‘ Braja M. Das i The Universi of Tessas Et Paso | 1 4 - = z wu % O Hemisphere Publishing Corporacion Wuningion New Yoee tonéen ( ) McGraw-Hill Book Company ID iC pyle, 7 A . mp Nb- soo yADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS INTERNATION AL EDITION Copyright © 1985 Exthaive RRS by MeGraw-Hill Book Co Singspore. for franslacium® ang expen Tvs book canner be re-en pores fom he Counin © wih i consigned by MeGraw-ih 2nd Printing 1957 Ccopyrsht ©1983, by Hemiaphere Pobisring Comporvion ‘i nghe meme, No par af 8 publcaion may te Ipluced pe eatnbuied in any form or by amy means Critored in 2 ca baw of reieral sys. host reper eaten perms ofthe pUbIShe boot was in Press Roman by Communication Cris Ue vom wets Sienne V, Brose Brenda Murr Bena fe Communcavon Cals Lid ran 0f 1s Cataloging in Pubestion Dae seeancce Soi mechanics Bevoraeh & nena ids F'Sei mectanies (The yar D2 S138 siesat SBN OO ISO yen ordering this tite vee ISBN 0-07-Y662377 ~ To Janice and ValeriePreface Bey 1 Soil Aggregate 11 tneadescion : 42 Woight-Votume Relitionanipt t L2L Saaie Detinitions ‘ 122 Gener Range Bf Voia Rute ace Diy Unis Weight seouncered ia Granulay Soll 8 [EJ Relative Density and Relative Compaction 9 L24 _ Specific Ceavty of Sou Soles 0 13° Grain-Sie Distnbution st Sous u 12) Sieve aaatyas and Hydrometer analysis L Sou-Separte Size Limite is is 5 TEL Sompasiion and seevctute of Chy Minecale 5 442 Specific Suctace of Clay saerus 9 133 Gition Exchange Capsciy B Lad | Neturt of Wer in Chay n LAS | Repubive Potencat * 145 Repuuive Presse v Caer a cisculation ana Dupersion of Cay Parle, we 1S Consstesey of Cohesive Sous Be 151 “Atverdere Limite B 152 Lguigity tadee uM 15.3 activity 18 Sou Cussifeation 38 E81 Untied SoU Classficancn System as 17 Compaction of Sous 36 134 TEBAY ef Compaction and rector Compaction Tex 6 [22 Haase Miniature Compaction Deri 3 Lag ERGSt of Onaic Content on Compaction of Sou 3 174 Fila Compaction 2 N75 Sa-Placs Densification of Granular Sus oo1G3 conTENTS 1$ Volume Charge of Sous DEL Bhriskage ang Swelling of Cay 25.2 Sweling Potenta} af Chy Sele 19 Effective Stress 19.1. Effective Straus Concept in Saturated Soits 19.2 Critical Hydrate Gradient ané Bailing 19.3 Effective Stress in Unsaturated Soils Problem Retereness Dh Beevt Law 2.2 Vabdity of Darey's Law 1 Atecting the Coethisens of Pesmesbiity “ ive Coetficient of Permeability for Stratified Seis 5 mination of Coet ‘ -munatign of Goetlicient of Permaabilty in the Foett 3 Thesretiea Solution for Coetficient of Permenblty 4 Naration ef Permeahibty wth Voie Ratio in Sand c Naratin of Permeabuity with Void Ratio in Cay © Bestreosmost on of Continuity Use of Continuity Bqus Pretleme Mew Nete Nvéraviic Uplift Foree unger a Structure Nets in Anisorrepie Material Gentinuction of Flow Nets for Hy drewlic $2 Nenbomogeneous Subils jonal Variation of Permeability in Anisotropic Medium merical Analysis of Sexpage n fa! Solution of Simple Flow res against Piping ‘Galealacion of Seepage theoush an Earth Dare Resting on an pervious Base otung of Phrcatic Line for Seepage vhrough Earth Dame Extance, Discharge, ané Trantler Conditions of Line of Beepane ough Bart Dams Hot-net Construction for Earth Dams eae Protease References UT Stresstt in Sou Mass 34 Twe Dimensional Probleme BAA Pane Snip Stateof sues nt of Permeability in the Laboratory a 3) M 8 9 50 8 6s 8s 55 68 * 2 ot % 8 10 102 198 ror 3 his ne i 130 Br 138 17 is2 432 197 tso ies on L/S Consolidation 41 Fondemertels of Consolidation S14 General Concepts of One-Dimensional Consolidation 51.2 Theory of OneDimentions) Comsalidanion CONTENTS x 34.2 Stes on an inne Plane and Principal trees for Mare trun Problems Using Mel's Cte 168 31.3 Steses dus to 1 Verte Lint Load onthe Surface of» Sembinfiaste Mass m 214 Sueses due (0 # Horan! Line Load on he Suctace of 1 Sembinfinite Mase na BAS Stress due 0 4 Line Load Inside Seo afinite Mas, ns 416 Suemes dus to1 Verte Line Losd on an Elastic Sel Layer Undesain by 9 Rigid Rouen Bie 78 31.7 Uniform Verte! Losing on an Unfit Strip on the Surfce of Sembinfnte Maes 78 AUE Uniform Hovizomat Loading on an Infinite Strip on the Surface ofa Sem lnfnte Mass 9 228 Uneaey Increasing Vera) Loading oman tonite Stipon the Surface of Semi infinite Mase 184 Vertical Suess ins Sembinfite Mats De fo Embankment Leading 186 32 Thee Dimensional Moblems 190 321 Stenes 600 to Vertical Point Load Acting on the Surface of 1 Seminfnite Mass 190 S22. Sursies due to Horiontas Point Loading onthe Surace (st 323. Soca below 1 Cyeulaiy Londed (Vert exible ce 198 3.24 Vertica! Sues blows Rectangular Losded Ares 198 32S suettes due to any Type of Landed Aree 207 326 Soesesin Layered Metiom mn 327 Vertical Sires at the Interface of Three Layer Fexibie System 22 32.8 Distribution of Contact sures over Footings Bi 19 Reliability of Suess Cakvlation by Using the Theory of Elasticity ns rotten Bs Reserences ho 14 Pore Water Pressure due to Undrained Loading 4.1 Fore Wate Pessre Developed de to heaton Stress. Appbetion 22 42 Pore Wate Pretare ae to Unies! Loeding pee 43° Pore Water Pressure under Taxis Tet Conditions as 444 Henkel Modification of Pore Water Pressure Bguation 26 Problems 1 Releren 232 af ner |x CONTENTS 5.13 Retation of Ugy and Ty for Osher Forms of latial Excess Pore Water Pressute Distribution 5.1.4 Numerical Solution for One-Dimensional Consolidation 5.3 Degee of Consolidation under Time-Dependent Loading 5.6 Standard One Dimensional Cossolidatioa Test and Interpretation SAT Secondary Consolidation SS Some Comments on Suundard One-Dimensional Consolidation Test 5.19 Blfect of Secondary Consoldation on the Precomsoligation Pressure 5.110 Consant Rate-ci-Strain Contolldation Tests SALA Constant-Gresient Consolidation Test 5.1.12 One-Dimensional Consolidation with Viseeclastic Modes 5.2 Cansotidation by Sand Drains S21 Sane Draas 52.2 Free-Strain Consolidation with no Smear 5.2.3 EquabStrain Consotisation with no Smest (S24 Effect of Smear Zone on Radial Canioudation S25 Calculation af ihe Degiee of Consolidation with Vertical sand Radial Deiaage 5.2.6 Numerial Solution for Radial Drainage Problems Relerences ss 6 62 63. 54 65 Evaluation of Soii Settlement Introduction Immediate Settement GAA Immediate Settlement from Theory of Elasticity 62.2 Determination of Youss's Modular 62.3 Settlement Prediction is Sand by Empiscal Comelation 5.24 Calsulation of Immesiate Settlement in Granular Soi Using Simplified Stra Infuesce Factor Primary Coasoudation Settlement 63.1 One-Dimensional Consolidation Settlement Calculation 63.2 Skempton-Bjerrum Modification for Calculation of Consolidation Settlement 6.33 Settlement of Overconsaldated Cay 63.4 Precompressioe for Improving Foundation Soils Secondary Consolidation Settlement Suess Path Method of Settlement Ci 5.5.1 Definition of Stress Path 65.2 Swess and Stain Path for Consoudsied Undraines Teiaxial Texte 7 55.3 Stress Path and Sample Distortion foe Siva Increase of ‘Axial Stress 654 Caleulatinn of Settlement fom Sires Paras 10 2 ws 0 300 an 307 an 38 a9 320 32 m3 ns 37 3B nT 39 339 339 355 365 389 359 am aa 378 33 3s sa 3e8 bea , 85.5 Comparison af Primary belie Consolidation Settlement Cal ‘Problems References tT shear Sueneth of Sits au Mobr-Coulomb Failure Criteria 72 Shearing Seength of Gases Sole 221 Dee Stra Tet Taal tet Catia Vola Race Cumatue ofthe Falare Enviope Some Comments one Fao any 5 Se Fecton Angle of Canals So oe Strength of Granular Soils under Plane ce 7 7.29 Other Corre fons f2 Determinas 1 oe ‘Strength of Cohesive Sails * ae 131 “Tetana Tsting a Gaye 132 Untoes Conpect 733 Some Oseeevations 7 bietation forthe Values of #354 738 é : siaton of Undaised Shear Stegth aod Ecive Overburden Pressure ane Elisa 735° Etter si gacots 5 aa Elfect of Temperature on Shear Strength of ‘Gay. ae 73.2. Repremtaton of Sues Paton ine Revacke Pot ionthip between Water Content and Stengen 23.9 Unige Elective See Pale Encage Unique Relationship netwers Water Cocven and Eien nee Contene and Eiectve D311 Vie Shes Te 7312 Uncnined Shear Stsamh of anisottopic Cay 9 Apoteabiy ef Druzes 3) ang Undsined (Sp) She : ‘Strength Parameters for Foundation Desi woes 7.384 Hvorsier's Parameters ae 2.3.15 Sensitivity and Thixatrapic C TU, Stems TRctose Gamera hy 14° Otter Teoretiat Coniterons 21 Yield Suent in Pure Dina TaA2 Experimental eto Compare pout? PlPehmental Results to Compare the Yied Function 33 395 389 so7PREFACE This textbook is intended for use in an general sequen cnodvetory graduate level cour, and the followed is similar to that used in classrooms in various universities, ‘The book has been developed primarily from class notes that I prepared for teaching. initially af South Dakota State University Pasa, and later at The Univesity of Texas at El The first chapter © on Soll Agsregece and is a general review of most of the als to which students ate introduced in the fest cowse in soil mechanics ‘offered at the undergraduate level. The remaining six chapters, dealing with per meabilty and seepage, stess distribution in 2 sol] mass due to various types of loacing conditions, development of pore water pressute due to undrained loading conditions contolidetion, methods of ealeulation of settlement of soils, and sheat strength of soils, re presented in such a manner that readers who are unfamiliar sith the subject vill not fice any serious problems in understanding, The basie concepts are presented In the earlier sections of each chapter and are then followed by more advanced topics. ‘The text has been extensively ilustrated for better understanding, During the asl ten to fiftcen years, sevesal new studies have Been published in the geotechnial joumals around che world, [have made an effort (o include the important findings of ‘most of these works a seem pertinent to the materials covered in this text ‘A number of example problems are given in each chapter as well as fan lage amber of representative problems for solution by the students at the end of each chapter, An extensive Uist of ceferences Is given at the end of each chapter which can be used by readers for in-depth review andor research work, Dual units—conventional English ang SI—have been used throughout. Tam indebted to my wife, Janice, for her help in typing the manuscript. She also helped in preparing most of the figures and tables. Thanks ave also due to Sands H. Figuers, graduate student 21 The University of Texas at El Paso, for his help in several stages during the preparation of the manuscript Braja M. Das xiain aca Src eee ee EEC TEE ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS EE MECHANICSSA EeEe Ee EC CHAPTER ONE See SOIL AGGREGATE Mw NTRODUCTION Soils ate aggregates of mineral particles, and together with air andfor water in the void spaces they form three-phase aystems, & large porticn of the earth's surface is covered by soll, and they ate widely wed a¢ construction and foundation materials. Soil mechanics is the branch of engineering tut deals with the engineering properties of sol and its behavior unde: stresses and strains ‘This chapter is primarily designed to be 2 review of fundamentals to which the veades wil already Have been exposed in some tall. [Cie divided into right major parts. weight-vohime relations for the dee phase systems, gainaize dstntution of Soil particles, clay minenls, consistency, classification systems, compaction, volume change of tlle, and the effective stress concept. 1.2 WEIGHT-VOLUME RELATIONSHIPS 1.2.1 Basie Definitions Figure Ile shows a soi mass thet has 2 tolal volume ¥ and a total weight W. To develop the weight-volume relationships, the Uuee phases of the soil mass, i. sol solids, ais, and water, have been separated in Fig 1.18. Note that Ww and, also We Me an veytKtR aa “ ae Oo2. ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS ve volume ot Fig. Ud Weghtevtumetetaonsips for sol agate Kakth OD where’ i= weight of sil solids W., weight of water 7, = volume of the sl solids = volume of water lume of ac “The weight of sic is assumed to be 2210, The volume relations commonly used in soi mechanics ae void ratio, porosity, and degree of saturation, Void rafio es defined asthe ratio of flume of voids 10 the volume of solids aah aay % Porosity mis defined as the cate of the volume af voids to the total volume: % kl, « = -_————=- — (6) WK WR Fe Degree of saturarion 5, is the ratio of the volume of water to the valume of voids and ia generally expresed a percentage x 100 an 5) “The weight (lations used ate moisture content and unit weight, Moisure content SOWL AGGREGATE 3 w is defined as the ratio of the weight of water to the weight of sll solids, generally sepressed as percentage hy w (a= Ex 100 ay Unit weight + i the ratio of the total weight to the total yolume of the soil aegrente: ® as) ‘This i sometimes seferred to as moist unit weight since ir includes che weight of ater and the soll slide If une entice void space is Med with water (he, %=0), i 1s satueated sei; Eq, (19) al hen give use the saturated unit @elght Tar The ery it weight 1g is ato of the weight of soi solids to the ‘ota volume! 