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Incandescentlightbulb
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Anincandescentlightbulb,incandescentlamporincandescentlightglobeis
anelectriclightwithawirelamentheatedtosuchahightemperaturethatit
glowswithvisiblelight(incandescence).Thelament,heatedbypassingan
electriccurrentthroughit,isprotectedfromoxidaonwithaglassorquartz
bulbthatislledwithinertgasorevacuated.Inahalogenlamp,lament
evaporaonispreventedbyachemicalprocessthatredepositsmetalvapor
ontothelament,extendingitslife.Thelightbulbissuppliedwithelectric
currentbyfeedthroughterminalsorwiresembeddedintheglass.Mostbulbs
areusedinasocketwhichprovidesmechanicalsupportandelectrical
connecons.
Incandescentbulbsaremanufacturedinawiderangeofsizes,lightoutput,and
voltagerangs,from1.5voltstoabout300volts.Theyrequirenoexternal
regulangequipment,havelowmanufacturingcosts,andworkequallywellon
eitheralternangcurrentordirectcurrent.Asaresult,theincandescentlamp
iswidelyusedinhouseholdandcommerciallighng,forportablelighngsuch
astablelamps,carheadlamps,andashlights,andfordecoraveand
adversinglighng.

A230voltincandescent
lightbulb,witha'medium'
sizedE27(Edison27mm)
malescrewbase.The
lamentisvisibleasthe
horizontallinebetweenthe
vercalsupplywires.

Incandescentbulbsaremuchlessecientthanmostothertypesofelectric
lighng;incandescentbulbsconvertlessthan5%oftheenergytheyuseinto
visiblelight,[1]withstandardlightbulbsaveragingabout2.2%.[2]Theremaining
energyisconvertedintoheat.Theluminousecacyofatypicalincandescent
bulbis16lumensperwa,comparedwith60lm/Wforacompact
uorescentbulbor150lm/WforsomewhiteLEDlamps.[3]Some
applicaonsoftheincandescentbulbdeliberatelyusetheheat
generatedbythelament.Suchapplicaonsincludeincubators,
broodingboxesforpoultry,[4]heatlightsforrepletanks,[5]infrared
heangforindustrialheanganddryingprocesses,lavalamps,andthe
EasyBakeOventoy.Incandescentbulbstypicallyhaveshortlifemes
comparedwithothertypesoflighng;around1,000hoursforhome
lightbulbsversustypically10,000hoursforcompactuorescentsand
30,000hoursforlighngLEDs.
SEMimageofatungstenlamentof
incandescentlightbulb.

Incandescentbulbshavebeenreplacedinmanyapplicaonsbyother
typesofelectriclight,suchasuorescentlamps,compactuorescent
lamps(CFL),coldcathodeuorescentlamps(CCFL),highintensitydischargelamps,andlightemingdiode
lamps(LED).Somejurisdicons,suchastheEuropeanUnion,China,CanadaandUnitedStates,areinthe
processofphasingouttheuseofincandescentlightbulbswhileothers,includingColombia,[6]Mexico,Cuba,
Argenna,BrazilandAustralia,[7]haveprohibitedthemalready.

Contents
1 History
1.1 Earlyprecommercialresearch
1.2 Commercializaon
1.2.1 Dominanceofcarbonlamentandvacuum
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1.2.1 Dominanceofcarbonlamentandvacuum
1.2.2 Revoluonoftungstenlamentandinertgas
2 Ecacy,eciency,andenvironmentalimpact
2.1 Costoflighng
2.2 Measurestobanuse
2.3 Eortstoimproveeciency
3 Construcon
3.1 Gasll
4 Manufacturing
5 Filament
5.1 Coiledcoillament
5.2 Reducinglamentevaporaon
5.3 Bulbblackening
5.4 Halogenlamps
5.5 Incandescentarclamps
6 Electricalcharacteriscs
6.1 Power
6.2 Currentandresistance
7 Physicalcharacteriscs
7.1 Bulbshapes
7.1.1 Examples
7.2 Lampbases
8 Lightoutputandlifeme
9 Seealso
10 References
11 Externallinks

History
Inaddressingthequesonofwhoinventedtheincandescentlamp,historiansRobertFriedelandPaulIsrael[8]
list22inventorsofincandescentlampspriortoJosephSwanandThomasEdison.TheyconcludethatEdison's
versionwasabletooutstriptheothersbecauseofacombinaonofthreefactors:aneecveincandescent
material,ahighervacuumthanotherswereabletoachieve(byuseoftheSprengelpump)andahigh
resistancethatmadepowerdistribuonfromacentralizedsourceeconomicallyviable.
HistorianThomasHugheshasaributedEdison'ssuccesstohisdevelopmentofanenre,integratedsystemof
electriclighng.
Thelampwasasmallcomponentinhissystemofelectriclighng,andnomorecricaltoits
eecvefunconingthantheEdisonJumbogenerator,theEdisonmainandfeeder,andthe
paralleldistribuonsystem.Otherinventorswithgeneratorsandincandescentlamps,andwith
comparableingenuityandexcellence,havelongbeenforgoenbecausetheircreatorsdidnot
presideovertheirintroduconinasystemoflighng.
ThomasP.Hughes,InTechnologyattheTurningPoint,editedbyW.B.Picke[9][10]
Timelineoftheearlyevoluonofthelightbulb[11]

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Earlyprecommercialresearch
In1761EbenezerKinnersleydemonstratedheangawireto
incandescence.[12]
In1802,HumphryDavyusedwhathedescribedas"abaeryofimmense
size",[13]consisngof2,000cellshousedinthebasementoftheRoyal
InstuonofGreatBritain,[14]tocreateanincandescentlightbypassingthe
currentthroughathinstripofplanum,chosenbecausethemetalhadan
extremelyhighmelngpoint.Itwasnotbrightenoughnordiditlastlong
enoughtobepraccal,butitwastheprecedentbehindtheeortsofscoresof
experimentersoverthenext75years.[15]
Overtherstthreequartersofthe19thcenturymanyexperimentersworked
withvariouscombinaonsofplanumoriridiumwires,carbonrods,and
evacuatedorsemievacuatedenclosures.Manyofthesedeviceswere
demonstratedandsomewerepatented.[16]

Originalcarbonlament
bulbfromThomasEdison's
shopinMenloPark

In1835,JamesBowmanLindsaydemonstratedaconstantelectriclightata
publicmeenginDundee,Scotland.Hestatedthathecould"readabookata
distanceofoneandahalffeet".However,havingperfectedthedevicetohisownsasfacon,heturnedto
theproblemofwirelesstelegraphyanddidnotdeveloptheelectriclightanyfurther.Hisclaimsarenotwell
documented,althoughheiscreditedinChalloneretal.withbeingtheinventorofthe"IncandescentLight
Bulb".[17]

In1838aBelgianbythenameofJobardinventedanincandescentlightbulbwithavacuumatmosphereusing
acarbonlament.[18]
In1840,BrishscienstWarrendelaRueenclosedacoiledplanumlamentinavacuumtubeandpassedan
electriccurrentthroughit.Thedesignwasbasedontheconceptthatthehighmelngpointofplanum
wouldallowittooperateathightemperaturesandthattheevacuatedchamberwouldcontainfewergas
moleculestoreactwiththeplanum,improvingitslongevity.Althoughaworkabledesign,thecostofthe
planummadeitimpraccalforcommercialuse.
In1841,FrederickdeMoleynsofEnglandwasgrantedtherstpatentforanincandescentlamp,withadesign
usingplanumwirescontainedwithinavacuumbulb.Healsousedcarbon.[19][20]

