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Temperature
Kelvin (K) are the units of absolute temperature. There is no temperature less than
0, it is unphysical. 0 is the melting point of ice at standard pressure, whereas
100 is the boiling point of water. The interval = = .
The two scales are related by
: = + .
Either =
or more commonly =
How much heat does it take to bring a 3.5 iron frypan from
20 to 120. If a 2stovetop heats the pan, how long will
this take. ( = 447 1 1 )
The same 3.5 iron frypan at 120 is plunged into a plastic sink
filled with 2 of water at 20 . What is the equilibrium
temperature. ( = 447 1 1, = 4184)
= =
= 0
1 1 1 + 2 2 2 = 0
1 1 + 2 2 = 1 1 1 + 2 22
1 1 1 + 2 22
=
1 1 + 2 2
= 308.75 = 36
Heat Transfer
conduction
convection
radiation
Usually for a given situation one mechanism will dominate however in some
cases all three need to be considered simultaneously.
Conduction
Conduction
dT
H = kA
dx
temperature
gradient
Thermal Resistance
(T3 T2 )
(T2 T1 )
= k1 A
H = k2 A
x1
x2
HR2 = T2 T3
HR1 = T1 T2
Heat flow
ADD, H SUBJECT
dT
H = kA
dx
T1 T3
H=
R1 + R2
Thermal Resistances
add in series
= 1 + 2
Thermal Resistance
x
R=
kA
PHYSCAST ALERT
Convection
Convection
Radiation
= 4
= : 0 1 (0 , 1 : /)
= 5.67 108 2 4 Stefan Boltzmann constant
Interpret
Evaluate
= =
= ( 4 4 )
Develop
=?
= 300
In equilibrium so =
+ 4
50
+ 3004
4
8
1 5 10 5.67 10
= 1153 = 880
Assess
Thermal Energy Balance is where the heat gains are equal to the
heat losses and the system stays in equilibrium.
Gases
Piston-Cylinder
System
Chemist version
= number of moles
= 8.314 1 1
Physicist version
= number of molecules
= 1.38 1023 1
Ideal Gas Law is the equation of state which describes how the
properties of gases are related. Most gases follow this law and
only depart when interactions become strong (extremely high
pressures and extremely low temperatures)
Interpret
Evaluate
a) =
Develop
a) = ,
b)
b)
= 0.0273
1
4.0
2 250
=
=
1.5
Assess
= 333
F
p= =
A
mN
p=
V
2
m
v
xi
AL
2
v
xi
m v xi2
V
mN 2
=
vx
V
2
v x2 = (v x21 + v x22 + ....v xN
)/ N
mN 2
p=
vx
V
1. All directions random
2. Make pV subject
v x2 = v y2 = v z2
v 2 = v x2 + v y2 + v z2 = 3 v x2
2 1 2
p V = N ( mv )
3 2
p V = N k BT
1 2 3
m v = k BT
2
2
1 2 3
m v = k BT
2
2
Sun (~6000K)
1.E+03
Temperature (Kelvin)
vthermal
3k BT
=
m
Ice (273K)
Liquid Nitrogen (77K)
1.E+02
1.E+01
1.E+00
1.E-01
1.E-02
1.E-03
1.E-04
1.E-05
1.E-06
1.E-01
1.E+00
Evaporative
cooling
World record (50m/s, 450pK)
1.E+01
1.E+02
Velocity (m/s)
1.E+03
1.E+04
Phase Changes
eg. adding heat to ice, initially with T=-20 C at 1 atm.
T (C)
100
ice
heat of
vaporization Lv.
heat of
fusion Lf.
ice +
water
water
water
+
steam
steam
Q (Heat added)
The energy per unit mass to change a phase is called the latent
heat of transformation . For solid-liquid change its heat of
fusion , for liquid-gas change its heat of vaporisation .