4 (1.19) wz Use6u weightavelume celations san ke develoged by considering 2 20M) east in which the volume of rod solids is unity, as shown in Fig. 1.2. Since Y= 1, {rom che GeEnition of void rauo gen in Eq. (8) the volume ef veids i ean! 10 the void The weight of eo soles can be gen by y= Gn.t= Cy (ance =1) where G, is the specie grawcy ef roll solids, and 7, Is the unit weight of water (62 41b)f0, oF 9.81 Nie"), From Eq. (1.8), the weight of water it My = wy = wC,7q, So the moist unit weigneis W Wt We Gre t aC. _ Gyr{l +») oun4 ADVANCED SOML MECHANICS ore ua The depsee of saturation can be pven by Ye _ Wala _WGirel te _ “6, ae “Gy aaa) By referring to Fig, 1.3, the selaon for the unit weight ofa saturated sod an be obtaines 3¢ ay ee (ts) Basic relations for unit weight such ab Eqt. (1.11), (1.12), and (2.15) in seems of porosity n can also be derived by considering a sol mast that has 2 (ota volume of unity as shown in Fig. 14, In this ease (for V=1), from Eq. (15), =n. So, YaV~ talon, ‘The sight of soll solids is equa to (—=)G/54, and the weight of water Wy = (1A) Gy. Thus the mois Unit weights we UEMGine + HG wy 7 = M4) re) ‘The dry unit weight i see Fe Gine a7) SOIL AGGREGATE 5 eee ZL ates ceeeeasl ava t= ES Sm Gine tre = IGG = Dre 18) Several other functional telaonships are given in Table LAL Example 1,1 For soll in natural state, rene © 08,w = 24%, and G, = 2.68, {@) Determine the moist unit weight, dry unit weight, and éepee of saturation 8) U the soil is made completely saturated by adding water, what would is ‘noisture content be at that time? Also find the saturated unit weight Sovution Par fa}: From Eq. (1.11), the moist unit weight is Gri 4™) Ite Since Ye = 9.81 KNIn*, 5 = 25881 +024) 1408 BID AN ow? 1 is Fig 18. Weights some elatonsp 4 sacaied 9s WATStt “ - 4. on Mine ad pesto ro BOPMON 4mR “G 16-06 48 C96! “amONDO Beg WER yarns np saysadord gos snouen Jo eNotes (NONI 11 IQR8 ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS From Eq, (1.12), the ty unit weight i Gore, 880.81 nen ew ENCED 0 ae spay? ise” 1408 From Eq, (1.13), dee of aarton 9 O20 05 shen Part (b): From Ea, (114), fer saturated seis x 100 ° SS x 100 = 29 45% Tae 8), the 1.2.2 General Range of Void Ratio and Dry Unit Weight Encountered in Granular Seils For greta: soils (sind and gra be snualized by considering an sare spheres af equa: sue. The loosest and the densest possible arrangements that we ean obtain frem these qual spheres aie, respectively, the simple cubic end the pyramidal type of packing 32 shoun in Fig. 16. The void rat corresponding tothe simple cubic typeof anangement 1 O91; chat for the pyramidal type of arrangement is 0.34. in the cate of nature ranvlat tolls, particles aze neither of equal s2e nor perfect spheres, The smallaized pardcles may cceupy void spaces Setween the larger ones, which will tend te 12d ‘he void rae ef natural sous as compared to that for equal spheres. On the ether and, the imegularity in the shape of the parhcles generally tends to inereate she void ratio of soll as compared to ideal spheres. AS result of these two factor, the oid ratios encountered in real soi are approximately in the same range as these oblained in the case of equal spheres Table 12 in panular sis. 2, the range of void ratio generally encountered car sstvation in hich part 1 some typieal salves of void ratios and dry unit weights encountered Fig, 1.6 Simple cubic &) and povemiess ype of arcangement of egu8 Pee SOM AGGREGATE 9 “Tobie 1.2. Typical values of void ratios and dry unit weights for granule soils Dry wall weight 3 Void noe Minima Meira Sou pe Maximum — Minimum W/E KN! IT RN Game of 03 103 16 127 0 Coane 07s 038 98 1B a 6 ‘ane Fieune O85 of 30 us as sunears oa os 2 1 no " tne Gunaly on 02 ” is a 2 suyunt 4 os 83 3 us 9 Simard O88 ous %0 “ irre B ewe 1.2.3. Relative Density and Relative Compaction Rees = dewiy © a term gene ste to describe the degree of compaction of couse sraed sls, Relate density Dy efned as a ee 9) shetty = maximum posible vod ratio. : muy = min posible vid 139 Void eto in maturl ste of sol Equation (1.19) can also be expresed in terms of dry ut weigh of the so Gin Tam Te, « (120) Dearie Site a1 (121) ein « ant oie 22 %10 ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS rere retin) ya teimand Dey ani ° 100 ean desig i o..8 eee aeaeeEROE EROS 100 7 Reve cei area compacon once (Ate KL Lee and Singh Atsoe Meee eee we ene Sl ah Foon Dis MSCE pt 9m M2 where sagen Yau. 84 Yyat8 the maximum, minimum, and naturale doy wait woe PRE ISP" Raeveraton of as. (120), (21), and (1.22) into £9, (19) viel oa) Teenie) a2 Ye Yamuna Relaive density is generally expressed as 920 anvesagaors to comelate the angle 0 © another term occasionally used in regard to the degree of compaction of coarse. pained sols is elanre compacrion, R, whichis defined a2 Iwas been used by se nietion of 30i, the soil queficadion patent % Re wy aim) “The difference between celative density and celsive compaction is shown in Fig, L7 Comparing Eqs. (1.23) and (1.28), Be R 029 DAR) where Ry * Teruel! abmas ‘Lee and Singh (19"1) reviewed 47 different sols and gave the approximate between relaave compaction and relative density 32 R.=80* 020, (126) where D, nin percent 1.24 Specific Gravity of Soil Solids “The specific gravity of soil solids, G,, hat bees used in the weight-valume relations derives in See. 12.1, The value of G, for most nacural soils falls in the general ange SOIL AGGREGATE 11 Table 13 Typical values of G, Seite Gy Gave 165268 sue 1452.68 ste 26623 Guy 2628 55 to 2.75, For organic soils, the value may fall below 2, Some typical values of Gare given in Table 13 1.3 GRAIN-SIZE DISTRIBUTION OF SOILS 1.3.1 Sieve Analysig and Hydrometer Analysis For a basic undecstanding of the nature of sols that are gehenlly encountered, the ‘ype of distnbucon of gran ates in a gven soll mass must be known, ‘The pain-se distribution of coane-grained soils (gevelly andor sandy) is usually Getermuned by sieve analysis, Oven-tsied so withthe lumps tnoroughly broken down, 's pastes through a mumber of sieves. The weight of the dey sol cetained on each seve is determined, and based on chase weights the cumuladve percent passing a given sieve ‘8 determined. Tiss generally eferred to at percent finer, The cursben of the standard ‘eves used in he United States and their comesponcing openings are gvenin Table LA, Table 1.5 shows the celts of a pica sieve analysis, It customary to plot the wainsize distrbwcon on zemuloganthmic graph paper with the percent Bnet on the Table 1.4 US, standard sieves Sevens, Opening sits, mm 3 eas ‘ 6 ‘ bas 4 as 10 20 i 1 » 03 0 033 wo 0.02 30 ovr 0 035 7 on 16 oa 0 0s 20 oon ™ 208312. ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS Table 1 Results ofa seve analysis* PSEC ve ECCLES LS Se eee ‘comaiaie sive Comulaine mate so US ranewe fas ofvob —pasingeach Percent pe ne Peace HE Sneet seer oe Oe + 0 ry eo ws 10 30 e 10 ook 16 a 2 ss8 ee x fe m a ma “ va a 7 ae ry st tes cay 2 300 tos, sie 6 209 200 es 58 31 78 rin hs of ot ay sod + 650 ‘dave mas of so pass each newt Tre eS ofincteaiay ee asthmatic sale and the seve, openings on the lopanthmie scale. The results of the Seve analysis even in Table 1.5 ate plotted in Fig, 18 The Guin aut esinbution can be ised to determine some of the Lasic wil pa mete noch ao the effeedve size, the uniformity coefficient, and the coefficient of Tputavon, The effecnve size of 400 is she diameter through whveh 10% of the (ota Ei mas is passing and is rfer16d 1038 Dyg, The uniformity coefficient Gy defined as Diameter mm tle ae Fa U8 Gninsitedinrtoton SOIL AGGREGATE 13 asFe oo o De a7) sihere Dit the daeter tuouEh which 60% ofthe toa so mas is passing “The eaefcien of redarion Gis defined as ny Dain) where Dis the ameter tough whieh 30% of the toa! soll mast is passing unfenniy ccetfizent and the coefficient of gradation forthe Hive aalyss showin Tate 15 eas shown in Fig. 8 ih tot ealleés wel-groded so tr dirtsbution ofthe pain sizes extends over 2 rate Lae vange, In Ghat case, the valve of the uniformity coefient & lage cosenly, ato ig vefened to ay wel graded if Ct larger than about to 64nd Crs Scrucan | and. When most ofthe gine in sof mass are of approninately the sume Dircit., Coit dose to 1_ve soi eed poorly greded, Ail might have «comb ator f wo of more wellgraed si factions, and ths typeof sl is relered to Bb eepgrased 101 Figure 19 show te gompaniton of he genenl ratwe of the pane aumtusens for velhqrded, pony raded, 2nd gap-padee sll er seve annvas tedknigue described above a appease for sod gains lager tan No. 200 (0074 mm) seve size. For fneorined sols, the tehalgue wed fo eterraraion of te gran sizes hydrometer analy, Tv ie based an the icine Srtecomentiven of fob puns. "Nhe wo pelea are pert in wate, (128) ey wil Crain dinmate ep sie) Fe 15 Na of ona nbaon (1) wedded eased and O) ppA 14 ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS Fig 10 Hydeomates analy, sul fens ls Spending ie nea sapeant ne Frais, it ts asaumed chat all sod pastcles are spheres, and the velosicy of a toil pamaicle can be piven by Stokes law as me py (29) tan where Ws velocity = distance/time = Lit ns ota dda war and oa pr, teapecily 5720) Rp Sin (6: in diameter, and it is marked for a volume of (457-2 m) high and 2.5 in (63.5 mm) Canis aun Ms arma etathagce aint Sot napenton a brooke op to he 10000 er oy neg tle car a thorough mizing, hy ced inside a constani-cemperacure SOUL AGGREGATE 15 feat, Hence, the percent of ‘he tctual conditions under ‘om those for which the Aydrometers 25, temperature of20°C) itmay be necesary @ make coneaen He wbserved hyskometer readings. For further decaas reaarding the conection, “We reader should refer toa si laboratry mara (eg Bowes, 1978) the testis conducted may be different 13.2 Soll-Separate Size Limits Fae ea ates tater tap 0002s in tas Hosene ee tobe crap at PAUSE defined ar clay on the basis of eg sity mineral. ‘Cay particles pay not necessarily to develop plasdcity when mixed Fredclet of gear, feldszar, or mica may be crak dsfines fr cuy, bu hese will aot develop plsoeey 5 SPREE (0 be mote apecoprite for sel pares aay vas in at defined under vanous systems (9 be clad cay "y, True clay pacccles se mostly of colors afobably the upper lime amentals of clay mineral ae pe the tendency water, hese ae Clay eniserals Fine olin the when mixed with wat ae Is ban Jam), ang 2am is 14 CLAY MINERALS 4) Compssition and Structure of Clay Minerals Clay minesals ase com Pies sikcates of alutsinum, magnesium, as4 iron, Two basic acim i ly mineral: (1) «scon-onygen tsuanedgon, wed Oe, Fae ath O agnesium octahedron, A slieon-onyien torah Fs J 12s, erst of four oxygen atoms tumocnaane diame fsa alc thee hownin Fig. t-te do ee oxyzen ‘ahedton ats shared by neighboring teteahedna Posidve valance of 4 i inked to four oxygen atoms wh take an, MIRAE OF B. However, cath oxygen stom at he buc steee tetahedron Loss 10 140 icon atoms This leaves ane agave valance charge ofthe 1op oxyzen atom ef each ye '6ure 1.12) shows an oeanedat atoms tocsted ag *trahedron co be counterbalanced, FyOFM LT. FAR, AASHTO, Corps of rein SOIL AGGREGATE 17 © sticon ft ean f) Se sheee (9) Goi seat (Slabs fe Goi Phys OF Sok: ey Boon, fel Me Die ASCE, vol, 65. m2. S4218 ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS unit consisting of six hydroxyl uniss surrounding an atsminum (or 4 magnesium) tom. The combiaason of the aluminum octahedral units forms a sibbtice sheer {ig 1.138), If the main metallic atoms in the octakedeal units are magnet, these ° Sheets ave cofered (o a5 érueite sheets, When the slice sheets are stacked over the aeuahedea sheets, the oxygen atoms replace the hydroxyls 10 sadsfy their valance bonds, This is shown in Fig. 1.13¢ hay minerals with eworayer sheets. Some clay minerals consist of repeating layers of twoliyer sheets. A ewolayer sheet isa combination ofa slica sheet with 2 pobsite Sheet, or a combination of a silica sheet with 2 bracite sheet. The sheets are about FEN taice, Toe cepeating layers are held together by hydrogen bonding and secondary valence forces. "Kaolinite & the most important clay mineral belonging ¢0 this type (Fig. LN) ther common clay minerals that Fall into this category ace serpentine and helloysice Clay minerals wth theee ayer sheets. The most common cay minssal with theee dyer Sheets ave ilice and montmonitonite (Fig. (15), A thseelayer sheet corsists of an Detahegral sheet in Une middle with oe silca sheet atthe top and one at the bottom. Repeated layers of these sheets form the cay minerals [lige inyers ave bonded together by potassium ions, The negative charge to balance tne potassium ions comes [rom the fubsutution of aluminem for some siicon in the tetrahedral sheets, Sobstitudon of this type by one element for another without hanging