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In1845,AmericanJohnW.Starracquiredapatentforhisincandescentlightbulbinvolvingtheuseofcarbon
laments.[21][22]Hediedshortlyaerobtainingthepatent,andhisinvenonwasneverproduced
commercially.Lileelseisknownabouthim.[23]
In1851,JeanEugneRobertHoudinpubliclydemonstratedincandescentlightbulbsonhisestateinBlois,
France.HislightbulbsareondisplayinthemuseumoftheChteaudeBlois.[24]
In1872,RussianAlexanderLodygininventedanincandescentlightbulbandobtainedaRussianpatentin
1874.Heusedasaburnertwocarbonrodsofdiminishedseconinaglassreceiver,hermecallysealed,and
lledwithnitrogen,electricallyarrangedsothatthecurrentcouldbepassedtothesecondcarbonwhenthe
rsthadbeenconsumed.[25]LaterhelivedintheUS,changedhisnametoAlexanderdeLodyguineand
appliedandobtainedpatentsforincandescentlampshavingchromium,iridium,rhodium,ruthenium,
osmium,molybdenumandtungstenlaments,[26]andabulbusingamolybdenumlamentwas
demonstratedattheworldfairof1900inParis.[27]
HeinrichGbelin1893claimedhehaddesignedtherstincandescentlightbulbin1854,withathin
carbonizedbamboolamentofhighresistance,planumleadinwiresinanallglassenvelope,andahigh
vacuum.JudgesoffourcourtsraiseddoubtsabouttheallegedGbelancipaon,buttherewasnevera
decisioninanalhearingduetotheexpirydateofEdison'spatent.Aresearchworkpublished2007
concludedthatthestoryoftheGbellampsinthe1850sisalegend.[28]
On24July1874,aCanadianpatentwasledbyHenryWoodwardandMathewEvansforalampconsisngof
carbonrodsmountedinanitrogenlledglasscylinder.Theywereunsuccessfulatcommercializingtheirlamp,
andsoldrightstotheirpatent(U.S.Patent0,181,613(hps://www.google.com/patents/US181613))to
ThomasEdisonin1879.[29][30]

Commercializaon
Dominanceofcarbonlamentandvacuum

Carbonlamentlamps,showing
darkeningofbulb

JosephSwan(18281914)wasaBrish
physicistandchemist.In1850,hebegan
workingwithcarbonizedpaper
lamentsinanevacuatedglassbulb.By
1860,hewasabletodemonstratea
workingdevicebutthelackofagood
vacuumandanadequatesupplyof
electricityresultedinashortlifemefor
thebulbandaninecientsourceof
light.Bythemid1870sbeerpumps
becameavailable,andSwanreturnedto
hisexperiments.

WiththehelpofCharlesStearn,an
SirJosephWilsonSwan
expertonvacuumpumps,in1878,
Swandevelopedamethodofprocessingthatavoidedtheearlybulb
blackening.ThisreceivedaBrishPatentin1880.[31]On18December1878,alampusingaslendercarbonrod
wasshownatameengoftheNewcastleChemicalSociety,andSwangaveaworkingdemonstraonattheir
meengon17January1879.Itwasalsoshownto700whoaendedameengoftheLiteraryand
PhilosophicalSocietyofNewcastleuponTyneon3February1879.[32]Theselampsusedacarbonrodfroman
arclampratherthanaslenderlament.Thustheyhadlowresistanceandrequiredverylargeconductorsto
supplythenecessarycurrent,sotheywerenotcommerciallypraccal,althoughtheydidfurnisha
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demonstraonofthepossibiliesofincandescentlighngwithrelavelyhighvacuum,acarbonconductor,
andplanumleadinwires.Thisbulblastedabout40hours.[33]Swanthenturnedhisaenontoproducinga
beercarbonlamentandthemeansofaachingitsends.Hedevisedamethodoftreangcoonto
produce'parchmensedthread'intheearly1880sandobtainedBrishPatent4933thatsameyear.[31]From
thisyearhebeganinstallinglightbulbsinhomesandlandmarksinEngland.Hishouse,Underhill,LowFell,
Gateshead,wastherstintheworldtobelitbyalightbulbandalsothersthouseintheworldtobelitby
hydroelectricpower.In1878thehomeofLordArmstrongatCragsidewasalsoamongthersthousestobelit
byelectricity.Intheearly1880shehadstartedhiscompany.[34]In1881,theSavoyTheatreintheCityof
Westminster,LondonwaslitbySwanincandescentlightbulbs,whichwasthersttheatre,andtherstpublic
buildingintheworld,tobelitenrelybyelectricity.[35]
ThomasEdisonbeganseriousresearch
intodevelopingapraccalincandescent
lampin1878.Edisonledhisrst
patentapplicaonfor"ImprovementIn

Edisoncarbonlamentlamps,early
1880s

ElectricLights"on14October1878.[36]
Aermanyexperiments,rstwith
carbonintheearly1880sandthenwith
planumandothermetals,intheend
Edisonreturnedtoacarbon
lament.[37]Therstsuccessfultestwas

on22October1879,[38][39]andlasted13.5hours.Edisonconnuedtoimprove
thisdesignandby4November1879,ledforaUSpatentforanelectriclamp
using"acarbonlamentorstripcoiledandconnected...toplanacontact
wires."[40]Althoughthepatentdescribedseveralwaysofcreangthecarbon
lamentincludingusing"coonandlinenthread,woodsplints,paperscoiled

ThomasAlvaEdison

invariousways,"[40]Edisonandhisteamlaterdiscoveredthatacarbonizedbamboolamentcouldlastmore
than1200hours.[41]In1880,theOregonRailroadandNavigaonCompanysteamer,Columbia,becamethe
rstapplicaonforEdison'sincandescentelectriclamps(itwasalsotherstshiptouseadynamo).[42][43][44]
AlbonMan,aNewYorklawyer,startedElectroDynamicLightCompanyin1878toexploithispatentsand
thoseofWilliamSawyer.[45][46]WeekslatertheUnitedStatesElectricLighngCompanywas
organized.[45][46][47]Thiscompanydidn'tmaketheirrstcommercialinstallaonofincandescentlampsunl
thefallof1880attheMercanleSafeDepositCompanyinNewYorkCity,aboutsixmonthsaertheEdison
incandescentlampshadbeeninstalledontheColumbia.HiramS.MaximwasthechiefengineerattheUnited
StatesElectricLighngCompany.[48]
LewisLamer,employedatthemebyEdison,developedanimprovedmethodofheattreangcarbon
lamentswhichreducedbreakageandallowedthemtobemoldedintonovelshapes,suchasthe
characterisc"M"shapeofMaximlaments.On17January1882,Lamerreceivedapatentforthe"Process
ofManufacturingCarbons",animprovedmethodfortheproduconoflightbulblaments,whichwas
purchasedbytheUnitedStatesElectricLightCompany.[49]Lamerpatentedotherimprovementssuchasa
beerwayofaachinglamentstotheirwiresupports.[50]
InBritain,theEdisonandSwancompaniesmergedintotheEdisonandSwanUnitedElectricCompany(later
knownasEdiswan,andulmatelyincorporatedintoThornLighngLtd).Edisonwasiniallyagainstthis
combinaon,butaerSwansuedhimandwon,Edisonwaseventuallyforcedtocooperate,andthemerger
wasmade.Eventually,EdisonacquiredallofSwan'sinterestinthecompany.SwansoldhisUSpatentrightsto
theBrushElectricCompanyinJune1882.