Phase Changes
Interpret
=
=
Evaluate
= 0
Develop
1 = 1 ( )
1 = 16 4184 (0 25)
1 = 1.67 106
2 = 2
1
1.67 106
2 =
=
334 103 /
Assess
2 = 5
1 ( )
2 =
PHYSCAST calorlimetry
A 75 ice cube at 3 is placed in a glass of water (0.20 at
= 20 ). At equilibrium, how much ice remains unmelted (if
any)? What is the final temperature of the drink ?
-ive sign : energy lost
Interpret
Evaluate
Energy released by cooling water, Q1
Q1 = 0.2 4184 20 = 16736 J
Energy absorbed by heating of ice, Q2
Energy absorbed by melting ice, Q3
If Q1 < Q2+Q3 then some ice is left
Q1 = m c T cw = 4184 J/kg C
Q2 = m c T cice = 2100 J/kg C
Q3 = L f m
Lf = 3.33
Develop
105
J/kg
16236
m=
= 49 g mice = 26 g
5
3.33 10
Thermal Expansion
Ideal Gas ( ) = ( )
Thermal Expansion
Coefficent of linear expansion =
The ideal gas law can be applied to most problems (with gases)
Know the chemist and physicist version (moles and molecules)
Only temperature dictates a molecules thermal speed
Calorlimetry is conservation of thermal energy
You put in the sign in manually for phase changes depending on direction
= +
Thermodynamic Processes
2
1
quasi-static (reversible)
process keeps water and
gas in equilibrium
= =
= =
1
=
=
2
=?
=
2
1
= =
= ln
1
1
1
Interpret
= 0 : Isothermal
U = 0, Q = W
Develop
25m
p2 = 1 atm
4
3
V2 = r2
3
Evaluate
V2
W = p dV = nRT ln
V1
V1
V2
nRT
nRT
V2 =
V1 =
p1V1 = nRT
p2
p1
V2 nRT p1
=
V1
p2 nRT
p1 3.5
=
=
= 3.5
p2
1
p1 = 3.5 atm
4
3
W = 3.5 101.3 103 2.110 6 ln (3.5)
V1 = r1
3
Assess
= 0.93 J
= 2.110 6 m 3
Adiabatic Processes
not examinable
Cyclical Processes
Past Exam Q: An ideal gas has an initial state, A, with volume 2.4 103 3,
temperature of 30 and a pressure of 2.0 . It is heated isovolumetrically to
state B which has a pressure of 4.0 . It is then cooled isobarically to state C
which has a volume of 1.2 103 3. Finally, the volume is increased isothermally
until the original volume is reached.
(i) Sketch a PV diagram for the above sequence, clearly indicating the P and V
values for states A, B, and C, and the paths between them.
4 atm
2 atm
1.2 10 3
= 30
V
2.4 10 3
Calculate the work done by the gas during each of the state changes:
(I) A B
Interpret: Work done by gas is + area under PV curve
(II) B C
(III) C A
Evaluate: (I) Isometric change, V=0 no work is done, W = 0 J
(II) Isobaric change, W = PV
P
4 atm
Assess !
W = P(V f Vi )
W = 486 J
PV = nRT
2 atm
A
T = 30o C = 303K
V
1.2 10 3 2.4 10 3
Vf
1
W = PdV = nRT dV = nRT ln( )
V
Vi
VA
= PAVA ln( ) = 4.8 101.3 ln(2)
VC
= +337 J
(iii) For change (III), going from C to A, use the First Law of
Thermodynamics or otherwise to find the heat added to the gas.
P
4 atm
Evaluate: U = Q W = 0
Q =W
net heat added to gas = Q = 337 J
2 atm
A
T = 30o C = 303K
V
1.2 10 3 2.4 10 3
Work done on a gas is path specific and = minus the area under a curve.
Reread, Review and Reinforce concepts and techniques of Chapter 18
Examples 18.1: The 1st law of Thermodynamics: Thermal Polution