the crystalline form is known 38 Zomorphavs substicurion. Montmorilonite has a amor structure (o lite, However, unlike aie there are no porassium ions pretent, and a large amount of water is attracted into the space between the three sheet layer. “The details forthe basic structure of some clay minerals ae given in Table 1 6 lementry machina ever Fig 14 Symbolic nevevte for notte Fig 15 Symbote svetues of lice ad by montmanonte 142 Specific Surface of Clay Minerals enesses of 100 10 1000A, Bliss particles have lateral din: 5 of 1006 800m*/g, respectively, Table 1.6 tists the specific surfaces of som: cae e810 as specif 14.3 Cation Exchange Capacity Chay patency ane negates seguuve enace nan ideal eet re and ne Gage would be talaneed However somarphou obidtuton a token eonaty of svete etl a not aegaure y ales (hee agate eharge 9 the faces of ie say sare (Thee te a o sme pote charger a the gage of there pss) To ode he charge, the clay parucles attract positively charged ions ae Nae Teese ace teerted (0 as exchangeable ions. Some ate mote st cesar, and ihe eon cab aged needa eos of Oe 2 follows: : cana 2 pore wat ed ean ry for auteacdon ADTD Ca" > Mg! D> NHS DK’ D> HD ND LToot ors, oot oot os 08 ore Susie put ivy aN pert ae soon ay rset oes drones fue xe Olea :nogwis. crwonvon sverounwort on TRS EES DR DD ‘ ) armsasands snone Hel a ah el sqoroor 4019 9° 218072 ADVANCED SOtL MECHANICS “This sees indicates that, for example, Al ions can replace Ca?" ions, and Ca ions an replace Na ions. The process is called cuion exchange, For example Nagar + CAC > Caeay # NACL Cation exchange capacity (CEC) of a cay i defined asthe amount af exchangeable ions, expressed in mllleuivalents, pee 100g of dry clay, Table 1.6 gives the cation achange capacity of some clays. The laboratory procedure for determination of CEC fs given in ASTM Special Technical Publication No. 479 (1970) 144 Nature of Water in Clay “The presence of exchangeable cations on the surface of clay particles was discussed in the preceding section. Some salt precipitates (cations in excess of uhe exchangeable fons and their associated anions) are also present on the sucface of dey clay particles ‘When water it added to cay, these cations and anions float around the clay particles Eig. 1.19). "AL ahs point, it mustbe pointed out that water motecules are dipolar since the hydrogen atom are not syminetsicaly arranged around the oxygen atoms (Fig. 1.173) ‘This means that a molecule of water is ike a rod with positive and negative charges 2¢ Opposite ends (Fig. 1178). There are unser general mechanisms by which theie ipolse tater molecules, 0° dipoles, can be elesiically attracted toward the surface of the clay parucles Fig. 1.18) attiction between the negatively charged fives of clay particles and she positive tends of cipoles b, attraction between cations in the double layer and the negatively chacged ens Gf dipoles. The easions ae in tum atinacted by the negacely charged faces of clay particles suctce Fig 116 Dilfare doubt aes solu acoREGATE B o Fig. 1.17 Dipoat sate of wate © Sharing of the hydrogen atoms jn the water mole Detween the exygen atoms in che clay pac warer molecules ules by fy2eogen bonding ssygen atoms in the The eletsealy atsacted water that surrounds the cay gaacles © known ab doublelayer wergr, The plastic property of clayay sols s due to the existence of Cipate ae 4a Fig 14 Dipolar water molecules in afune double are. / iAa24 ADVANCED SOL MECHANICS SOIL AGGREGATE 25 | 9 (oy. P40) © Concentration of positive and negative ions away from clay eurfaee in > (ta 8 ee ® w average electric potensal aa distance x (Fig. 1.21) eee EE sronmeritonie nie valences =e salve tempera YOK. (afer TW tere tempe: Comneried Gey” Sircrur, Tears. ASCE. vel The charge density oat a distance vis given by e 128 1860) e er. v.en (32 Goubledayer water. Thicknesins of doublesayes ater for typical Kaolinite and mont According to Poisson's equation nrofillenite crystals ae shown in Fig, 18, Since the innermost layer of dovbledaye: ‘eter is very strongly helé by a clay parce, sit referred t0 a8 adsorbed woier 14.8 Repulsive Potential The nature of the distribution of fons in the diffuse double layer is shown in Fig. 1.16 ce Several theories have been presented in the past to describe the ian distribution close to a charged surface, Of these, the Gouy-Chepman theory has received the most asention. Let ws assume that the ions in the dowble layers can be treated as point charges, and ut the surface of the clay particles is large compared to the thieznese of the double layes. According to Bolumann’s theorem, we ean write that (Fig. 120) veo a 9 (130) veo 9 OP aay . Fig, 1.21 mater’ of sanation of local concentration ef pedtve ions at a distance x Lp IMAL 2 th stance from oe local concentration of negative ions ats distance x2% ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS fo -in 33) ey ie constant of the mesium. “Astuming vim. and A.4o) = Aa(o) =Mo, and combining Eqs. (1.30) t2 (1.33), we obtain PH mau ved ee (3s) eager, Iu is conveniznt to cette Eq, (1.34) ia terms of the folowing aoadimensional — 3s) aaa Le 036) xT and Ex : 37) sahere isthe potensal a the surface ofthe clay pasticl ans Bnnge*v? (em?) a3) MP Ths, fom £9.(134), 3) “The solution yes the elation gn gene He Het (9) a= Ne qui (10) gota apronimaaly exponent ey of potent, The ac Seeee eae nondenenina penal y wih the nondension! inane is vena Fi 122 ae ee A tgs genial (less han 25 nV), we can spprmuate Eo (138) 3 ae Fs aay sy eae ees solL AccREGAT: 71 oneimansanalaisance ¢ 4.1 2 Varincon wf naadimens Equation (1.42) describes a purely exponential decay of potential, Foe dhs sondivon, the center of gravity of the diffuse charge is located ata distance of x= Ife ‘The ir Ife is generally cefeerea to at che double-layer chicknets, ‘There are several factors what will affect the vanauin of she cepuluive potensal with distance from the surface of dhe clay layer. The effect of the eation eencenteaten and ienie ‘ shown in Figs. 1.23 and 1.24, respectively For a given value of ‘hy and x, the cepusive potemiat @ decreases wath the increase of ion concer trauon 1g and tonic alence v When clay ucles are close to snd parallel ro exch other, the nazure of variation of the potential wil be as shown in Fig 1.25, Note for this case chat atx = 0,0 = and \. r= (rnidway between the plates), @ = $y and do/dx =, Numericat lutions for the mondimensional potential y = y4 (Je, © y) for vasous values of x ard f= ad (ie. =a) ate pen by Verwey and Overbeek (1948) (see also Fig. | 25) 14.6 Repulsive Pressure ‘The sepubsve pressure midway between two parallel clay plates (Fig. 1.27) ean be ven by the Langmuir equation pean (oa St) we whore 2 1s the cepulsive pressure, i, we aifferen euween the camode presurt1 ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS SOILAGGREGATE 29 a ce Fig 122. Efect of eagon concen Desa bomen waren don ou She repusve ravens x ng. LBS Varason of @ bere oe toe pale ey sass a Fig 1.26 Elect of Sac valence on ‘Divan Forces USeeepleve poten rrr Fig (26 Nature of vonaton ofthe nendientons) midplane poten for wo Pe) plate30 ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS | | ets . | : a | | ‘etween 00 pra ay plate midway between te plates in celation 10 chat in the equilibrium solution, Figure 1.38, which is based on che results of Bole (195 rental vanation ofp batween two clay parties Although the Cuoy-Chapman theory has been widely used co explain the behavior ‘of clay, dhere have been several important objections to this theory, A good review fof these objections has been given by Bol (1955) shows the theoretical and exper 1.4.7 Moceulation and Dispersion of Clay Particles le adgivion to dhe eepubsive force between the clay parti active force, which is lacgely attibuted to the Van der Waals (oree. This is x secondary sondiag force that acts between all adjacent pieces of matter, The force Between (wo fay parallel surfaces varies inversely 25 1/e? to L/x*, where x is the distance between, the (wo surfaces, Van der Waals force is alse dependent 0: eeirc conssant of the medium separating the surfaces, However, if water is the separating medium, subscantial changes ia the magnitude of the force will no: oczur with minar changes in the constitution of water ‘The behavior of clay particles in 2 suspension can be qualitatively visualized feom ‘our understanding of the attractive and cepubsive forces between the particles and with the aid of Fig. 1.29, Consider a dilvte suspeasion of clay particles in water ‘There colloidal clay particles will undergo Brownian movernent and, during this fandom movement, will come close to each other at distances within the range of interparticle forces. The forces of atraction and cepulsion between the clay particles vary a ifferent rates wath respect to the distance of separation, The force afzepulsion b Soi AOGREGATE 31 dscreaes exponential with distance, wheres th r dace expnenly with eteas the force of attrction decreases at ths lvere dud 0° fourth power of distance, at shown in Fig, 129, Depending on ance of stpaiacion, if eke magnitude of the repulsive (ote is greater thas oe imagriude of the attractive fore, tenet ceult wil be repulsion. The clay pardles joule individually and form a dense layer at the Doctor; however, they wll femain separate feom theit neighbors (Fig. | 30). This is relered to as he cere Hate f the soil. On the other hand, if the net force between the pansies is acusedon Boss wll be formed and these flocs wil sete tot fos a Co the bottom. This called flocculared Sak flocculation and aon Moccuation. We saw in Fig. 123 the effect of salt coreenuration, a, on the cepulsive potential of ely particles, Hh set concentaaon Pratt the doubie layer of clay particles and hence the force of repulsion, Wo moted earlier in this section that che Van der Waals force largely conte bates to ake 100 Tow fs ABE Repusne peste beeen osu manures GU Bott, Phyucat and Chemical Anu vol Put Con 7 85.1956 8 permerion of te lace Ph 1 (edronn aite, Compressible of Pe Ca, Georecheigun vol + 1 inssravon 3! Qo Engneen }[32 ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS Fe 9 Danese force of atiaction between clay parteles t2 suspension, If dhe clay: particles are suspended in wate: with e high slt concentration, the flocs ofthe clay particles formed by dominant axiracsive forces wil) g¥e them mostly an orientation approx: panlielism (face-osace type). This is called 2 alttype fioceulston (Fig, | 322). ‘Another type of force of attaction between the cay particles, which is not ken into aceount in colloidal theories, is tht assing from the electrostatic atsrction of the positive charges at the edge of the particles and the negative charges at the face. In a seil-water suspension with low salt concentration, this electrostabe force of ing —_— = eee — ~ Fig 1.30 le) Duperson and (0M sation of SON.AGGRECATE 33, ts tw Figs 1.31 te) Set and 8) nonaalsfceuiton of cay’ patie (After T. Lome, Compecied (Gey. Suture, Tras ASCE, se 124.1260) attcaction may produce a Nocculaion with an orientaon approaching a perpendicular fariay. Thus shown in Fig. | 21b and is ferred to a8 nonsalt Nocculation, \.§ CONSISTENCY OF COHESIVE SOTLS 1.8.1. Atterberg Limits The presence of clay minerals in 2 fine grained soil wail allow if to be remelded in the yuesence of some moisture without crumbling, 2 chy slurry i dred, the moisture Content wll gradually decrease and the slurry sill pas from a liquid state to 2 plastie te, With further drying, it will change to 2 remisalid stale and finaly to 2 sobd trate asshown in Fig, 132 Ln about 1911,4 Swedish selentst, A. Atterberg, developed 3 method for deseribing the limit consistency of fine-grained seils on the basis of moire content. These kits aie the liquid limi, the plasme fimit, and the shrinkage limit, ‘The figuid lms is defined a¢ the meisture content, in percent, at which the soi! changes from aliquid state to 2 plastie state. The liquid limits now generaly deter mined by the standard Casagrande device (Casagrande, 1932, 1948). The moptore Levis Semis solid i i usw oui ‘rinkege Fie 1.32 Comteney of eaheive“3H. ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS contents (in percent) at which the so changes [rom a pst to serislid state and Sera eid to 2 sold state are defined, respectively, asthe plaroe tfmis and the apasnkage lm, These Uuts are generally refeted to asthe Accerberg limits ra vTerery Lie of cohesive soll depend on several factors such as amount and type of cay minerals sd type of adsorbed cation, ype Gifeence between the Lud Liat and the plastic Limit of a soi is defined asthe pluetny index Pl Preli—PL ss) wwinere LA i he qui ir and PL the pasts it 1.5.2 Liquidiey Index “The telaive consistency fa cohesive si can be defined by a aio called the guiiy index Li, tis defined vss) ener my isthe natural mitire conten, ft ca8 be seen from Eq (1-45) hae eee TTY hen te ligucy index is gel wo 1. Aasin if we = PL, he Halhly weg ngual 10 D. Thus, or 2 satural sol) deposit whieh sin» plans vate Ge re ay bat), ee value of the Lquidity indes vais betwean I and ©. 