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TheUnitedStatesPatentOcegavearuling8October1883,thatEdison'spatents
werebasedonthepriorartofWilliamSawyerandwereinvalid.Ligaonconnued
foranumberofyears.Eventuallyon6October1889,ajudgeruledthatEdison's
electriclightimprovementclaimfor"alamentofcarbonofhighresistance"was
valid.[51]
In1897,GermanphysicistandchemistWaltherNernstdevelopedtheNernstlamp,
aformofincandescentlampthatusedaceramicglobaranddidnotrequire
enclosureinavacuumorinertgas.[52][53]Twiceasecientascarbonlament
lamps,Nernstlampswerebrieypopularunlovertakenbylampsusingmetal
laments.
U.S.Patent0,223,898
(hps://www.google.c
om/patents/US22389
8)byThomasEdison
foranimproved
electriclamp,27
January1880

Revoluonoftungstenlamentandinertgas

On13December1904,HungarianSndorJustand
CroaanFranjoHanamanweregrantedaHungarian
patent(No.34541)foratungstenlamentlampthat
lastedlongerandgavebrighterlightthanthecarbon
lament.Tungstenlamentlampswererst
marketedbytheHungariancompanyTungsramin
1904.ThistypeisoencalledTungsrambulbsin
manyEuropeancountries.[54]Fillingabulbwithaninertgassuchasargonor
nitrogenretardstheevaporaonofthetungstenlamentcomparedto
operangitinavacuum.Thisallowsforgreatertemperaturesandtherefore
greaterecacywithlessreduconinlamentlife.[55]
In1906,theGeneralElectricCompanypatentedamethodofmakinglaments
fromsinteredtungstenandin1911,usedducletungstenwirefor
incandescentlightbulbs.
In1913,IrvingLangmuirfoundthatllingalampwithinertgasinsteadofa
vacuumresultedintwicetheluminousecacyandreduconofbulb
blackening.In1924,MarvinPipkin,anAmericanchemist,patentedaprocess
forfrosngtheinsideoflampbulbswithoutweakeningthem,andin1947,he
patentedaprocessforcoangtheinsideoflampswithsilica.

Hanaman(le)andDr.Just
(right),theinventorsofthe
tungstenbulbs

Between1924andtheoutbreakoftheSecondWorldWar,thePhoebuscartelaemptedtoxpricesand
salesquotasforbulbmanufacturersoutsideofNorthAmerica.
In1930,HungarianImreBrdylledlampswithkryptongasratherthanargon,anddesignedaprocessto
obtainkryptonfromair.ProduconofkryptonlledlampsbasedonhisinvenonstartedatAjkain1937,ina
factorycodesignedbyPolnyiandHungarianbornphysicistEgonOrowan.[56]
By1964,improvementsineciencyandproduconofincandescentlampshadreducedthecostofproviding
agivenquantyoflightbyafactorofthirty,comparedwiththecostatintroduconofEdison'slighng
system.[57]
ConsumponofincandescentlightbulbsgrewrapidlyintheUS.In1885,anesmated300,000general
lighngservicelampsweresold,allwithcarbonlaments.Whentungstenlamentswereintroduced,about
50millionlampsocketsexistedintheUS.In1914,88.5millionlampswereused,(only15%withcarbon
laments),andby1945,annualsalesoflampswere795million(morethan5lampsperpersonperyear).[58]

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Ofthepowerconsumedbytypicalincandescentlightbulbs,95%ormoreis
convertedintoheatratherthanvisiblelight.[1]Otherelectricallightsourcesare
moreeecve.
Luminousecacyofalightsourcemaybedenedintwoways.Theradiant
luminousecacy(LER)istheraoofthevisiblelightuxemied(the
luminousux)tothetotalpowerradiatedoverallwavelengths.Thesource
luminousecacy(LES)istheraoofthevisiblelightuxemied(theluminous
ux)tothetotalpowerinputtothesource,suchasalamp.[59]Visiblelightis
measuredinlumens,aunitwhichisdenedinpartbythedieringsensivity
ofthehumaneyetodierentwavelengthsoflight.Notallwavelengthsof
visibleelectromagnecenergyareequallyeecveatsmulangthehuman
eye;theluminousecacyofradiantenergy(LER)isameasureofhowwellthe
distribuonofenergymatchestheperceponoftheeye.Theunitsof
luminousecacyare"lumensperwa"(lpw).ThemaximumLERpossibleis
683lm/Wformonochromacgreenlightat555nanometerswavelength,the
peaksensivityofthehumaneye.
Theluminouseciencyisdenedastheraooftheluminousecacytothe
theorecalmaximumluminousecacyof683lpw,and,asforluminous
ecacy,isoftwotypes,radiantluminouseciency(LFR)andsourceluminous
ecacy(LFS).
Thechartbelowlistsvaluesofoverallluminousecacyandeciencyfor
severaltypesofgeneralservice,120volt,1000hourlifespanincandescent
bulb,andseveralidealizedlightsources.Thevaluesfortheincandescentbulbsare
sourceecienciesandecacies.Thevaluesfortheidealsourcesareradiant
ecienciesandecacies.Asimilarchartinthearcleonluminousecacy
comparesabroaderarrayoflightsourcestooneanother.
Type

Overall
luminous
eciency

Hungarianadversingofthe
Tungsrambulbfrom1906.
Thiswastherstlightbulb
thatusedalamentmade
fromtungsteninsteadof
carbon.Theinscripon
reads:wirelampwitha
drawnwireindestrucble.

Overallluminous
ecacy(lm/W)

40Wtungstenincandescent

1.9%

12.6[1]

60Wtungstenincandescent

2.1%

14.5[1]

100Wtungstenincandescent

2.6%

17.5[1]

glasshalogen

2.3%

16

quartzhalogen

3.5%

24

photographicandprojeconlampswithvery
highlamenttemperaturesandshortlifemes

5.1%

35[60]

idealblackbodyradiatorat4000K(oraclassK
starlikeArcturus)

7.0%

47.5

idealblackbodyradiatorat7000K(oraclassF
starlikeProcyon)

14%

95

idealmonochromac555nm(green)source

100%

683[61]

Xenonhalogenlamp
withanE27base,
whichcanreplacea
nonhalogenbulb

Thespectrumemiedbyablackbodyradiatorattemperaturesofincandescentbulbsdoesnotmatchthe
sensivitycharacteriscsofthehumaneye;thelightemieddoesnotappearwhite,andmostisnotinthe
rangeofwavelengthsatwhichtheeyeismostsensive.Tungstenlamentsradiatemostlyinfraredradiaon
attemperatureswheretheyremainsolidbelow3,695K(3,422C;6,191F).DonaldL.Klipsteinexplainsit
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thisway:"Anidealthermalradiatorproducesvisiblelightmostecientlyattemperaturesaround6,300C
(6,600K;11,400F).Evenatthishightemperature,alotoftheradiaoniseitherinfraredorultraviolet,and
thetheorecalluminousecacy(LER)is95lumensperwa."[60]Noknownmaterialcanbeusedasa
lamentatthisidealtemperature,whichishoerthanthesun'ssurface.Anupperlimitforincandescentlamp
luminousecacy(LER)isaround52lumensperwa,thetheorecalvalueemiedbytungstenatitsmelng
point.[57]
Althoughinecient,incandescentlightbulbshaveanadvantageinapplicaonswhereaccuratecolor
reproduconisimportant,sincetheconnuousblackbodyspectrumemiedfromanincandescentlightbulb
lamentyieldsnearperfectcolorrendion,withacolorrenderingindexof100(thebestpossible).[62]White
balancingissllrequiredtoavoidtoo"warm"or"cool"colors,butthisisasimpleprocessthatrequiresonly
thecolortemperatureinKelvinasinputformodern,digitalvisualreproduconequipmentsuchasvideoor
sllcamerasunlessitiscompletelyautomated.Thecolorrenderingperformanceofincandescentlights
cannotbematchedbyLEDsoruorescentlights,althoughtheycanoersasfactoryperformancefornon
cricalapplicaonssuchashomelighng.[63][64]Whitebalancingsuchlightsisthereforemorecomplicated,
requiringaddionaladjustmentstoreduceforexamplegreenmagentacolorcasts,andevenwhenproperly
whitebalanced,thecolorreproduconwillnotbeperfect.
Foragivenquantyoflight,anincandescentlightbulbproducesmore
heat(andthusconsumesmorepower)thanauorescentlamp.In
buildingswhereaircondioningisused,incandescentlamps'heat
outputincreasesloadontheaircondioningsystem.[65]Whileheat
fromlightswillreducetheneedforrunningabuilding'sheangsystem,
ingeneralaheangsystemcanprovidethesameamountofheatata
lowercostthanincandescentlights.
Halogenincandescentlampshavehigherecacy,whichwillallowa
halogenlighttouselesspowertoproducethesameamountoflight
comparedtoanonhalogenincandescentlight.Theexpectedlifespan
ofhalogenlightsisalsogenerallylongercomparedtononhalogen
incandescentlights,andhalogenlightsproduceamoreconstantlight

