiences to the students,
social, historical, geographical (time and place sense), physical, political, civics senses,
religious, spiritual and reactive experiences, expression of ideas facts and events.
3. Skills. Curriculum provides the situations for developing skills or psychomotor activeslanguages reading, writing, speaking, observations, perception, use of different type,
instrument in the workshops and field works, communications skills, craft work, and verbal
and non-verbal communication skills. It is related to psychomotor objectives.
4. Attitude and Values. Curriculum provides the experiences for developing affective domain
of the learners. The feeling, beliefs, attitudes and values are developed. It develops selfconfidence, honesty, sensitivity sincerity, morality, objectivity, character and adjustment.
Related to cognitive, affective and pshcyomotor domains, the factors are given due
weightage in good curriculum.
Interpretation of Evaluation Results
Evaluation results are interpreted in various ways from different said prints and for different
purposes such as guidance, performance .etc.
Critical Appraisal of Existing Syllabus
The concept of curriculum is very wide and extensive. It includes all those
experiences which a student gets in the aegis of the school. It includes all educational and
co-curricular activities inside and outside the classroom. The curriculum can be understood
in the form of activity and experience.
The term 'syllabus' is often used in the sense of the term 'curriculum'. In fact, the
matter for an intellectual subject is called content. When this content is organised in view of
teaching in the classroom, this is called syllabus.
Thus, the syllabus presents the definite know ledge regarding the amount of
knowledge to be given to students during the course of teaching of different subjects; while
the curriculum demolish which educational activities, the teacher would complete the needs
of the syllabus. In other words, the syllabus determines the content to teaching, while the
curriculum determines the methods of teaching for imparting it.
Teaching can be made more effective if a science teacher is fully satisfied with the
curriculum which he has to teach. Also, he should know its utility. It can be possible only
when he studies the prevalent syllabus critically. It should be fully clear to him that each
subject has certain specific aims which students have to achieve. A teacher should examine
these aims and how they can be achieved on the basis of the present syllabus.
From this view, the prevalent syllabus can be placed under the following bases for its
critical study :
1. Syllabus in Relation to Objectives : The syllabus is a means to attain the
objectives. If aims and means are not in consonance, then the desirable outcomes would only
be a pipedream. The utility of the syllabus depends on the fact whether the topics included in
it are helpful in the realization of the concerned teaching objectives. In this context, it would
be necessary to evaluate the syllabus. The following table can be used
Cognitive
Domain
Theoretical
topics
Practical
topics
Affective
Domain
Psychomotor
Domain
2
3
4
1
2
2
3
4
Topic (2)
Topic (3)
Topic (4)
Topic (5)
conducted, then the three-point rating scale should be used, and if more intensive study has
to be carried out, then five-point rating scale should be desirable.
Theoretical
Sl.N. Five-point Rating
Scale
Topics
1.
Most comprehensive
2
Very comprehensive
3.
Comprehensive
4.
Less comprehensive
5.
Not comprehensive
Practical
Topics
Data in the above table can be given numerical value in order to calculate
comprehensiveness of the syllabus, (for it, all tallies of most comprehensive should be
multiplied by 5, very comprehensive by 4, comprehensive by 3, less comprehensive by 2 and
not comprehensive by 1, and thus calculate relative comprehensiveness.
4. Theoretical, Practical or Both : Both theoretical and practical aspects of science are
equally important. If the syllabus is only theoretical, it would make the syllabus bookish and
abstract. Due to this, the content in different topics would have to be analysed to see how
much theoretical aspect it contains and what practical possibilities exist in it. This can be
analysed objectively as follows :
SI.N. Topic
1.
2
3.
4.
5.
Theoretical Content
(%)
Total
Percentage
is determined on the basis of its importance in the examinations. The amount of emphasis of
a topic varies with the value of the topic from examination viewpoint for both teachers and
students. It has influenced to such extent that the number of marks allotted for each topic are
given in the syllabus itself. The analysis of examination effect can be done by the following
table :
SI.N. Topic
1.
2.
3.
4.
Number of Questions in
Question Paper
Score
5.
6. Child-centered : The syllabus should not only be meant for common students, but
it should have due provisions for talented and backward students also. The syllabus should
be analyzed from this viewpoint also.
The focal point of the syllabus should be the student. The syllabus should be selected
keeping in view the age, previous knowledge, interest, aptitude, needs etc. of students. It
should be found out the importance given to these factors in the syllabus. It would only the
be possible to evaluate its utility for students.
7. Correlation : Because a student attains knowledge as a whole unit, so the
importance of science being related with other subjects, its influence or. other subjects and
influence of other subjects on it cannot be ignored. Therefore, it should be known whether
the form of syllabus is partial or not, which can be done on the basis of the following table :
Sl.N. Topic
1.
2
3.
4.
5.
Subjects of
Unilateral
Correlation
Subjects of
Collateral
Correlation
Subjects of
Multilateral
Correlation
8. For Future Education : The syllabuses for the secondary level and higher
education should be inter-connected, so that continuity of knowledge can be maintained. The
syllabus should be analysed on this basis by which it can be ascertained which topics can
form the basis for future higher education, so that the capability of the syllabus in view of its .
can be evaluated
REFERANCES
: Heineman. Tyler, R. W. (1949) Basic principles of curriculum and instruction. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press.