4 nec ere th wy > EL wil havea lguidy index gente than 1, Ioan undisiarad we eee vos may be sable, howentr, sudden shock ay waraform them wo tp iguid sive, Such sols ae called sensirive lays 1.5.3 Activity tr was pointed out in Sec, 14.4 tat oriented water (adsorbed and double yen) Byes re tae pase property ofa clay soi, The thickness of che onented wats: sound Se Mickie is dependent on the typeof iy mineral. Tha ean be expected Hat a eiaay ofa gen cay wil depend 00 (1) the ante of the clay eine pxceny re Dye amount of clay mineral present, Based en nboratony ce sue for sve aay ton (1953) made the obiarvation chat, for» pren 0, the plasky inde seifienly proportional to the percent of caysize fraction (2. percent by weight ney Goer mun in size), ab shown ip Fig. 1.33, With tie observation, Skespron Sefined a parameter ealed aervicy as aL = 6) 4 uinete Cis the percent of elaysize fraction, by weight. {t should be noted thatthe ‘unty oft gen sol wil bea function ofthe typeof clay mines presenti it TS icanties of ever sand clay mineral mixtures have been evaluated by Seed soi | Fig 122 Visadon of ptasciy ~pucene ey ion TSE feces eee #8960) Tay tte oa and ou sn fractions, the line of comeladion ‘hrough panei ou pte pupa team omeien oan cy aeen oan ‘of expansive clays (Sec, 1.8.2). oe 1.6 SOIL CLASSCFICATION Se etn ane of to wos go of ge onde 8 common fanguage 10 express beely the general usage characteristics trated eacapioa Nt be gran ame foo mejor tal tation mrs valle for peer tnpaening wt, They te 2a united nem, shch ws debe Del, ard he ASSHTO sytem, Bok ° en Both sens us Ample index popes ch 3 gealn-size distribution, liquid limit, and plast in : index of 108 1.61 Unified Soil Qassification System The unified system of soi classified The rfid sytem of oi dsicndon we orgy prope by A. Capa n IB4Qand was then eed in 1952 by the Coes of Engine and he US, ras of Recamaon, ie ren frm, he en wey ed by mea oredr echaucal engseen in private Consulting busines, and building codes, E36 ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS Initially, there ave two major divisions in the suster. A soils classified a x conse Nelly an¢ sandy) if move than $O% is retained on » No, 200 seve and oa fneggained sol (ity and clayey) if more than SO% & passing through 3 No. 209, “The sal is then forther dlasifies by a number of subdivisions, as thoun in Table 1,7. The following symbols are used G pre Ww: wetlgrded 5: ead P poorly graded © day Hs hgh placiicy M 1: low plasty (0: organic sit ot cay Pr peat and highly organic soi) Example 1.2 Fora sell specimen, even pusing No.4sieve=92% passing he. AO sieve = 78% passing No. 30 15. passing No, 200 sieve = 65% plasticity index = 22 fied casiiestion wystem grained sod, 2, could be ML,CL, OL,MH, CH, ot OH, Now ifwe plot Table {7.40 falls the zone CL 1.7 COMPACTION OF SOILS 1.7.1 Theory of Compaction and Procter Compaction Test Campton of lot fs simple say of crasng the saity and losers capes of sls ed us nt ached angamontohed ee Cae, robbere tm ae orate The sampueson proces, owt ste pce in smal it, Wier en saan esol cosre ts ubncusgogenon eso pres Nth he pean wietpaeng fo. te sol gure cp ove each he and move itt Senay Sigua panten The eft of nceasng he oe contents emontted i ‘Sis hy when compacted its compaction fr af 1387S erent can be compacted to a unit weight of BS Ib/ft? (13.4 kNfm! CPN our conten b teed ude be sane compaeue eff, He we Seen ome pay ncwaes Apanlornhed wh nt cat Ue of about T2SI5/t0 (1S 681Nm) a moat conten of abot 20% Se eld unt nigh ted By sang 00 However, 1, 1s = a = 1H TIBIE (6 3BENI?) men ive" 1303 SOIL AGGREGATE 37 If the moisture content is incteszed further, the soll becomes more workable Hocesgy, tne mowture thes up the space dua might have been oesupied by sol solids, consequently, te moist unit weight decreases The aegeee of compaction ofa soi is measured in terms of dry unit wei, For 1 ven compueive efor the dry unit weight is ploted against the cowespendink eanrceerent, the nature of the plot will be as shown tn Fig, 1.38. The moisture aera coneaponding ta the maximum dry unit weight i caled the optimum moire “Tito plotted in Pig, 1 3S are the dey wrt weighes-assuming the degree of stutied to be toes These are the sheorericl maximum dry unit weights tat can be ated fers geen mossute content when there wil be no air in the weld spaces, Wid Oe degree of saturation a 100%, eng ata “The maximom dry unit weight at 1 pven moisture content with zer0 at voids c2m bee given by (Eq. (1.121) Ge, Gime |e Tee Ta wG, Gt w (14s) swheve yy the eero-ait-void unit weight eon acof the eanation of yn sidhmeisture content alzoshown Fig, 138 Proctor compaction test, A standaré laboratory soil-compacto ay proton (1953), and tis it wevlly efered tos the stondard Proctor tert (ASTMA esiratign D698, AASHTO designation 7.99) The testis conducted by commeton Sere yes of vol in 2 elt that is? (944 em?) in volume, Each ayer of 306 Slujpeted to 2 Blows by a hammer weighing S51 (4.5) witha 12in G304-6-m0) res frowe the known volume of the mold, Stght of moist compacted sin Ne reli, and mosstote content of the compacted sil, the dry unit weight of compaction can be determined 38 weight of moist col inthe mold ns volume of mole tele vwhere i the moisture content of soil Pncncan be cepeated several times at various moisture contents ef sol) BY FHotting 4g agains the corresponding moisture content, the optimum moisire content And the maximum Gry unit weight.can be obtained ST plot fy. reisture content of sls i ffuenced by sever freer. most inporiant of which are the type and amount of compaction effort, thy Fa oe aaimbution, ané the amount and type of clay minerals prevent. Figure 1-36 shows the gg vz moustore content plots for eight different sis. Note thet the combastrs fon oy all the sols i the same (standard Proctot compaction test) and is equal (@ ov 3ay ” w (08 se ge on paimens Imo pion apts dade sung eps tps AS 9 ype sari saint pore pe ‘y ou 16 an wen sot, 340 ADEANCED SOIL MECHANICS 0 Comgacvon ton = 12275 Fett 1585 ban) tncrene of uni 1° £ 6 i | | 30 | 4 al eile o 5 is o ar) we fig 134 The mostae conens os unit enipht seloionship indicating the ete uit weight serie anvon of sate ané tha 6ur fe he compaction etlext appiee (Rediexm Cheek, i getowen end) Salter, Peco Infacveng Compeetan Test Peas, abun Benares Bons, Buleun 375.1562) sets orn Fe Nenwie af Be steno weght ef vel wth meitine SOIL AGGREGATE 41 ss 7 Fig 1.36 web el Secerdng to AASHTO (ote: eH = 1ST. Nhe) case DW Johnson end ER Selb Factor ‘efluencing Compaenan Tet Best, reny Researoh Bosrd, Bubetn 319 esac ore content mde wit (5.5 Iblow) (i 3 2) sounaye) (he 99) as ome OE) ost (593 ./o") “The effect of eompactive effort on the dry unit weight ss, meisture content relation is shown is Fig, 1 37, With increasing compactive effort the optimum moisture cogtent Geejeaies, and atthe same time the maximum dry unit weight of compaction inereages ‘With’ the development of heavier compaction equipment, the standard Proctor test has been modified for better representation of field conditions, n the modified Proctor test (ASTM designation D-1S77 and AASHTO designation 1-180), the same rnold as in the standard Proctor test is used. However, the soil is compacted in five layers with a 105 (44.5-N) hammer giving 25 blows to each layer, The height of drop. fof the harwner i 1Bin,(457.2mm). Hence the compactive effort in the modified Proctor tet is equal to (25 blowslayer) (5 seen) senbiow) 209) sg asott-tit? (2694 kI/en") Conducting Procter tests in sandy and gravelly soils is rather tedious because of lack of contsal over the moisture content, The nature of the dry unit weight w. moisture content plot for a sand is shown in Pig, 138. With increasing moisture cont Cy unit weight gradually decreases and thea increases up to the option1 42 ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS ns v0 bot NE ee so Fay a? fer of compact eft on Sty uit weight moi v0 eee | i we 4 do v8 : we os Fig. 1.38 Proctor compacion fr elton 20d (AASHTO Le designason 199) SOIL AGGREGATE 43 molanuce content. The dec of dey uni weights obtained at lower moisture contents is a cesult of the cifect of capillary tension ln the port water, The capillary tension fests the movement of sol particles ind thus prevents the sol from becoming densely packed, 1.7.2 Harvard Miniature Compaction Device ‘The Harard miniature compaction device is used in the bborstory for compaction aad preparation of sal specimens chat ace mondy used in reteatsh work, Unlike the Proctor tert, the compaction is achieved by kxending, The volume of the mal ofthe Hacrrd miniature compaciion dewce ig (0 (62.4 sm4). a tmper sath sealed agciag delivers che aie presure to te tl layers, The spring pressure may Be 201b GN) of 401b (178), Tae numberof layer of soi in the mols and the aomber of tarps can be varied, thus varying th gy of compaction pet volume of sl. 1.7.3 Effect of Organic Content on Compaction of Soil Souls with high percentages of organic content 2¢ often on work, Increase of organic content in 4 tel tenes to de lust weight of compaction and increase the compresubility of the 40U, cendences ‘which are not desirable in the construcaoa of foundations, embankment, ete, Franklin eal, (1973) itudied the effect of organic contents on the steengts and compaction charsctensdes of mech ‘organic sols and peat and of aacural so samples with the same organic The runeralogy of the inorgais fraction of these samples was reasonably the sams. Samples for these wats were compacted ia the Harvard miniature compaction dence vith three layers, 4040 spring force, and 40 tamps per each layer. Figure 139 shows the vanation of the maximum ary vrit weight of compaction wtth the ocganis content, and the verution of the epdmun moisture content with the organic content shown in Fig, 140. The organie content O for these soils s defined as, 4 during conserve Ute maximum dry sb of day weight due to heating the sol from 105 40 $00°C ° ey weg du sheng thf fom 105 ay ey weight (at 105°C) ‘Two major conclusions ean be drawn ftom Figs. 139 and | 40, (1) If che orgie fontent in a gen soit § moce than about 10%, Che masamar dry unit weight of compaction decreases considerably. ) The opamum moisture concent increases waa the increase of organic contents of sol 1.74 Field Compaction ‘The degree of compacdon achieved i the field by x rollee will depend on sever factors that include: L. Taskness 2. Agen over whch the presure is apple.DOs6 ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS 104 LS a Sos Ovgenie consent Fg 1.39 Manumum ety unit weight ot ongtniesenrent forall compaction ees. (Note 1 S21 Kim) sRecrown sfier AP Prasiin, LF. Qrosce, and R Serrev, Comssrror of Bightly Orgone Seik 1 S04 Mech, Feure.O ASCE, vo #9, ne SHE. 1 3, Intensity of pressure applied te the so Type of roller 5. Number of roller passes ‘The growth curve during the Geld compaction of a Jean clay is shown in Fig. 14 Ie ean be seen Wat the dry unit weight ofthe soi gradually increases withthe increase of the number of passes of a roller. After about eight to ten pastes, the incease in so of the 200 is rather nepigble. In most cates, the maximum eccnomieally attinable Gry unit weight ls achieved oath about ten toler pastes. ‘Vibratory roles ate particularly wsefu for compacting granular sols. Self propelleg and (owed Wbratony roller of various ses, Weights, ane vibration fhequenciee are allable, The vibrations are generally produced by folating an off-center weight. Verical vibrations can be obizined by using twe synchranized countersotaling weights, a5 shou in Fig, 1.42, Atany Even instant, the horizontal forces developed by the countersotating weights are canceled cut, Figure 1.43 shows the nature of compaction of dune sand achieved by a wbratory roler after five pastes, The low SOIL AGGREGATE 4S * 5 é 5 a vn ding eos is Fie 140. tect of diving Bisons and oitssie contem on gptimem mowture content (Afie ATP artim. LF. Grote, end R, Senet, Compecron af Siphile Orgerie So, 3. oi Mech Fount Bie, ASCE, vol 98 m0, HT. 1973) tpt weight that remains in the uppermost 2one is due to vibration and Trek of confine tent in sand. Figure 144 shows the compacted unit-veight profiles for Btt bits of the same dune sand (Fig. 1.43) for 2,5, 15, and 4S roller pases, Fer felé compaction work, the specification requires thet che granular scil be compacted (0 2 certain ‘minimum relative density 41 all depths, Determination of the height of each bit Gepends on the type of toller and the economic eumber of passes. The method for determination ofthe Lift height is shown in Fig, 145. : a sre Haw rater : Titer oe ve z zg 7 6 5 1572 o “ e 76 ig, LAY Elect of member of passes ex compaction of eas cy. (er EH. Yoder, “Poneelet