Thermalimageofanincandescent
bulb.71347F=22175C.

outputoverme,withoutmuchdimming.[66]
Therearemanynonincandescentlightsources,suchastheuorescent
lamp,highintensitydischargelampsandLEDlamps,whichhavehigher
luminouseciency,andsomehavebeendesignedtoberetroedin
xturesforincandescentlights.Thesedevicesproducelightby
luminescence.Theselampsproducediscretespectrallinesanddonot
havethebroad"tail"ofinvisibleinfraredemissions.Bycarefulselecon
ofwhichelectronenergyleveltransionsareused,anduorescent
coangswhichmodifythespectraldistribuon,thespectrumemied
canbetunedtomimictheappearanceofincandescentsources,or
otherdierentcolortemperaturesofwhitelight.Duetothediscrete
spectrallinesratherthanaconnuousspectrum,thelightisnotideal

Spectralpowerdistribuonofa25W
incandescentlightbulb.

forapplicaonssuchasphotographyandcinematography.[63][64]

Costoflighng
Theinialcostofanincandescentbulbissmallcomparedtothecostoftheenergyitusesoveritslifeme.
Incandescentbulbshaveashorterlifethanmostotherlighng,animportantfactorifreplacementis
inconvenientorexpensive.Sometypesoflamp,includingincandescentanduorescent,emitlesslightasthey
age;thismaybeaninconvenience,ormayreduceeecvelifemeduetolampreplacementbeforetotal
failure.Acomparisonofincandescentlampoperangcostwithotherlightsourcesmustincludeilluminaon
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requirements,costofthelampandlaborcosttoreplacelamps(takingintoaccounteecvelamplifeme),
costofelectricityused,eectoflampoperaononheangandaircondioningsystems.Whenusedfor
lighnginhousesandcommercialbuildings,theenergylosttoheatcansignicantlyincreasetheenergy
requiredbyabuilding'saircondioningsystem.Duringtheheangseasonheatproducedbythebulbsisnot
wasted,[67]althoughinmostcasesitismorecosteecvetoobtainheatfromtheheangsystem.Regardless,
overthecourseofayearamoreecientlighngsystemsavesenergyinnearlyallclimates.[68]

Measurestobanuse
SinceincandescentlightbulbsusemoreenergythanalternavessuchasCFLsandLEDlamps,many
governmentshaveintroducedmeasurestobantheiruse,bysengminimumecacystandardshigherthan
canbeachievedbyincandescentlamps.MeasurestobanlightbulbshavebeenimplementedintheEuropean
Union,theUnitedStates,Russia,Brazil,Argenna,CanadaandAustralia,amongothers.IntheEuropetheEC
hascalculatedthatthebancontributes5to10billioneurostotheeconomyandsaves40TWhofelectricity
everyyear,translanginCO2emissionreduconsof15milliontonnes.[69]
IntheUS,federallawhasscheduledthemostcommonincandescentlightbulbstobephasedoutby2014,to
bereplacedwithmoreenergyecientlightbulbs.[70]Tradionalincandescentlightbulbswerephasedoutin
AustraliainNovember2009.[71]
Objeconstobanningtheuseofincandescentlightbulbsincludethehigherinialcostofalternavesand
lowerqualityoflightofuorescentlamps.[72]Somepeoplehaveconcernsaboutthehealtheectsof
uorescentlamps.However,eventhoughtheycontainmercury,theenvironmentalperformanceofCFLsis
muchbeerthanthatoflightbulbs,mostlybecausetheyconsumemuchlessenergyandthereforestrongly
reducetheenvironmentalimpactofpowerproducon.[73]LEDlampsareevenmoreecient,andarefreeof
mercury.Theyareregardedasthebestsoluonintermsofcosteecvenessandrobustness.[74]

Eortstoimproveeciency
Someresearchhasbeencarriedouttoimprovetheecacyofcommercialincandescentlamps.In2007,the
consumerlighngdivisionofGeneralElectricannounceda"higheciencyincandescent"(HEI)lampproject,
whichtheyclaimedwouldulmatelybeasmuchasfourmesmoreecientthancurrentincandescents,
althoughtheirinialproducongoalwastobeapproximatelytwiceasecient.[75][76]TheHEIprogramwas
terminatedin2008duetoslowprogress.[77][78]
USDepartmentofEnergyresearchatSandiaNaonalLaboratoriesiniallyindicatedthepotenalfor
dramacallyimprovedeciencyfromaphotoniclacelament.[75]However,laterworkindicatedthat
iniallypromisingresultswereinerror.[79]
Promptedbylegislaoninvariouscountriesmandangincreasedbulbeciency,new"hybrid"incandescent
bulbshavebeenintroducedbyPhilips.The"HalogenaEnergySaver"incandescentscanproduceabout23
lm/W;about30percentmoreecientthantradionalincandescents,byusingareecvecapsuletoreect
formerlywastedinfraredradiaonbacktothelamentfromwhichitcanbereemiedasvisiblelight.[80]This
conceptwaspioneeredbyDuroTestin1980withacommercialproductthatproduced29.8lm/W.[81][82]
Moreadvancedreectorsbasedoninterferenceltersorphotoniccrystalscantheorecallyresultinhigher
eciency,uptoalimitofabout270lm/W(40%ofthemaximumecacypossible).[83]Laboratoryproofof
conceptexperimentshaveproducedasmuchas45lm/W,approachingtheecacyofcompactuorescent
bulbs.[83][84]

Construcon
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Incandescentlightbulbsconsistofanairghtglassenclosure(theenvelope,orbulb)withalamentof
tungstenwireinsidethebulb,throughwhichanelectriccurrentispassed.Contactwiresandabasewithtwo
(ormore)conductorsprovideelectricalconneconstothelament.Incandescentlightbulbsusuallycontaina
stemorglassmountanchoredtothebulb'sbasethatallowstheelectricalcontactstorunthroughthe
envelopewithoutairorgasleaks.Smallwiresembeddedinthesteminturnsupportthelamentanditslead
wires.
Anelectriccurrentheatsthelamenttotypically2,000to3,300K(3,140to5,480F),wellbelowtungsten's
melngpointof3,695K(6,191F).Filamenttemperaturesdependonthelamenttype,shape,size,and
amountofcurrentdrawn.Theheatedlamentemitslightthatapproximatesaconnuousspectrum.The
usefulpartoftheemiedenergyisvisiblelight,butmostenergyisgivenoasheatinthenearinfrared
wavelengths.
Threewaylightbulbshavetwolamentsandthreeconducngcontactsintheirbases.Thelamentssharea
commonground,andcanbelitseparatelyortogether.Commonwaagesinclude3070100,50100150,
and100200300,withthersttwonumbersreferringtotheindividuallaments,andthethirdgivingthe
combinedwaage.
Mostlightbulbshaveeitherclearorcoatedglass.Thecoatedglassbulbshaveawhitepowderysubstanceon
theinsidecalledkaolin.Kaolin,orkaolinite,isawhite,chalkyclayinaverynepowderform,thatisblownin
andelectrostacallydepositedontheinteriorofthebulb.Itdiusesthelightemiedfromthelament,
producingamoregentleandevenlydistributedlight.Manufacturersmayaddpigmentstothekaolintoadjust
thecharacteriscsofthenallightemiedfromthebulb.Kaolindiusedbulbsareusedextensivelyininterior
lighngbecauseoftheircomparavelygentlelight.Otherkindsofcoloredbulbsarealsomade,includingthe
variouscolorsusedfor"partybulbs",Christmastreelightsandotherdecoravelighng.Thesearecreatedby
coloringtheglasswithadopant;whichisoenametallikecobalt(blue)orchromium(green).[85]
Neodymiumcontainingglassissomemesusedtoprovideamorenaturalappearinglight.