ef Tevement Design," wiley, Hew York, 1238,) pl as ant se oe ok 6a Ad ent ha os Se‘ = 46 ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS Fig. 142 Princes of ratory coer e100 wes ; Soir pases st Taeaietascamy 41S Breast ite an L L yas 16 16 v7 a Fig LA) Unit weight vt, septs eauon for ratory sles compaction (Redeann afer 0.4 D'azpetonis, RY. Whuuman end £. O'Agpolon, Sand Compettion mth Vibratory Roller, 1 Sau Mech Found Div, ASCE, et 95,0 Sil, 1988) SOIL AGGREGATE 7 ry unit weit sh! | es ate / ea | af sfrsf as, a 5 1s rr) ry unt wagns atm! Fig 44 Conpaced w 1 eid proes or $i (2 48am) hit Neat a1, 5,15,396 45 néroty ‘eet paten, Retrawn after DA D'Azpolons, 8 ¥. Whitman, snd & DAvpeion, Sand Com ‘econ with Mbsatory Roller, So Nosh, Found. Div, ASCE col D5. no. SM. 1969) 1.7.5 In-Place Densification of Granular Soils Several new tchniquessuch as he Terra Proble method, Vibreflatation, blasting, and building sand compaction-ples-have been successfully used for compaction of le su granular soils, in chis section, che wbroflocation and blating techniques wll be treated in some detail Vibrofloration. The vibeoflotauon techaique, which is patented by the Vibsoffottion Foundation Company, is mast sutabte for the range of soll grin tees shown in Fig 146 The process involves the use of a davice called a Vibraflot, shih isa eyindncal piece of eq.iigment abaut 6 f (=2 em) long, 15 in (400 mm) in diameter. and weighing about 41> (S17.8KN). An ecceateis waight inside the cylinder develops a cents fuga foxes of about 10 tons (89 KN) at 1800 «pm, The device has water jets at the Cop45 ADVANCED Sort MECHANICS mun, ane ED Pied ce sry of wih fe Topas Ug a fy i igh Ot me Vibveron Roem ‘Sad Com Fe 146 Rane of ZZ 002 S21 O0eE DOR? e.a01 : este ditibutansuthle for densification by Vibroietation (fier JL. Michel, In Place Trsment of Feurdeton Sob, , Sal Mech Found, Div, ASCE, 96 SOIL AGGREGATE 49 and bottom, these have a low ate of 6 10 BC galfoun (0.2274 10 0.303 m?fmin) at fr pressuie of 69 to BOTb/Mt (415 te SSOKN/m*), The compaction process is uswated ty Fig. 147 ‘The Vibvoflet sinks into the grovnd at the rate of 3 to 6 ft/min (%I to 2 m/min). ‘when the desited depth i reached, the (opjelis turned off. The deviceis then withdrawn, st the rate of 1 ft/min (0.3 mfmin) ané sand is ad¢ed from the top, Examples of several Vibyoflota in applications have been summarized by Mitchell (1970). In a regular working day, compaction of 10,000 to 20,000yd? (2550 te 510m?) not uncommon. Blssting. The range of soil grain sizes scitable for compaction by the blasting method is the same as for Vibrofiotation (Fig. 1.46). In this method, compaction it achieved bby successive detonations of small expleive charges in saturated sil Relative densities Gf 70 to 80% up 10.4 depth of 60 to 78{¢ (=20 10 28m) can be achieved. In this method. eaplesive charges (60% dynamite, 30% special gelatin dynanvte, and ammonite dre inost commonly used) are placed a€ abou! (wothirds the thickness ofthe stratum to be densified. The spacings of the charges vary from 10 10 2511 (=3 to 8m). Three to five successive detonations of severs) spaced charges are usully required to achieve {Owe deste’ compaction. Repeated shots ate more effective than either a single large fone of tevetal imal) ones detonated simltaneously. The shock waves due to blasting aute liquefaction of the saturated sand, followed by densification. Practically no Compaction is achieved In the top 34¢ (21 m), and so tht zone usually needs recom, paction by roles, Mitchel (1970) has tabulated severa projecss where blasting has ‘been wed for densification 1 weight of charge and the sphere of influence for eomgaction (Lyman, 1942; Mitehell, 1970) by the approximate relation weer 150) where W= weight of charge, 18 Rom sphere of influence, ft C= 0,0025 For 60% dynamite 1f basting is to be used in dry or party saturated roils, preflooding is desinbie, 1,8 VOLUME CHANGE OF SOILS LB8.1. Shrinkage and Swelling of Clay hy soils undergn a volume change when the moisture content is changed; decrease of meisture content wil cause shrinkage, increase of moisture content will result fr swelling. The degree of change in volume depends on factors such as type and amount of clay minerals present in the 40l),spoifie surface area of the clay, structure of the toll, portwater lt concentration, ence of the exchangeable cation, etc. Large volume changes of toils have cesulted in extensive structural damages. ahs! oh eee ae e aBoe eM olhe compecte sent of Foundation Sei, J Sot Mech Found. Bir tr J K see, Dn Place De iRediomn Fg, 147 Compaction process by Vibroton SCE, vot 95.57, 2970) ye SOIL AGGREGATE SL ‘The swelling of clays results from the increase in the thickness of the diffuse ion layer as water is supplied, Monovalent exchangeable sodium ions will cause greater ‘selling than divalent calcium ions. Figure 1.88 shows the axial hvinkage of a sty clay soil, The shrinkage in this case was meseuced after compacting the samples at various moisture contents, Figure 1.49 shows the swelling pressures developed in a compacted sindy clay soil when amples were confined to approximatily constant volume by means of compaction malis and pistons on theis upper surfaces, For these tats sven to the samples, 1.8.2 Swelling Potential of Clay Soils Because of the potential hazards to foundadons constructed on sits chat undergo high volume change, there is 4 need to idendiy such sous. A number of attempss have been made by various investigators to develop 4 reliable method (cr heir identification Holts and Gibbs, 1956, Bouin, 1561; Jenrungs and Krugnt, 1958; Seed et al, Nayak and Chaistenzen, 1971). Seed et al, (1962) conducted severl txt on laboratory comps mineral mixtuces to determine theic swell potential. Swel potennal it a | ab 4 «| By i 2 ab 1 Sram tome ah Fig LAB acid whore of ay sy (Rednwn ter A Sted ond ‘Soucrure nd Sirenh ey af Compected Ca 1 Sou veer Foura Ow, ASCE, vol 35,00 545.1955)St ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS {zee | 3 te ae v7 z gue 3 pee Fra a7 ntuene of dig vate antes on seul presute eft sane hy (alter H. Seed ond © 4. Oven, Stvere tnd Strength Cherectensics of Campecied Gert, I Sei) Mech. Pound” Bi ASCE, 1) #8. ne. SMS. 1859) a BM ee se percentage of swell under a Lops (6 944N/sn* surcharge of lateral conf compacted at eplimum moisture eanient to maximum dry densuy in the standard [AASHTO compaction text. Based on these tests, 2 well-defined selatonship wa ‘eyualiheg between che swell potential, the acuity, and the percent of clay fraction Ges shan Den eae) the yao where $= swel potential (percent of anal swell under J-1b/0 pressure) C= percent of ey fection, by civity = A(PIIOC Equation (1 51) was further extended fot an empirical relation berween the rel potengal and plasticity index of sei (60) (FI 36x 10708 5 = (2.16% 107) (EI s where as Conforming 19 she USBR prac Seed etal. made the following east to describe & soil en its clean § te Meso nigh SO1L AGGREGATE $3 Figure 1.50 shows the elasifieation chart for the swelling potenti, Ranganatham and Satyanarayana (1965) have suggested 2 correlation for tre swell potential similar te that geen by Seed etal, This is based on shrinkage incex, swell Tobvity, and the percentage of clays fraction in the scil. The shrinkage index ST ie defined as the difference between the iquié Umit and the plastic Lit of sol, The Shrinkage inden hears a linear relation to the percent of the claysize fraction by SSeight present in sol. This i shown in Fig, 151. Swell ccvivity SA is defined a sist xe (133) “The conelations for swell potential piven by Ranganat am and S31y4 Sa STR IOAN OM oss) ss) 8 = (4112 10°80} a 78 ro 0 0 Percent of cay taetion 10.002 Fig. 1S0 Chifeton chart for rwen petentn.(Redrown efter H. B. Seed, RJ. Woodward Fe i Lundnren, Predienon of Seeling Potential for Compected Gays, 3. Soi Mech. Fovnd Div. ASCE. as B8 no, SM 1962)S4 ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS Fig 151 Nate of esition 9 ‘The classifications for degste of soll expansion based on dhe shrinkage 3s follows dex ate Oepeeaterranion SI Low 00 Medien 2030 hi 30-60 Yesy wien >a 19 EFFECTIVE STRESS 1.9.1 Effective Stress Concept in Saturated Soils ‘Terasghi (1925, 1936) was the fist to suggest the principle of effective stress. Azc3esi (o this, the wial verecal sets @ at a point O in a ol mast as shown in Fig. 15 canbe given by OAT Ata (150) ‘The total vertical stress @ consists of two parts. One part is caied by water and is conunuous and acts with equal intensity in all directions. This the pore water SOIL ACCREGATE 55 Pressure o¢ neutral sess, u, From Fig, 1 522 uaa asn The other partis the ates carted by the soil structure and is called the effecrve siress Thus o=o'ty (153) Combining Eqs. (1.58) v0 (1.58), Vr hr tad 1 his: srt hay ss) lahere y's the submerged unit weight 908, tac For dry sols, u=0,10.¢ = ts genera, if tie noemal toa stresses at point ina soil mass are a), 09, and 9535, shown in fig. 153, the effective streais can be given 48 flows! Fig. 152 Etecovesien concep GY secdon, 16) secant re oF OG) Fore ofeou6 ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS Tig 1.59, Noma! fou yuesses ina sol mas < Wndueetion te} = 0, -u In direction 2,0) =e. Initection 3,03 =e ~ uhete of, 05, and 0} ate the effective steses and u isthe pore water pressure, hy. ‘The principle of effective stress (Eq (J 58)] is one of the most important findings ia soil mechanics, The present developments on compressibility of soils, shear strength, and lateral earth pressure on cetaining sirscures ate all based on the effective stress concept. ‘The term effective stres is sometines wed interchangeably with the term inter pusular stress by sols and foundation engineer Although the terms are approximately the tame, there is some difference, in order to visualize the difference, fist refer to Fig. 1 $2. The total vertical foree F at the level of O in Fig. 522 is the sum of the following forces: SOILAGGREGATE S7 ‘The force eared by sod solids a1 heir point of contact, F. Ths can be seen by considering a wavy surface XX which passes though the point O and the points fof contact of the solid particles. F, Fy, Fy... are the resultant Forces acting st the points of contact of the sol solids. So, A= Fug * Fagg + Foyt here Fe Faoa-Foen, are the vertieal components ofthe forces FFs. uth jorce cared by Water, Fe, F2ua-Ay where u = pote water pressure ® Yahy A = gross a10a of cross section of soil (Fig, 1$26) A, = atea occupied by soil solid tasclié contact (Fig. $26) 3, The electrical attractive force berween the solid particles at the level of O, Fa 44. The electrical repulsive force between the solid particles atthe level of O, Fr Thug, the total verti! force is BARA the where o i the total stets at the level of 0,206 50 4) esa cogent nena 7 =A = intergranalar stress AJA r,JA = electrical attractive force per unit ares of cross section of soi FalA = elecisical repulsive force per unit area of cress section of sod Hence out anu 2) +A RE (1.60) “The value of o in the above equation is very small In the working tress range, We tan thus approximate Eg, (1.60) a8 ASR ae) For granular soils, sits, and clays of low plasticity, the magnitudes of A’ and R ae small; go, fora practical purposes, the intergranular stres becomes ozone a) For this ease, Eqs, (1.58) and (1 62) ae similas ané o'= oj. However, 4’ —R sree, 04, 2" Such situations can be encountered in highly plastic, dispersed cays. eas OFCc c = 2 ‘58 ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS 1.9.2 Critical Hydraulic Gradient and Boiling Consider 4 condition where there is an upwacd flow of water usrough 2 soil layer, as shown in Fig. 1 $4a, The total stres at a point Ois om hity tater a6) where yysis the saturated unit weight ef sol. The pore water pressure at O is wei thy tate 58) and the effective sess at O18 ome u= (bite hatad Oath tate (065) ehyt x I the flow rate of water through the sol is continuously increased, the value of (248) L sah) ane for 10r>L Br 46) wih onstant rate of flow into bere hole length of test hole 1 = radius of bore hole hm differential head of water For eorsenienee, a (guttmin) fi =G Kin) = ey ear) ‘The values of G ate Given in Table 25 ‘Table 24 Dismeters of standard easine: ‘waite ‘outer ameiet, amelie caine ey x6 ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS comoiiated a iu = tate Conslidtes materi ~ ete saterated outa Sere Unaatrated 7 Mprevsreh Fg. 16 The packee es for prmesdlity. (Redrawn afer US. Bureeu of Rectomation, 156, by permusionof he United States Deporment of he lntvor, arr and Paver Resourte Serine} Variablehead test by means of piezometer observation wells, The U.S. Department ff she Navy (1971) has adopted tome standard vanablehead tests for determination of the coefficient of permeablity by means of piezometee observation wells. These imethocs are described in Table 2 6, Caeful atention should be paid (o the notations. Figure 217 pres the shape factor coeTicient 5° used for condiuon (A). Figure 2.13 Boer the shage factor coefficient Cy used for condition (F-1), Figure 2.19 shows the alysis of permeability by vanable head tests with ceference to Table 2.6, Example 21 Refer to Fig, 2.12 for the pumping test from a gramty well, If 1,2 Of, m2 90f, hy = 92M, and hy = 96K and the pumping rate from the Wel is 90 sljmin, determine the coefficient of permeability & Sovetion 90 galfnin 2.03 {0/min. From Eq. (233), 2.303a log (=n) _ 2303 (12.03) (log (90/50)] GAD ke = 9.003 fe'min Example 22 Refer to Fig, 2.3. For the steady statecontivion, ry = 04m, A= 28m, += Bm, and (= 10m, The coefficient of permeability of he layer is (0.03 mm/s. Fer the steady state pumping condition, estimate the rate of discharge ain fein, PERMEABILITY AND SEEPACE 87 SoLUTION From E9.(2.37), TRUE PY fap ie) Dos oats E+ (28+) 94) k=08hnnih 000 ies s (0.001 8) ((28 — a)? — 10% 4) cet 2075 © ROS) From this equation for g, we can cosstruct the following table tate of Gssharge approximately 6.43 m/min Values of C184. (247) Digneter of ee 3340 23,300 16300 15500 111300 t0300 ‘3700 suse 3200, 76 1.200 a0 600 100 $300 sa 53300, S200 4900 370000 cco 2.800 ‘Ales US Bureau of Rectmanicn (1950) Nowe 11 03908 mueveen'somuy — & rape amon 0b peur 3 yom vopsionga Baju8 sge> To) 0gt = ey JomnR wR90 ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS : i {tN (oot Go ‘Re gee aS Fg. 2.17 Shape fctor coefficient 5° wed fr eadiion (bof Tab 2a, aftr US. Navy 1971 Boron Pre PQ) ir 555) tom Soi Enatering, He, by eh SEEDSE GE 10 © Sparaler and. Richard Hardy. Copymgat 1951 ns 121963, 1912 by Harpers Row, Publishes, ine. Reprinted om By permision of he eublichr) ya 4 681 2s 601d 7 4 6 81000 ‘Uncatd eagnlacivs, UR Fig 118 Shape fst soeliien, Cycondiion (Ft) 9F Table B6. fAfeer US. Novy 1971) PERMEABILITY AND SEEPAGE 91 fee. ee eo) Suet t ee mated etaiasaze faa: fin Pacis af intake sain Teo? Sten rom recs es) vera pores and de ae a Pare enare 2 peqitha sac — [mmo je aac Fig, 259 Assiysa of permesbity by variable eas te faier US Nowy IF 2.1.7 Theoretical Solution for Coefficient of Permeability He wa poised out eae chapter hatte ow ough sols ine ha vl i rut. The iterconicteg va in enol ae be Voie se 2 oumbe of eapilary tuber though which watson how (P4220) According to she Hagenfoveullss eqeon, dhe guant'y ie vat une, q, vouah a capt tbe fas Rcan be ven Dy flow of water 1S onteate em Diolute coefficient of weeosity 4 = u13 cross section af tube 5 = hydraulic geatien:92 ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS apilary tbe can be gven by oo a4) ete’ pesimecer From Eqs (248}2n4 (2.49) ens ale @s0) ast) So, for iaminar flow conditions, bya general equa 6S ps = rie os ey the Now tuough any crus seetion ean be given where gis the shape factor, Als, the average selocity of flow ui given by % = Rh 2.53) ale Gal as) For an actual sol, the interconnected vcid spaces can be assumed to bea number cf tortuous channeis (Fig. 2.20), and fer these the term $ in Eq, (2.83) & equal to ANAL. NO™, vclume bhava PERMEABILITY AND SEEPAGE 93 ~ Giitaee sreayiwolume of por ase) =) 1 the total volume of sal is ¥, the volume of voids ik h=nl, where n & porosity. ‘Lei Sy be equal tothe surface ates per unt volume of soil (bulk). From Ea. (2.54), vcume nF on fea ss) Sv¥ Sv . y= parlsee area subetitting Bq, (2.58) into Eq, (255) and ting op =U, (where us Ue actual seepage velocity through sol), we eet a 286 aa ene 1 must be pointed ovt that the hydraulic gradient i used for soils is the macto- je gradient, The factor 5 in Eq, (2 $6) isthe microseapie gradient for Now through Sols. Referring to Fig, 2.20,/ = Qh/Al and S= SA/AL.S0, ah OL, sn 38) where Tis tortuosity, AL, JOL. ‘Again, the seepage velocity im ois 259) shee wis the discharge velocity, Subiti viele jon of Eqs. (2.59) and (2.58) into Ex. £2.58) 260) tn Eq, (260), Sy isthe surface area per unit volume of sal. If we define S, asthe surface area per unit volume of soil solids, then 2 es) where Ys the volume of gail solids ina bulk volume that is, n= Sev Su % G=Ayi Se ie 62) ny4 ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS PERMEABILITY AND SEEPAGE 95 Combining Eqs. (2.60) and (2.62), we obtain ‘Table 27 Coefficient of permeability fo uniform Madison sand, Laponaryeonstantterd tet; D102 mn ey as Catia of vsia gnu ‘ 7 ea) Pista tied re € isthe void aio, Tis elation isthe Koteny Carman equation Kexeny, ory aioe aa (927, Caan, 1956). Comparing Ens. (28) and (2.63), we fad shat the coefiient anes 039s a3 : of peimeniiy is fie as fags den ass che toe Eo car aie cia Gas CS7T? ute 7 rss 0490 rss 0.325 ried by £4, 2 6)08 tau aus fin Sao the ssoteperrenity wat fined by Eq (2.6) : ean ane gu gan aur2 ceed - ‘ Me For comparisan of the validity of the celtions given in Eqs. (2.67) to (2.69), the Comparing Eqs. (2.6) and (2.54), ‘experimental resulis Gaboratory corstani-head test) for a uniform Madison sand are age fen in Tose 2.7 Based on she cdewadons gen, de pemeamly functions te gecteee i Seen ploted ans the co Bea a OST ite ess) fant of permesbilty in appears that all vee relations are equally good 221, From the plait The Kozeny-Carman equation works wel for describing coarse rained soils such 1s and and some alu. Por Uiese cae, the Wueficiens uf pevieabilny beats a ineat reladen to e2/(1 +e), However, serious discrepancies ave observed when the Kozeny- Canman equation is applied to clayey soil. 5 For granular sous, the shape Factor Cy & approximately 2.5 and the tortuosity : rotor Tis about YT. 2.1.8 Variation of Permeability with Void Ratio in Sand Based on £g (2.64, cof Tent of permesbity can be witen a : ess) Hee eG +e) often or % area) et) weheve &y ind are the coefficients of pecmesbibty of given 10! at void mtios of evand ey respectively Seveeal other clatons for the coetlicient of permeability and veld ratio have been suggcsied, They ate of the form ra a fo ite : tee 259)9% ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS A Hazen (191 1) gave an empirical tation for per 100(D ie)? where 4 isin em/s and Dyp isthe effective sie of the soil in em, Equation (2.70) was obtained ftom the est results of Hantn where the effective size of soll saned fiom 0,1 to 3mm and the ut cient for al soils was lets Ghan §, The corfficient 100 is an average value, The individual ts: results showed 2 variation of the coefficient from 4} to 146, Although Hazes elation s approximate shows a simiarity 16 Bq. (2.69), 1, Casagrande hat alee glven an empliieal relay sands wath bully grain at ability of filter sande a (2.70) formity coe! fot & for fine or medivm clean ka takeae? any ‘ahr Ko ay is the coetficient of permeability 2t 2 veid cic of O85 2.1.9 Variation of Permeability with Void Ratio in Clay The Koueny-Carman equation does not successfully explain the varatien of die covffiient of permeability with void ratio (or clavey soils. The discrepancies between the theoretical and experimental values are shown in Figs, 2.22 206 2.23. These results nue based on consolidation permenblsty tests (Olsen. 1961, 1962). The masked depree id expecimenab values an ristien betwen the sheoretien including devatiens {rom Darcy's law, high steerity of che pose water, and unequal pote snes, Olsen has developed 8 model to acco ue to unequal pore ste. for the variation of permesblity Example 23 Resulis of a permeatiiy test ate gen in Table 2.7 and drawn in Fig 22. le) Cdeulste the “composite shape faton.” C8279 of the Koveny- Caimen equason, Gren ugyee™ 1008 1D"? pase. (6) Cg 2S ane determine §, Compare ths vue with Oe theoreti valde Deo. vi, fa sphere of diameter SouuTion Faro}: From Eq. (264), lin @ The vale of (6° /(1 +e) w the slope of the stalght Line for the pote O10 +) apni k Fig. 221), $0 emer ous ae D3 emis =] PERMEABILITY AN | 8 er set peomesiny for oto ie. Afi en 2 Cot sche Fre of Teo. 19814 eae EBL EID 5 gg x 108m SITY "0.08 107 poise ert (oj (Bote the units eaefaly) ABEHIE | [A86X9 - a1 cemt fon? NUGr | Visxq2y Sy For Dy 0.2m, surface nea ofa sphere of radius 0.01 6mm lume of spec of radius 0.91 em race drove Pow ihrourh98 ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS Fig 123. Auto of the mecated faw ete tol ema presired by ihe Koteiy Carman, squnion (or teveral cays Cure 1 Sodium ine, 10".W NaCl Cuvee 2, Sodio ie LOW Ma. Cure 5: Newel aolite, Dialed waite HO. Curve 4. Sodium Bowen biue chy, 10" SCL Cane 5 Sodiem taolnie, 1% (by Wi) sodium wirphorphace. Carve 6: Clsham Boston ioe way, 1O""W NACL. fajter Hh Olen Npdveti® Flow shrough Satrated Cas $e. Tres sertchucert niavute of acheoogy, 196!) om os 0a aor 3 Peon “soi This value of Ss 5, 311 Sem?/em? 100em* fem? O0cm¥ jem? agrees closely with che estimated value of 2.110 Electroosmosis The coctficient of permeability and hence the race of age through clay sous small compared to that in granular souls, but the drainage c2n be increated by ‘cation ofan extemal electric current. This phenomenon ita result ofthe exchange suture of the adsorbed cations in clay particles and the dipolar nature of the vaice molecules, The principle can be explained with the help of Fig. 224. When d= scncity is applied (0 the soi, che cations start to migrate (o the cathode, which sonst of a perforaied metalic pipe, Since water i adzorbed on the cations, itis also dragged along, When the cations each the cathode, they release *he water, and Ge subsequent build up of pressure causes the water to drain out. This process is called zlecirootmosis and was first used by L. Casagrande ia 1937 for sol sabiization in Germany, Rate of drainage by electroosmosis, Figure 2.25 shows a capillary tube formed by clay particles. The surface of the clay paves have negative charges, andthe cations are concentrated in a layer of liquid, According to the Helmholi2-Smoluchowsia theory (Helmholtz, 1979; Smoluchowski, 1914. see also Micchell, 1979, 1978), the low velosity due (6 an applied de voltage £ can be given by PERMEABILITY AND SEEPAGE 99 node P| camace Fig. 228 Praia of eee. em where uy = flow velocity due (o applied voltage D = dielectric constant {= tea potential tity ode spacing eet EL oa 4. Fit 2.25 HeinhatacSmotucrowsn bear (1 ecvooumnes,IO ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS Equation (2.72) 4 bued on the assumptions that the eadius of the capillary tube is large compared to the Uvckness of the @ifise double layer sursounding the clay parvcles and Gat all the mobile charge is concentcaied near the wail, The rae of low fof wats: Guough the capillary tube can be given by a= ay 43.3) where oi area of the cross section of the eapllzn tube, Ha seil mass is sumed 10 have a number of capillary tubes as cesul of inter connected voids, the rese-seeuional rea A, of the voids is Apna where A is the gross cieu sectional area of the soll and m i the poreelty ‘The rate of aischarge @ through 2 soll: 5s of pross crost-cectional ar 4 ean be amy A arg) Shere by = n(Di lds, Oe eecvocemetic coetfieent of permeability and i is the ectnical potential eadiemt The unite of ky can be Em's) and the units of fp ean be Vier. Note at Eq. (2.75}is similar form to Eq. (25) In contrat: to Us Helmhoiiz-Smeluckowski theory (Eq. (2.72)], which u based fo flow through tage capillary tubes, Schmid (1950, 1981) proposed 2 cheory in ii was assumed shat the capllaty cubes formed by the pores Se parcels are small in diameves and that the excess cations ate uni cress ihe pore crossseztiomal (Fig. 226). According to this theory ce radice volume charge dencity in pore F = Faraday constant 56), the rate of discharge @ through 2 soi) mass of grost cos AF E So PAS hl am where m & porosity end ke = n(*AyF/8n)is he electrocemotc coefficient of petmeas Dili ‘ithout arguing ever the shortcoming ef the we theoses propesed, cur purpase wil be adequately served by using the Mlowsaie relation at ¢ = kind, Some typical values of dy for sever! soils are piven in Table 2.8. These values are of the same order overnite Eee PERMEABILITY AND SEETACE 101 gee eeeeeatn eee t 44 o+heetet ++ ES : eee peta etince anna! i He vost f celfeient of permeability sable 28 Blecrooote te 2 ia cm ae : ae 1 10" Tendon an 2 ses : 33 : : ‘aon ; bowie Gey at a Shier i Rock flovt aa 20% 10% a NeMontmorbonite: wx 120% 10" Nrdtenmenonte pe eoeio" : yowder fe atx 10 oe we ‘hie ‘Quartz pewter on peasx ie Sostng coe cy yee : shyan. se i yeeon ie" bia ” omime uiee ne sete 20 ‘evn pea nee Tier seh 297)102 ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS PERMEABILITY AND SEEPAGE 103 be . of tragnivude and range from 1 5 X [O10 12x 10 em?