1.OutlineofGlassbulb
2.Lowpressureinertgas(argon,nitrogen,krypton,xenon)
3.Tungstenlament
4.Contactwire(goesoutofstem)
5.Contactwire(goesintostem)
6.Supportwires(oneendembeddedinstem;conductno
current)
7.Stem(glassmount)
8.Contactwire(goesoutofstem)
9.Cap(sleeve)
10.Insulaon(vitrite)
11.Electricalcontact

Manyarrangementsofelectricalcontactsareused.Largelampsmayhaveascrewbase(oneormorecontacts
atthep,oneattheshell)orabayonetbase(oneormorecontactsonthebase,shellusedasacontactor
usedonlyasamechanicalsupport).Sometubularlampshaveanelectricalcontactateitherend.Miniature
lampsmayhaveawedgebaseandwirecontacts,andsomeautomoveandspecialpurposelampshavescrew

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terminalsforconnecontowires.Contactsinthelampsocketallowtheelectriccurrenttopassthroughthe
basetothelament.Powerrangsforincandescentlightbulbsrangefromabout0.1watoabout10,000
was.
Theglassbulbofageneralservicelampcanreachtemperaturesbetween200and260C(392and500F).
Lampsintendedforhighpoweroperaonorusedforheangpurposeswillhaveenvelopesmadeofhardglass
orfusedquartz.[57]

Gasll
Thebulbislledwithaninertgas,toreduceevaporaonofthelamentandpreventitsoxidaonata
pressureofabout70kPa(0.7atm).[86]
Theroleofthegasistopreventevaporaonofthelament,withoutintroducingsignicantheatlosses.For
theseproperes,chemicalinertnessandhighatomicormolecularweightisdesirable.Thepresenceofgas
moleculesknockstheliberatedtungstenatomsbacktothelament,reducingitsevaporaonandallowingit
tobeoperatedathighertemperaturewithoutreducingitslife(or,foroperangatthesametemperature,
prolongsthelamentlife).Ithoweverintroducesheatlosses(andthereforeeciencyloss)fromthelament,
byheatconduconandheatconvecon.
Earlylamps,andsomesmallmodernlampsusedonlyavacuumtoprotectthelamentfromoxygen.This
howeverincreasesevaporaonofthelament,albeititeliminatestheheatlosses.
Themostcommonllsare:[87]
Vacuum,usedinsmalllamps.Providesbestthermalinsulaonofthelamentbutdoesnotprotect
againstitsevaporaon.Usedalsoinlargerlampswheretheouterbulbsurfacetemperaturehastobe
limited.
Argon(93%)andnitrogen(7%),whereargonisusedforitsinertness,lowthermalconducvityandlow
cost,andthenitrogenisaddedtoincreasethebreakdownvoltageandpreventarcingbetweenpartsof
thelament[86]
Nitrogen,usedinsomehigherpowerlamps,e.g.projeconlamps,andwherehigherbreakdown
voltageisneededduetoproximityoflamentpartsorleadinwires
Krypton,whichismoreadvantageousthanargonduetoitshigheratomicweightandlowerthermal
conducvity(whichalsoallowsuseofsmallerbulbs),butitsuseishinderedbymuchhighercost,
conningitmostlytosmallersizebulbs.
Kryptonmixedwithxenon,wherexenonimprovesthegasproperesfurtherduetoitshigheratomic
weight.Itsuseishoweverlimitedbyitsveryhighcost.Theimprovementsbyusingxenonaremodestin
comparisontoitscost.
Hydrogen,inspecialashinglampswhererapidlamentcoolingisrequired;itshighthermal
conducvityisexploitedhere.
Thegasllmustbefreeoftracesofwater.Inthepresenceofthehotlament,waterreactswithtungsten
formingtungstentrioxideandatomichydrogen.Theoxidedepositsonthebulbinnersurfaceandreactswith
hydrogen,decomposingtometallictungstenandwater.Waterthencyclesbacktothelament.Thisgreatly
acceleratesthebulbblackening,incomparisonwithevaporaononly.
Thegaslayerclosetothelament(calledtheLangmuirlayer)isstagnant,heattransferoccursonlyby
conducon.Onlyatsomedistancedoesconveconoccurtocarryheattothebulbenvelope.
Theorientaonofthelamentinuenceseciency.Gasowparalleltothelament,e.g.avercallyoriented
bulbwithvercal(oraxial)lament,reducesconvecvelosses.

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Theeciencyofthelampincreaseswithalargerlamentdiameter.Thinlament,lowpowerbulbsbenet
lessfromallgas,soareoenonlyevacuated.Inspecialcases,whenrapidcoolingofalamentisneeded
(e.g.inashinglights),hydrogengasllisused.
Earlylightbulbswithcarbonlamentsalsousedcarbonmonoxide,nitrogen,ormercuryvapor.Carbon
lamentshoweveroperateatlowertemperaturesthantungstenones,sotheeectofthellgaswasnot
signicantastheheatlossesosetanybenets.

Manufacturing
Earlylampswerelaboriouslyassembledbyhand.Aerautomacmachinerywas
developedthecostoflampsfell.
Inmanufacturingtheglassbulb,atypeof"ribbonmachine"isused.Aconnuous
ribbonofglassispassedalongaconveyorbelt,heatedinafurnace,andthen
blownbypreciselyalignedairnozzlesthroughholesintheconveyorbeltinto
molds.Thustheglassbulbsarecreated.Aerthebulbsareblown,andcooled,
theyarecutotheribbonmachine;atypicalmachineofthissortproduces
50,000bulbsperhour.[88]Thelamentanditssupportsareassembledonaglass
stem,whichisfusedtothebulb.Theairispumpedoutofthebulb,andthe
evacuaontubeinthestempressissealedbyaame.Thebulbistheninserted
intothelampbase,andthewholeassemblytested.

Filament
Therstsuccessfullightbulblamentsweremadeofcarbon(fromcarbonized
Tantalumlamentlight
paperorbamboo).Earlycarbonlamentshadanegavetemperaturecoecient
bulb,1908,therst
ofresistanceastheygothoer,theirelectricalresistancedecreased.Thismade
metallamentbulb
thelampsensivetouctuaonsinthepowersupply,sinceasmallincreaseof
voltagewouldcausethelamenttoheatup,reducingitsresistanceandcausingit
todrawevenmorepowerandheatevenfurther.Inthe"ashing"process,carbonlamentswereheatedby
currentpassingthroughthemwhileinanevacuatedvesselcontaininghydrocarbonvapor(usuallygasoline).
Thecarbondepositedonthelamentbythistreatmentimprovedtheuniformityandstrengthoflamentsas
wellastheireciency.Ametallizedor"graphized"lamentwasrstheatedinahightemperatureoven
beforeashingandlampassembly.Thistransformedthecarbonintographitewhichfurtherstrengthenedand
smoothedthelament.Thisalsochangedthelamenttohaveaposivetemperaturecoecient,likea
metallicconductor,andhelpedstabilizethelamp'spowerconsumpon,temperatureandlightoutputagainst
minorvariaonsinsupplyvoltage.
In1902,theSiemenscompanydevelopedatantalumlamplament.Theselampsweremoreecientthan
evengraphizedcarbonlamentsandcouldoperateathighertemperatures.Sincetantalummetalhasa
lowerresisvitythancarbon,thetantalumlamplamentwasquitelongandrequiredmulpleinternal
supports.Themetallamenthadthepropertyofgraduallyshorteninginuse;thelamentswereinstalled
withlargeloopsthatghtenedinuse.Thismadelampsinuseforseveralhundredhoursquitefragile.[89]
Metallamentshadthepropertyofbreakingandrewelding,thoughthiswouldusuallydecreaseresistance
andshortenthelifeofthelament.GeneralElectricboughttherightstousetantalumlamentsandproduced
themintheUSunl1913.[90]
From1898toaround1905,osmiumwasalsousedasalamplamentinEurope,andthemetalwasso
expensivethatusedbrokenlampscouldbereturnedforparalcredit.[91]Itcouldnotbemadefor110Vor
220Vsoseverallampswerewiredinseriesforuseonstandardvoltagecircuits.