/(6-V) with an avenge of (2.28) bout dF 10 ome V). & EeErosimons econ and isnot genely wed les danas by conventional + mans cannot be achieved. Gray and Mitchel (1961) hive uel be het ee 229) ze affect the amount of water transfrced per unit charge passed [eg gu/th A). such é 1 water content, caon exchange capstan fe ctrl coment he i eo (2.80) § 2 SEEPAGE Gedy.de = Dow entering in directions x,y, 2, respectively Buty k= costisens of pemesbiy in deco 27,2 rapecdvly ; \ Ha hyanatc ead penta 2.2.1 Equation of Continuit a € a y ‘The Nowsleaving the prism in the x,y, ands diestions are, especdiy ta many prac cst, the nate of the low af water evough sis uch ht he i fal velocity and gradient vary throughout the medium. For these problems, calculation Seine : of tow is gruraly made by wae of pap tered to low nets Toe cong a an) a the low ett bed on Laplces equation of sonunaey, wash dese eget iG ajes en flow condion for gen pln in etl mas, , To erie the equation of conan of flow, cases an eematay scl ptm (42a) wear aan Ge point Gig 2299) forthe hyde setae shown in Fy Dey ee Styl to) ee a feces te se prism in they, ants stony ean be pen rom Buena : ah ah 0 a, etn =k (2 +28 a) acy es» ae a 26 toh } For steady Now veough an incompeesite medium, the Mow enteing te elemen j 2 1acy prim it equa to the ow leaang he elementary prim. So . 1 baal 4G, += Ge + Ge) * (a, + 44y) * (42 + 4.) (as) Combining Eqs, (2.78) to (2.84), we obeain Ba ata rH ne a hae ean c ee s an GAT BG he i \ z Fer two-dimensional low in the xz plane, Eg (2.85) becomes \ as i Eten Br, Dh (236) Sees een : > Ceeetce ay oa Uf che tls atopic with cespect 0 permeability, = 24,324 the contity Ge equation simples 0 es esr ‘ mae ‘ Ths oneal cefeted to as Laptaee (288)04 ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS (289) and we éifferensiate Eq, (2.88) with respect to» 2 and substivute in Eq, (2 87), we get nd Eq, (2.89) with respect to Be La % 7 (299) Therefore, ex, 2) sates the Lapla + aquation. From Eqs. (2.58) and (2.69), wree,2) +0) tate.2) + als) ast) a and Since x and can be vanes independe Wy f(2) = BC2) = Ca constant. So oe GEC ote, t r a 293) Hs 3) 2 contin gulch Ea (253) reper ea cove will hives constant (alue,o,, Tha & 42 equipoten kao number of values foeh af 6), 45,8 ner tleng which Ao hey Aye = Une Scan now be derived join the x7 plane, For 1 ine, So, by airing st can get a number of equipotent, ae, te aon Eases Cent lotsa constant alongs curve, d= 0, Hence eles (e),--ie Again, Tet 0(¢,2) be 2 funetion such th 2-8 ee es Combining Eqs, (2.88) and (2.96), we obtain ae ab ee at e BILITY AND SEEPAGE 105, ‘Again, combining Eas. (2.69) 88 (2.97), 26 Es eee. 99) re oF From Eqs. (298) and (2.99), vy ty, Be, Moy = ue se v(e, 2) ako tie Lapler's equation. 1 we sgn to ¥LE, 2) eM valves Barba awe gets family of cures inthe 27 pane, Now antares 2100) a ura goe’eone if is constant, then d= 0 Ts fem Ea (10+ (2) 2 Bele aa Bl,” bore ote that the slope, (s/dsly in whe same direction as she ean wel Hence, he cuiven @ = Sry Pacile, ae the flow ine So ea (4.95) ane (AOR), we cam ae that a Gen pout (2) sire enti line ané the flow line are orthogonal a ae ya) and Us) ae called the posenrifanction andthe Sart function, respectively 2.22 Use of Continuity Equation for Solution of Simple Flow Problem To understand the role of the continuity ecuatien (Ea. (REN, comet simple Je nae ar tagugh two ayers of sil as shown in Figs 228.7 Dow A ae noe eidy tin the icon of the x 25s, The Teng of Oe Dee tol) wren the and Ly) and els coefBiens of permeablity i Se SET of the tren Gi Tad) ae known, The ta heads at senions 1 and 9 A now we siya he total Read at any othe secon for <i), Fro is (1 te). From the fit boundary concition and £9, (2103) AnQath, alls (2108) From th econd boundary consition and £4. (2.103), MPGbath oF Get—nyt, ‘So, $2, pe Th rth, For flow throu Fa. (2.102) ate (oro iy, we may plot square flow elemants in ayer 1 Ths means oat O12 Fe AaB), So ly = Bll. Ths the flow elements in layer 2 willbe ceranger ea ehe wiat 40 lengoh tis wll be eaual 10%, This a shows in ig, 2372 3, The Cis oe may plot square flow element in layer 1 (is. f.= by) From &a {1:195) bey = By. So the low element i ayer 2 wail Be estange, Tis shown in Fig, 2378. ‘an wample of the constuction of a ow net for a dam teesion esting oF 3 co fig, 231 Paw canna ashe Downer Senece o> aus win flees coucnns of perme PERMEABILITY AND SEEPAGE 9 Fig 238 Flow nec under» dam cwolayered sol deposit it gyen is ig 138, Note dae k= 5X 107 minis and ky 2 25x LO? mals, So, 50x10" an8, u Tse ua tm soll ayer 1 the flow elements are plovted as soances: and, since y/k; = 2, the lengesioowideh rata of the Now elements in sol layer 2 it U2 2.2.7 Directional Variation of Permeability in Anisotropic Medium tn sdotopi 2h, dhe decions of se maximum and mimum permesbies ae SRY eRigu aap to een sor, octet egupotentl unr and te Oe tera not necesany ornogoa ar was own in ig 2 336 Figue 239 how sow ane and on equpotenal Une. mis de dreton of be tangent deswn tothe fl line i O, and hn ha Neco of the venus ‘Gschaege velocity. Dvection m is petpendcuar to ure equipoiensal Unt at O, and so rus the direction of the eeultant hydeaube gradient, Using Darcy's lam, oh b= Ka So @.59) om oe hana as) ‘ tg = ha ean) g120 ADV axcen son ccHanies Ase 3) whece ermeability (Inthe horizontal x direction) ermeabiity (inthe vertical z direction) G34) Ave, Substitution of these inte Bq. (2.134) giver and ean ' PERMEABIUTY AND SEEPAGE 121 1 sate ros “The nature of the variation of hp with e 24 determined by Eq, (2.135) i shown in Fig, 240, Again, we ean say that (2.138) eat con +H ing 2336) Combining Eas. (2.130), (2.131.408 (2133), Rowe au) oe mu aes (2.38) a ana ant G39) Bh Subvttation of Bas, (2138998 (2129) nto Eg. (2.137) leds yng 087 + Ra? (2.40) “The variation of ky with fis ako shown in Fig, 240. It can be seen that, for giver thves of Fnas 896 Ags Eas. C2158) and (2.140) ied lighly different valves of Oe Aiectional permeability However the manimom difference wi not be more than 25%. 2. (2.198) tetiou Te a te Fig. 240 Dirstonatvantion of permesbitya G 172 ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS 2.2.8 Numerical Analysis of Seepage In this section, we develop some approximate finite difference equations for solving seepage problems, We start from Laplace's equation, whieh was derived in Sec. 22.1; for twostimensional seepage ath ah kee tke 2.86) be Soe Figue 2.41 shows a part of a region in which Dow is taking place, For low in the honzontal disection, using Taylor's seies we can wei el) SES) easy Fig. 141 Hydric heaas for Dow in a exon, ITY AND SEEPAGE 173 wet eheran SE) o 22) HR) ca son So 2.161 0810 on sey BERR) ae) eu) Assuming Ox to DE small, we can neglect the thied and subsequent ters oa the ahthand side of Eg, (2153), Thue 2) Qs) Similaly, for Dow in the = direction we can obtain Gu -BBe ce Substitution of 2.144) and (2.145) into Eq. (2.86) gies 48) er he 47) Equation (2.147) can ago be den of flow from point 1 10 point © cough th we have ae (2.148) ans) (2.150) us) Stace the (otal rate of Now into point @ is equal tothe tou rte of flow out of point Gan — dou 0. Hence124 ADVANCED SOUL MECHANICS rea. ; (@r-0 # #14) — (Goa # G4) =O @.s2) Jokung Aix = ds ané substituting Eqs (2148) to (2151) inte Ey, (2352), we get h hy thy the) If the polnt 0 is loczzed on the boundary of a pervious and an impervious layer as shown in Fig, 2.42b, Bq. (247) must be modified as follows: (ase, (2.158) For continuity ef fow, eo dea Ges #0 (2156) With dx = Az, combining Eas. (2.158) to (2.156) eves PERMEABILITY AND SEEPAGE 125 on aus ‘hen point O' lecated at the bottom of 2 pling (Fig. 242c), the equation for the bydzaubie head for flow continuity ean be piven by duet gue Ge B09 Fes (2.158) Note that 2" and 2” are two points at the sime elevation on the opposite sides of the sheet pile with hydraulic heads of hy ahd hy respectively, For this eandition we can obtain for dx = Az), through a similat procedure te hat above, ig = AD Hho the) that ad 159) seepage in layered soils, Equation (2,167), which we derived sbeve, wali fot SeeTaRe ig hemogeneaus seis. However, for the cate of flow across ine Boundary of sone homogeneous sol layer to another, Eq, (2.447) most be modified, Refersing (2 Tip 2nd ince the Mow region i located haf in sol | with» coefBicent of Pere Dity by and half in soil 2 wath a coeticient of petmeabiity hy, we can sy (het k=} +4) (2160) Now if we replace soil 2 by s0U 1, wil havea hydraulic head of hein pace of hha For the welosicy to remain the sume, he = Meche aus * he) thy a8) “Thus, based on Eg (2.86), we an wte hth hth, REMI easy or ay aking bx = 42 and substituting Ee (2.162) ito Ea, 2.163) Le, ssf "4 2 OL ay 2.1688) arse128 ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS ‘The application of the equations developed in this section can best be demonstcsied by the use of a numerical example, Consider the problem of determining the hydraulic heads at various poinis below the dim shown in Fig, 238, Let ox = Br = 125m, Since the flow et below the dam wil be symmetrical, we will consider only the leithand half, The stept for determining che values of h at various points in the permeable soi layers areas flows 1, Roughly sketch outa flow net 2. Based on the rough flow net (step 1), sign some values forthe hydravli heads 1 various gr points, These are shown in Fig, 2.430. Note Wat the va assigned here are in percent, 3. Consider the heads for tom | (h2.,f= 2). The Ag) forf= 1 and j= 1,2,...,22 tre 100 in Fig, 243; thee are corcect values based on the boundary condisions, The Agyjy for i= 1 andj =23,24, ,. 28ate estimated values. The Now condition for wese grid points i¢ Similar 10 that shown in Fig. 242; and, recording 10 Eg. (2.157), +.2h, 7.44) — hg = 0,08 Gost oan hard Mun=2 Since the hysauic heads in Fig, 2.43 are assumed values, Eq. (2.165) sill not be satisfied Fer example, for the grid point i= 1 and /= 23. hy hes @ 84, gijany™ 6B, OE AG y= TB. ME these valuee are sub Eq, (2.165), we get (68 + 2(08) + 200] —4(B4) = 12, instead of zero. If we set 12 equat 0 R (where & stands for residual) and 24d R/S 10 hg, E9.(2.185) wil be satisfied. So the new, corrected value OF Ag, is equal 10 B4 + (73) = 82 as shown in Fig, 2430, This is called the elaxarion process. Similatly. the eorested hea for the rid point = | and j= 24 can be found a follows [es + 2(67) + 61) ~8(68) = 7 = 8: $0, hy 20 * 68 + Th 5975698 ‘The corrected values of fg.25),lqagys 298 Ayan €aM be determined in a silae mannet. Note that Agaq)™ 30 4 correct, Based on the boundary conde ‘These are shown in Fig. 2438. 4, Consider the rows (22, 3, And 4, hey) OC P22 604 and) #23, 27 should follow £9, (2.187), (hy thy hy + Aa) “Ay = 0508 reejay PAG Augen * Pia, 7 HAG ® (2.186) To find the corrected heads Ay,,y, we proceed a8 in step 3. The cesdual & is caleulated by substituting values into Eq, (2.168), and the corrected head is then given by Ac + RUA, Due ta symmeity, the cocrected values Of hj, gp for 2,3, and 4, are al $0 a¢ orginally assumed. The covcected heads are shown in Fig, 2838. 5. Consider caw i (for 13,27), Ascoeding to £9. (2.168) y At thy thy athy = 0 an iat as tk FEF 3 i 3 3 mFig 282 {Continued}130 ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS since ty = $x 10 mnlsand hy =25% LO" ma, ty, Usyxto? Erm EFI th, 209X107 Rem GrIKiom 9. (267) an be ews a 13 0.667 Using the above val resem 1333 Been thgasn O65 Mea” ep 4calsiat the cesidanl by ingame hen BG 278 Thee as me? pes ace gen DY uy? AYA, These are shown 2p, Note “hat due to symmetry, the Rend atthe oi point (= 5 andj = 26 $0,asassumed iwitaly fg comiger te cows T= 6, Toon dBhgn fori = 6.7. (Mand) #2,3,.0427 Comte a ny atng EQ, (2.147) Find dhe comrected bend it SO cape atep 4, The beads at /= 20 are all $0, a6 ave “These valoes are shown ia Fig, 2430. deen IN Fe 3. hy for tn 13 and 72 2.3, «92 RE found from Ea (2157), (hy + 2ty +s) ~ Ate = O08 rapen t tage Augen Ha ha proper sues of the Rend ver in Fig, 2430, fd 8 sesidval and the ie aeeP radon in sep 3. Note that Aya.) = 50 dss (9 HIRE These aloes are gven in Fig. 2.438. a. wus une new heads epen steps 3 ough 7, Ths teaion me be carried out Jeveral mes untd the residuals ace negiple igure 1ade shows the ooreces yeaie heads 21% > iterations. With hese saues of the egupotendal ine can now sasly Be Grn 2.2.9 Seepage Force per Unit Yolume of Soil Mass ow of water Lough a ail mass cess in some force being ex=red 90 the soil sli Fo Sune uh repage force per unit volume of 20 consi 18 708 ‘bounded by re rela ab and cand (v0 equipotent! nes af and gh x she Fig. 2.44, aoe eas unit ticeness at ight angles to tbe 3euon shows, THe sel€weight of ree ais lengh) (eh) (Biches) us) = (4) (ED) Ga Btu. THE sre ends free on the side f of ee sil mai (gest B98) Eye vt yarcaat ore on he side er of he oi mass. For equiva AF eh yal +L nertin Atak 108) Buta, +L ine nt Oho ppohyt Laine at 2.169) PERMEABILITY AND SEEPAGE 131 Fig. 24 Seepage fore determination smbining Ege, (2.168) and (2.183), hutel + bagi tina (hy tL sina = OAL AF =O (ran) in a + Shy L = Ly sine + ML (2.793 iawape “tort Y © Yor Yo. From Eg. (2.170) we can see that the se sa considered i equal to ry_L. Therefore, ryt 7 Seepage Force pet unit volume of sol mass aan where iit the hydraulic gradient 2.2.10 Safery