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In1906,thetungstenlamentwasintroduced.Tungstenmetalwas
iniallynotavailableinaformthatallowedittobedrawnintone
wires.Filamentsmadefromsinteredtungstenpowderwerequite
fragile.By1910,aprocesswasdevelopedbyWilliamD.Coolidgeat
GeneralElectricforproduconofaducleformoftungsten.The
processrequiredpressingtungstenpowderintobars,thenseveral
stepsofsintering,swaging,andthenwiredrawing.Itwasfoundthat
verypuretungstenformedlamentsthatsaggedinuse,andthatavery
small"doping"treatmentwithpotassium,silicon,andaluminium
oxidesatthelevelofafewhundredpartspermilliongreatlyimproved

Howatungstenlamentismade

thelifeanddurabilityofthetungstenlaments.[92]

Coiledcoillament
Toimprovetheeciencyofthelamp,thelamentusuallyconsistsofmulplecoilsofcoilednewire,also
knownasa'coiledcoil'.Fora60wa120voltlamp,theuncoiledlengthofthetungstenlamentisusually
22.8inches(580mm),[57]andthelamentdiameteris0.0018inches(0.046mm).Theadvantageofthecoiled
coilisthatevaporaonofthetungstenlamentisattherateofatungstencylinderhavingadiameterequalto
thatofthecoiledcoil.Thecoiledcoillamentevaporatesmoreslowlythanastraightlamentofthesame
surfaceareaandlightemingpower.Asaresult,thelamentcanthenrunhoer,whichresultsinamore
ecientlightsource,whilereducingtheevaporaonsothatthelamentwilllastlongerthanastraight
lamentatthesametemperature.
Thereareseveraldierentshapesoflamentusedinlamps,withdieringcharacteriscs.Manufacturers
designatethetypeswithcodessuchasC6,CC6,C2V,CC2V,C8,CC88,C2F,CC2F,CBar,CBar6,C8I,C
2R,CC2R,andAxial.
Electricallamentsarealsousedinhotcathodesofuorescentlamps
andvacuumtubesasasourceofelectronsorinvacuumtubestoheat
anelectronemingelectrode.

Reducinglamentevaporaon
Oneoftheproblemsofthestandardelectriclightbulbislament
notchingduetoevaporaonofthelament.Smallvariaonsin
resisvityalongthelamentcause"hotspots"toformatpointsof
higherresisvity;[58]avariaonofdiameterofonly1%willcausea
25%reduconinservicelife.[57]Thesehotspotsevaporatefasterthan
therestofthelament,whichincreasestheresistanceatthatpoint
thiscreatesaposivefeedbackthatendsinthefamiliarnygapinan
otherwisehealthylookinglament.IrvingLangmuirfoundthataninert
gas,insteadofvacuum,wouldretardevaporaon.Generalservice
incandescentlightbulbsoverabout25wasinrangarenowlled

Filamentofa200waincandescent
lightbulbhighlymagnied

withamixtureofmostlyargonandsomenitrogen,[93]orsomemes
krypton.[94]Lampsoperatedondirectcurrentdeveloprandom
stairstepirregulariesonthelamentsurfacewhichmaycutlifespan
inhalfcomparedtoACoperaon;dierentalloysoftungstenand
rheniumcanbeusedtocounteracttheeect.[95][96]
Sincealamentbreakinginagaslledbulbcanformanelectricarc,
whichmayspreadbetweentheterminalsanddrawveryheavycurrent,
intenonallythinleadinwiresormoreelaborateprotecondevices
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arethereforeoenusedasfusesbuiltintothelightbulb.[97]More
nitrogenisusedinhighervoltagelampstoreducethepossibilityof
arcing.
Whileinertgasreduceslamentevaporaon,italsoconductsheat
fromthelament,therebycoolingthelamentandreducing
eciency.Atconstantpressureandtemperature,thethermal
conducvityofagasdependsuponthemolecularweightofthegas
andthecrossseconalareaofthegasmolecules.Highermolecular
weightgasseshavelowerthermalconducvity,becauseboththe
molecularweightishigherandalsothecrossseconalareaishigher.
Xenongasimproveseciencybecauseofitshighmolecularweight,
butisalsomoreexpensive,soitsuseislimitedtosmallerlamps.[98]
Duringordinaryoperaon,thetungstenofthelamentevaporates;
hoer,moreecientlamentsevaporatefaster.Becauseofthis,the
lifemeofalamentlampisatradeobetweeneciencyand
longevity.Thetradeoistypicallysettoprovidealifemeofseveral
hundredto2,000hoursforlampsusedforgeneralilluminaon.
Theatrical,photographic,andprojeconlampsmayhaveausefullife
ofonlyafewhours,tradinglifeexpectancyforhighoutputina
compactform.Longlifegeneralservicelampshavelowereciency
butareusedwherethecostofchangingthelampishighcomparedto
thevalueofenergyused.
Ifalightbulbenvelopeleaks,thehottungstenlamentreactswithair,
yieldinganaerosolofbrowntungstennitride,browntungstendioxide,
violetbluetungstenpentoxide,andyellowtungstentrioxidethatthen
depositsonthenearbysurfacesorthebulbinterior.

Bulbblackening

Filamentofaburntout50wa
incandescentlightbulbinanSEMin
stereoscopicmode,presentedasan
anaglyphimage.
3Dredcyan
glassesarerecommendedtoviewthis
imagecorrectly.

Filamentofa50waincandescent
lightbulbinanSEMinstereoscopic
mode,presentedasananaglyph
image.
3Dredcyanglassesare
recommendedtoviewthisimagecorrectly.

Inaconvenonallamp,theevaporatedtungsteneventuallycondenses
ontheinnersurfaceoftheglassenvelope,darkeningit.Forbulbsthatcontainavacuum,thedarkeningis
uniformacrosstheenresurfaceoftheenvelope.Whenallingofinertgasisused,theevaporatedtungsten
iscarriedinthethermalconveconcurrentsofthegas,deposingpreferenallyontheuppermostpartofthe
envelopeandblackeningjustthatporonoftheenvelope.Anincandescentlampthatgives93%orlessofits
iniallightoutputat75%ofitsratedlifeisregardedasunsasfactory,whentestedaccordingtoIEC
Publicaon60064.Lightlossisduetolamentevaporaonandbulbblackening.[99]Studyoftheproblemof
bulbblackeningledtothediscoveryoftheEdisoneect,thermionicemissionandinvenonofthevacuum
tube.
Averysmallamountofwatervaporinsidealightbulbcansignicantlyaectlampdarkening.Watervapor
dissociatesintohydrogenandoxygenatthehotlament.Theoxygenaacksthetungstenmetal,andthe
resulngtungstenoxideparclestraveltocoolerpartsofthelamp.Hydrogenfromwatervaporreducesthe
oxide,reformingwatervaporandconnuingthiswatercycle.[58]Theequivalentofadropofwaterdistributed
over500,000lampswillsignicantlyincreasedarkening.[57]Smallamountsofsubstancessuchaszirconium
areplacedwithinthelampasageertoreactwithanyoxygenthatmaybakeoutofthelampcomponents
duringoperaon.
Someold,highpoweredlampsusedintheater,projecon,searchlight,andlighthouseservicewithheavy,
sturdylamentscontainedloosetungstenpowderwithintheenvelope.Frommetome,theoperator
wouldremovethebulbandshakeit,allowingthetungstenpowdertoscrubomostofthetungstenthathad
condensedontheinterioroftheenvelope,removingtheblackeningandbrighteningthelampagain.[100]
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Halogenlamps
Thehalogenlampreducesunevenevaporaonofthelamentand
eliminatesdarkeningoftheenvelopebyllingthelampwithahalogen
gasatlowpressure,ratherthananinertgas.Thehalogencycle
increasesthelifemeofthebulbandpreventsitsdarkeningby
redeposingtungstenfromtheinsideofthebulbbackontothe
lament.Thehalogenlampcanoperateitslamentatahigher
temperaturethanastandardgaslledlampofsimilarpowerwithout
lossofoperanglife.Suchbulbsaremuchsmallerthannormal
incandescentbulbs,andarewidelyusedwhereintenseilluminaonis
neededinalimitedspace.Fiberopclampsforopcalmicroscopyis
onetypicalapplicaon.

Incandescentarclamps

Closeupofatungstenlament
insideahalogenlamp.Thetworing
shapedstructuresleandrightare
lamentsupports.

Avariaonoftheincandescentlampdidnotuseahotwirelament,
butinsteadusedanarcstruckonasphericalbeadelectrodetoproduce
heat.Theelectrodethenbecameincandescent,withthearc
contribungliletothelightproduced.Suchlampswereusedfor
projeconorilluminaonforsciencinstrumentssuchasmicroscopes.Thesearclampsranonrelavelylow
voltagesandincorporatedtungstenlamentstostartionizaonwithintheenvelope.Theyprovidedthe
intenseconcentratedlightofanarclampbutwereeasiertooperate.Developedaround1915,theselamps
weredisplacedbymercuryandxenonarclamps.[101][102][103]

Electricalcharacteriscs
Comparisonofecacybypower
120voltlamps[104]

230voltlamps[105]p30
SinglecoilNOTcoiledcoil

Power(W) Output(lm) Ecacy(lm/W) Output(lm) Ecacy(lm/W)

5

25

15

110

7.3

25

200

8.0

206

8.24

40

500

12.5

330

8.25

60

850

14.2

584

9.73

75

1,200

16.0

100

1,700

17.0

1,160

11.6

150

2,850

19.0

200

3,900

19.5

2,725

13.62

300

6,200

20.7

4,430

14.77

7,930

15.86

500

Power
Incandescentlampsarenearlypureresisveloadswithapowerfactorof1.Thismeanstheactualpower
consumed(inwas)andtheapparentpower(involtamperes)areequal.Incandescentlightbulbsareusually
marketedaccordingtotheelectricalpowerconsumed.Thisismeasuredinwasanddependsmainlyonthe
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resistanceofthelament,whichinturndependsmainlyonthelament'slength,thickness,andmaterial.For
twobulbsofthesamevoltage,type,color,andclarity,thehigherpoweredbulbgivesmorelight.
Thetableshowstheapproximatetypicaloutput,inlumens,ofstandardincandescentlightbulbsatvarious
powers.Lightoutputofa230Vversionisusuallyslightlylessthanthatofa120Vversion.Thelowercurrent
(highervoltage)lamentisthinnerandhastobeoperatedataslightlylowertemperatureforsamelife
expectancy,andthatreducesenergyeciency.[106]Thelumenvaluesfor"sowhite"bulbswillgenerallybe
slightlylowerthanforclearbulbsatthesamepower.

Currentandresistance
Theactualresistanceofthelamentistemperaturedependent.Thecoldresistanceoftungstenlament
lampsisabout1/15thehotlamentresistancewhenthelampisoperang.Forexample,a100wa,120volt
lamphasaresistanceof144ohmswhenlit,butthecoldresistanceismuchlower(about9.5ohms).[57][107]
Sinceincandescentlampsareresisveloads,simplephasecontrolTRIACdimmerscanbeusedtocontrol
brightness.Electricalcontactsmaycarrya"T"rangsymbolindicangthattheyaredesignedtocontrol
circuitswiththehighinrushcurrentcharacteriscoftungstenlamps.Fora100wa,120voltgeneralservice
lamp,thecurrentstabilizesinabout0.10seconds,andthelampreaches90%ofitsfullbrightnessaerabout
0.13seconds.[108]
Carbonlamentbulbshavetheoppositecharacterisc.Theresistanceofacarbonlamentishigherwhenitis
coldthanwhenitisoperang.Inthecaseofa240Volt,60Wacarbonlamentbulb,theresistanceofthe
lamentwhenatoperangtemperatureis960Ohms,butrisestoaround1500Ohmswhencold.

Physicalcharacteriscs
Bulbshapes
Incandescentlightbulbscome
inarangeofshapesandsizes.
Thenamesoftheshapesvary
somewhatfromregionto
regions.Manyoftheseshapes
haveadesignaonconsisng
ofoneormoreleersfollowed
byoneormorenumbers,e.g.
A55orPAR38.Theleers
representtheshapeofthe
bulb.Thenumbersrepresent
themaximumdiameter,either
in18ofaninch,orin
millimeters,dependingonthe
shapeandtheregion.For
example,63mmreectorsare
designatedR63,butintheUS,
theyareknownasR20
(2.5in).[109]However,inboth
regions,aPAR38reectoris
knownasPAR38.
Examples
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metric

imperial

details

"standard"
lightbulb

A60E26

candleamebulb

CA35E12 CA11E12 25mm(~1.375")candleameshape,12mmEdisonscrew

oodlight

BR95E26 BR30E26 95mm(~3.75")oodlight,26mmEdisonscrew

halogentracklight MR50
bulb
GU5.3

A19E26

MR16
GU5.3

60mm(~2.375")Aseriesbulb,26mmEdisonscrew

50mm(~2")mulfacetedreector,5.33mmspaced12Vbi
pinconnector

Commonshapes:
GeneralService
Lightemiedin(nearly)alldirecons.Availableeitherclearorfrosted.
Types:General(A),Mushroom,ellipcal(E),sign(S),tubular(T)
120Vsizes:A17,19and21
230Vsizes:A55and60
HighWaageGeneralService
Lampsgreaterthan200was.
Types:Pearshaped(PS)
Decorave
lampsusedinchandeliers,etc.
Types:candle(B),twistedcandle,bentpcandle(CA&BA),ame(F),globe(G),lanternchimney(H),
fancyround(P)
230Vsizes:P45,G95
Reector(R)
Reecvecoanginsidethebulbdirectslightforward.Floodtypes(FL)spreadlight.Spottypes(SP)
concentratethelight.Reector(R)bulbsputapproximatelydoubletheamountoflight(footcandles)on
thefrontcentralareaasGeneralService(A)ofsamewaage.
Types:Standardreector(R),ellipcalreector(ER),crownsilvered
120Vsizes:R16,20,25and30
230Vsizes:R50,63,80and95
Parabolicaluminizedreector(PAR)
Parabolicaluminizedreector(PAR)bulbscontrollightmoreprecisely.Theyproduceaboutfourmes
theconcentratedlightintensityofgeneralservice(A),andareusedinrecessedandtracklighng.
Weatherproofcasingsareavailableforoutdoorspotandoodxtures.
120Vsizes:PAR16,20,30,38,56and64
230Vsizes:PAR16,20,30,38,56and64
Availableinnumerousspotandoodbeamspreads.Likealllightbulbs,thenumberrepresentsthe
diameterofthebulbin18ofaninch.Therefore,aPAR16is2inindiameter,aPAR20is2.5inin
diameter,PAR30is3.75inandaPAR38is4.75inindiameter.
Mulfacetedreector(MR)
HIR

"HIR"isaGEdesignaonforalampwithaninfraredreecvecoang.Sincelessheatescapes,the
lamentburnshoerandmoreeciently.[110]TheOsramdesignaonforasimilarcoangis"IRC".[111]

Lampbases

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Verysmalllampsmayhavethelamentsupportwiresextended
throughthebaseofthelamp,andcanbedirectlysolderedtoaprinted
circuitboardforconnecons.Somereectortypelampsincludescrew
terminalsforconneconofwires.Mostlampshavemetalbasesthatt
inasockettosupportthelampandconductcurrenttothelament
wires.Inthelate19thcentury,manufacturersintroducedamultude
ofincompablelampbases.GeneralElectricintroducedstandardbase
sizesfortungstenincandescentlampsundertheMazdatrademarkin
1909.ThisstandardwassoonadoptedacrosstheUS,andtheMazda
namewasusedbymanymanufacturersunderlicensethrough1945.
Todaymostincandescentlampsforgenerallighngserviceusean
Edisonscrewincandelabra,intermediate,orstandardormogulsizes,
ordoublecontactbayonetbase.Technicalstandardsforlamp
basesincludeANSIstandardC81.67andIECstandard600611for
commoncommerciallampsizes,toensureinterchangeablity
betweendierentmanufacturer'sproducts.Bayonetbaselamps
arefrequentlyusedinautomovelampstoresistlooseningdueto
vibraon.Abipinbaseisoenusedforhalogenorreector

Apackageoffour60walightbulbs

lamps.[112]
Lampbasesmaybesecuredtothebulbwithacement,orby
mechanicalcrimpingtoindentaonsmoldedintotheglassbulb.
Miniaturelampsusedforsomeautomovelampsordecorave
lampshavewedgebasesthathaveaparalplascoreven
completelyglassbase.Inthiscase,thewireswraparoundtothe
outsideofthebulb,wheretheypressagainstthecontactsinthe
socket.MiniatureChristmasbulbsuseaplascwedgebaseaswell.

Letoright:MR16withGU10base,MR16
withGU5.3base,MR11withGU4orGZ4
base

Lampsintendedforuseinopcalsystemssuchaslmprojectors,
microscopeilluminators,orstagelighnginstrumentshavebaseswith
alignmentfeaturessothatthelamentisposionedaccuratelywithin
theopcalsystem.Ascrewbaselampmayhavearandomorientaon
ofthelamentwhenthelampisinstalledinthesocket.

Lightoutputandlifeme

40walightbulbswithstandard
E10,E14andE27Edisonscrewbase

Incandescentlampsareverysensivetochangesinthesupplyvoltage.
Thesecharacteriscsareofgreatpraccalandeconomicimportance.
ForasupplyvoltageVneartheratedvoltageofthelamp:
LightoutputisapproximatelyproporonaltoV3.4
PowerconsumponisapproximatelyproporonaltoV1.6
LifemeisapproximatelyproporonaltoV16
ColortemperatureisapproximatelyproporonaltoV0.42[113]
Thismeansthata5%reduconinoperangvoltagewillmorethandoublethe
lifeofthebulb,attheexpenseofreducingitslightoutputbyabout16%.This
maybeaveryacceptabletradeoforalightbulbthatisinadiculttoaccess
Thedoublecontactbayonet
locaon(forexample,traclightsorxtureshungfromhighceilings).Longlife
caponanincandescentbulb
bulbstakeadvantageofthistradeo.Sincethevalueoftheelectricpower
theyconsumeismuchmorethanthevalueofthelamp,generalservicelamps
emphasizeeciencyoverlongoperanglife.Theobjecveistominimizethecostoflight,notthecostof
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incandescent_light_bulb

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IncandescentlightbulbWikipedia

lamps.[57]Earlybulbshadalifeofupto2500hours,butin1924acartelagreed
tolimitlifeto1000hours.[114]Whenthiswasexposedin1953,GeneralElectric
andotherleadingAmericanmanufacturerswerebannedfromlimingthe
life.[115]
Therelaonshipsabovearevalidforonlyafewpercentchangeofvoltage
aroundratedcondions,buttheydoindicatethatalampoperatedatmuch
lowerthanratedvoltagecouldlastforhundredsofmeslongerthanatrated
condions,albeitwithgreatlyreducedlightoutput.The"CentennialLight"isa
lightbulbthatisacceptedbytheGuinnessBookofWorldRecordsashaving
beenburningalmostconnuouslyatarestaoninLivermore,California,
since1901.However,thebulbemitstheequivalentlightofafourwabulb.A
similarstorycanbetoldofa40wabulbinTexasthathasbeenilluminated
since21September1908.Itonceresidedinanoperahousewherenotable
celebriesstoppedtotakeinitsglow,andwasmovedtoanareamuseumin
1977.[116]

TheCentennialLightisthe
longestlasnglightbulbin
theworld.

Inoodlampsusedforphotographiclighng,thetradeoismadein
theotherdirecon.Comparedtogeneralservicebulbs,forthesame
power,thesebulbsproducefarmorelight,and(moreimportantly)light
atahighercolortemperature,attheexpenseofgreatlyreducedlife
(whichmaybeasshortastwohoursforatypeP1lamp).Theupper
temperaturelimitforthelamentisthemelngpointofthemetal.
Tungstenisthemetalwiththehighestmelngpoint,3,695K(6,191F).
A50hourlifeprojeconbulb,forinstance,isdesignedtooperateonly
50C(122F)belowthatmelngpoint.Suchalampmayachieveupto
22lumensperwa,comparedwith17.5fora750hourgeneralservice
lamp.[57]
Lampsdesignedfordierentvoltageshavedierentluminousecacy.
Forexample,a100wa,120voltlampwillproduceabout17.1lumens
perwa.Alampwiththesameratedlifemebutdesignedfor230V
wouldproduceonlyaround12.8lumensperwa,andasimilarlamp

Variouslighngspectraasviewedin
adiracongrang.Upperle:
uorescentlamp,upperright:
incandescentbulb,lowerle:white
LED,lowerright:candleame.

designedfor30volts(trainlighng)wouldproduceasmuchas19.8lumensperwa.[57]Lowervoltagelamps
haveathickerlament,forthesamepowerrang.Theycanrunhoerforthesamelifemebeforethe
lamentevaporates.
Thewiresusedtosupportthelamentmakeitmechanicallystronger,butremoveheat,creanganother
tradeobetweeneciencyandlonglife.Manygeneralservice120voltlampsusenoaddionalsupport
wires,butlampsdesignedfor"roughservice"or"vibraonservice"mayhaveasmanyasve.Lowvoltage
lampshavelamentsmadeofheavierwireanddonotrequireaddionalsupportwires.
Verylowvoltagesareinecientsincetheleadwireswouldconducttoomuchheatawayfromthelament,so
thepraccallowerlimitforincandescentlampsis1.5volts.Verylonglamentsforhighvoltagesarefragile,
andlampbasesbecomemorediculttoinsulate,solampsforilluminaonarenotmadewithratedvoltages
over300volts.[57]Someinfraredheangelementsaremadeforhighervoltages,buttheseusetubularbulbs
withwidelyseparatedterminals.

Seealso
Flash(photography)
Lampshade
Lighttube
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incandescent_light_bulb

Lightbulbjokes
Listoflightsources
Longestlasnglightbulbs
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Overilluminaon
Photometry(opcs)

IncandescentlightbulbWikipedia

Spectrometer

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