of Hydraulic Seruc «Piping We sm in Se, 192 tat wh co su when upatid seepage occurs andthe nydrube pant 10 fg piping ot heaving origiziaces in the soil mass: Ceaeaeecanact132 ADVANCED SotL MECHANICS tee y noite Qaim For the combinstiont of G, and e generally encountered in soils, ig vanes within 4 range of about 0.85 10 1.1 ° vara (19: tigated the wfery of hydeaulle structures agains piping, Accord lng to his work, the factor of safety ap piping, Fe, con be defined as where jggu it the manioem eit gradient. The manimum exit padientean be from the flow net, Referring to Fig. 230 hI (Ah the head lost berween tke of the fiow elenent), A factor of performance ‘he maximum exit gradient can be pven by two equipotential ines, and Js the lengih of 3 to 4 1s considered adequate for the safe ented charts for Oe manimurs exit gradie eous deposits (see Fig. 245), Uneg the of dems cone 173) A cheoretcal solution for the determination of the manimum ext gradient fo Fie 245 Crivea exit adie, (Afr LF Hers, Up ASCE, vot 100.1985) se under Dar Troy PERMEABIUTY AXD SEEPAGE 133, 2 armenia ye? Poe Fg 246 Culeatncon of teehte creep tance of sheet pi P- 111) andis of the form ruetores a5 shown in Fig, 2.29 i available (see Har, 1962, maximum hydraulic head he 2.174) jepth of penetration of sheet ple ore Lane (1935) also investigated the safety of dams agaist piping and suggested an empitical epproach to the problem. He introdueed a term called weighted creep distance which is determined from the shortest Dow path: Zhy Lee Lbe (278) where _L = weighted ereep distance ELpw Ly, Ln, + += 80m Of horizontal distance along shortest Now poth (Gee Fig. 2.46) Byni th, (ote Fig! 246) sam of verscal distances along shortest flow path (Once the weighted creep length hat been calculated, the weighted cteep ratio can be etermined as (Fig. 2.46) Woightes exeep s200 = (2.176) oO134 ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS Table 29 Safe values forthe weighted creep racio Sate weighted Sse sda gePELECH Cte rveeseceeLeL Mata eep ato err fe tan ort as Fine sand 10 Nesom tnd 60 Coane and so Fine set 4 Conse gavel 30 Save medium cay 2030 aca eh Le Hare pan 1s ttre for sac to ef at pong Lae at ond Se ao sro sal oo Be ean rslue sus hat he sore low path Bas eee esas aroal be lake aa vera puch, I he slope of te shorten ow path i less than 45°, i hovl be considered asa horizontal path, ten usta) onus Jom model ts wah angle sow of sett pe we mS LOT the ound that te alr ue 10 iping kes ace within rhe shear pile (D's te cep of penetration a he sae le) Fig 247 Fate due 0 piping fore Tegermaze Ine sage set pe tusctre PERMEABILITY AND SEEPAGE 135 Fig 248 Satey goin piping under 2 dam. Therefore, the stbiity cf this eype of sructure can be dete mined by considering 4 teil prism on the dowastream side of unt thickness and of section DX D/2, Using Jaw net, the bydeaulic uplifting pressue can be determined 2 Vet 2.177) were fy is the average hytrauic head at che base of Che soll pum). The submerged eight of the soil prism acting vertically downwards can be giver by =i 73) the factor of sfesy agains he wo kyo} Ree (179) UY nDhy here A factor of safety of about is generally considered adequate, For sucuctuces other chan 2 singlt row of sheet pies, such at that shown in Fig. 2.88, Teceaghi (1943) recommended shat the stability of several soll prism of site D/2X O'X 1 be investigated to find the minimum factor 3° safety. Nove that Oizila bt width Pasi hele aan: “Thanikxehalam and Sakthivadivel (197) analyzed experiment celts for filters reported by Kaspoff (1953), US. Corpt of Engineers (1953), Leatherwood and Peterson (1954), Dayaprakash and Gupta (1972), and Belyashessla «1 al. (1972) Based on this analyss, they recommended that when anulac nue thesiable e be proce jowing equaiions ter desigacnteria may de given by the Psa Prat) Penis) 9.4 Diath ° 220) Dros; Dias i i Poe Dir and 8) 29.98) SM 565 Q203) Ban" Baws where Dyoisy and Dios ae, ceepectively, the diameters Uwrough which SOE and 10% af the rou to be protected is passing: and Dupin) 19d Diggey ae, reszecavely, he iameters theough which 60% and 10% ofthe filter material is passing edergren (1960) constructed several flow nets, such as those shown in Fig 27ia and 8, © wudy the condition of seepage into sloping fen plac stisamn side of earth dams, Based on ths work, he developed the chuce given in Fig 2Te whieh allows us to determine the minimum thickness of filter mates, W, fequnced on dhe downstzeam side of an earth dam, (Nove that in Fig. 2.71, Seis the coefficient of permeability of de Fter macenal,and ks is thesoefficient. (of the sol of the earth darn) a the down: permenbibiy160 ADVANCED SOHL MECHANICS PERMEABILITY AND SEEPAGE 161 caw Tmoermenote inver ies Hot V ucnarge lace i hy ie Uso aa ve se Sosa sem of filter paterad on ove downrveam ste of 9 eth dar feller fe Reauverent of Fes end Pevious Bases, Sel Mech, Fount DW. ASCE PROBLEMS 11 The resus of a eqnaaniead peemenbiis tet in # Soe sand ae floes: area ofthe se Seomen, IBDen. length ef the specimen, 120m: eonsant axe masniines, «£0 rm, Mow of ier tuoeph he speanen, 200 nl in Spin, Deteamise te eoeTeent of emeabaas 432 The fine sand teseribeg in Prob. 2.) way vested ie faling head permermetesand the renee ea lotows. nea of Ge specimen, 90emlegih of the specimen, 320 mm ates ef eae Sen" head difeence a the beginning of Oe (est, 1600 mm, Calelate the hene eTeence ates 3005 fom Ove sat of the tex se the esl of Prob. 2.17 23. A sty sané specimen was subjected toa epiy permeability es, The peru av 24 folows (lero Fi. 21 fe notations) Tr ar) eae aansen # ao | haters Bee hangs from 12, #8 grey BEE Tan uous. % 7D dito W900 ‘Gives as poreriy of 5 and, » 6.8 caeulsethe lve of soy Ze { |x __4— t 7 t Te 78 x 10 mente we "Teasers avee Fig Ph 24 A sogie soa of sheer gut srvctore shown in Fig PL {Bane the few 1) Cacuate te rte of eepage fe) Exeunte the for el saety agent piping wxing Tezaphis method (Ea, (2.17891 ane ther Hess metho 2 Tor the singe jou of sheet piles shown in Fig, 721, ealelate the hy raeic Heads Jo he oevsatie ayer sing tumeteal meined shoam in Sec 12.8, Prom thee resol, dr Oe ral ines Use ad © a Den 26 1 dam ection hewn in Fit F222. Given by 2 flow retard ealesine he aie of 325442 98 10° mes and y= }<———2m ——___-1 Foee Fig P22Se 301 ne 20k Fign3 2.2 for the 6am seston sown'in Fi. P22, Gren k= ye y= 5X 10"* mms, calculate Oe Apdiauic heads in te permeable sol layer, Ue oF we see. 228. Ta a am secon is shown in Fi. P22, Using Lane's meshog, calculate the weighed creep fies he Gam safe apes piping” Tb keer 40 Fig. P23. Avume (1) Oat de shee: ple 2 she end of me wprueam apton i 994 28 US nat ap impeniou tock layer osves St depth of 371 fom the ground srlce, bas) mat k= D2 (@) Drews Row net, (Gd Catcalae he seepage under the a, ee eeeaicanera.Gy 2245 ange =0,5,clelae he [20 of fey by Harta method 1140 For we sneet ple sructare snow i Fig. P28, Gadin Hadm A= SK 10mm dase elm Re 2x 1% amis aasm Ch) Dare a ow ne far seepage ie tbe peemenit Bye. (6) Casale he sepune {@) Find the eat pace, 2 Edin nd the oumsriea method gen LLL For we wuuctare town in Fig P24, ate the numeriea method (Se. 2.24) for setermination Si hyamae head ta the permeable Lys, Usage ves, draw ihe eauipotental Unes and then eovplee the Mow nec by arming the Row nes. Caleiate the seepage vader Me sus delm mein &=6x 10am) make ASL Sx 1mm 22 Redo Prob, 2.10 with he folowing Gait Mela Ka 6x 10% mmis gies ad REDO mm a2ue 4.13 An ean am tevin showa i Fig, P24, Determine thereof repage through ine ect Jam cing ts) Dupuit method, (2) Semalerans method, and () L Canrands's method. Auwine park = 1D" mms PERMEABILITY ANO SEEPAGE 163 or rane 2s ey rob. 2.19 asuring ha ty 7 £10" mmisand hy = 12 10" mini AS Far se eaten damm secion anown in Fe PDS, & : 2.5 Foe we a : ie PUS, determine he rae of seepage ICU Ne Paton roluaen, aurume mas k= £2 (0°! ms 218 Foe whe earth dam secson shown in Fig PLS, deermine FPvlorscytioludon, Asume mit Xp 4 8% 16" mmjiand fy he ace 0 repage OY assM64 ADVANCED SOME MECHANICS IT An earth dan aesion shown in Fat PRE ont me hat ky = hat (ty Gong te su of pan Ce), deve me Few net and eave the ate of ena weasel Fans LIB Solee Prob ET aeuming hat y= TF Hot mit ane 219 Sob trot, 217 fos the cam seegen hos sto Fe 72 \ eel Leoae 1ot ol Fer2y 420 An earth cam ston i shown. Fig, FLALDraw the Tow nekand cleat the seepnt Bay solve Teck. 20 ming hat t= DE LO" ib and = 2h, | ‘ PERMEABILITY AND SEEPAGE 165 1 Efe }—— 2 arene Fer REFERENCES evan, WMC. NG. Raga L arsrenko. and. Tep ehaior ad Seton of TRE cee eaten of Guadee Fates in the Presence of Factentns Flow, Hy drotech, Corse, vol 6 pe SH1-546, 1972 sam, ©. "An Experenenal ness Schoc! Tubliation No. 263, 196 Ccurman} £,"Flew of Cues THEOUPY Porous Medi,” Actdemie, New Yer, 1956 Caeaste&. Seepege Through Dams, "conibtion fo Sol echais 1925-2940." Besan ‘Society of Crd Engineers, Bextor. 798,153? Cunsese, U.nitenengimethoden tor Bstmmurg von Artund Menct der Sickening durch Tundcitte Duemme," Then, Feennizht Hochst, Vins, 1922 cee IR, cecpage Requirement of FUtert and Pervows Bases, J So! Mech, Found. Div TASCE, ve. bb, 90, SMS. pat 1 pp. 18-33, 1560 ee scepage, Drunate aod Bos Hes” 26 ef, Bey, Mew York, 1877 Sere LasFantaies Publique 6 a Vile de Don” Dalmont, Pars, 1656 Pree. Ke and RC Gupta. Laboratory Stadies of Fite Materials Paced at Ramagenre Nats Dam, Indio Georech vol 2.2, pp. 203-218, 3872 apn 1 evade teaigues et Practigues mt Meuvement des aux danses Canaox Decoovers a Gave es Temas Permesbies,” Duro Paris, 1863, Fovcthcorte b, busnion ef he Bahio Den” by Geome S. Morn, Toons ASCE, vol 48, 5.302, 1902. Cateye eekwies of Hyeraute FE Dams, in “Contbuin te Soi) Mechanct 1925- ‘ston Society of Cn Engines, Boston, 1834 ony Dee ant J. Mithed, Fundamental Aspect of Eiecuposmoss in Sods, Sod Mech Found ‘Die, ASCE, vo, $3, no. SM6,p. 209-236, 1967 vias B orconbwaer and Seepage,” McGraw New Yor, 1962 Hane LF. pitt ane Seepage unde Darin Sind, Irons ASCE, vl. 100, 1938 Het 1 Fealuiuen of Dams on Sané Foundation” by A.C. Koen, Tent, ASCE, wo. 72 7.193.191), Helmboit, i. Wiedemenns Ann, Pht, vl.7,p.137, 1878 Neen ha tne Wie of Laboreory Tea to Devsiop Desen Cites for Proectre Filet, ‘ree, ASTM, 96.85, pp, UBR1199, 1985 ot Fectesive Foie." Harvard Unienity Graduate 0" rte a166 ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS Koteny, Jy Ueber Kapila Leltung dex Wassers ia Boden, Wien, aed, Wir, vol. (36, put 25,9201, 1917 ore fi prioce tas Bereehoung der Bovnnen, Wazzerk. Masterwitch, vol. 28 p 104, 1933 Lan E, W., Seouniy from UnderSeepage: Masonsy Dams oa Earh Foundation, Mant, ASCE, el 106, 9.1235, 1935, eanerwvod, F. Ne and DG, Peeton, Hyde Head Loss a the fatelace between Usufoem "Sitio bilfecene Ses, Dont Amer, Geophye Union, ol 35, 90.4, 99. $88-554, 1988 Lips at, Flow though Rockfly n "EmoanemencDur Engineering =Cosgrnde Volume,” ‘Wiey. New Your, 9.90, 1973, Sanuer,€21 and RE Kal "York, 1382, Machete. Ke inflace Teestmant of Poundation Sols: Seil Mech. Found, Div, ASCE, v.96, to, S31, pp. 73-110, 1970 Jl, 1K, "Fundamental of Soil Beavio,” Wisy, New Yoh, 1976 Sikehel, J... R. Hooper, and R. G. Campane, Permeability of Compacied Cay. 1, Sot viech Pound. Div. ASCE, va, 91,70, M4. 9. 41-65, 1965 just, "The Flow of Hopogenedvs Fide toubh Porous Meda” MeGraw Hil New York, 1937 sen, HW, “Hydiaule Flow muough Satvrsted Cy, echnsiony, 1961 user HW. Hydtaaz Flow tough Saturated Cays, Poe, Soh Nat. Conf Cay aad Day Min, Pe. 331-161, 1383, povceday NN "Seepage tneough Earth Dams." lat. Csnotekhnik | elioraal, Leningas, 10! ehalfenak, ., Ube oe Staicheseis duichtenge eichueteter Dime, Alger, Bureirng, vn sen, ., 2ut Eiekuochemie Feinponer Kapilarsysiems, 2h. Elekracher wal $4, 95825, 1930; a 55, p. 684, 1951, Smolechowik, Miia by Craea (E6), “Handbuch der Elektrstal end Magness,” vol. 2 ‘Banh, Lelpng 344 spaoger MG. ant RL Handy, "Sou Engineering,” 344d, Intent Eouctional, New Yoo, 1973 Tiylon DW, "Fundamenta of Soa Mechanic.” Wier, New York, 1988, Terath,k. -Theostcal Sou Meehan,” Way, New York, 1383 Temaan K, Det Grundbecach an Stnuwenten und Seine Vesnutung, Ole Wevsereat, 0h 87 we Njansd, 1912, Repred ia "Fvom Theory to Poeuice in Sod Mesnanir,” Wier, New York pp. 196-138, 1969. Thandichuson, Wis and A Sokinivadvel, Rational Design Criteria for Protective Fates, Cn “Geowech J woh, 11, n0.2, pp. 309-214, 1974 US. Berea of Reslamston, Department of the Inte, tment Frnng Office, Washingien, D.C, 1961 Us. Cone ot Enpaces write Experiments ang Design Cetera,” US, Waterways Expesiment Sharan, Vicrour, Mist, Teen, Nemo, No. 2.260, 1953. US. beputncst of tow Navy, Naval Facies Engiescing Commans, “Design Manual Soi sea Eoundadant ted Earth Situstures, NAVFAC DM, Metington, OC, 97 ra, Dewatering, in “Foundation Enginetsng.” MeGewHil, New 5. thei, Maaihsertsattate of Design af Smal Dams,” US. Govern SE PERE ener ee eeeeeeeecseeee Preece eee . CHAPTER THREE geese sss ess eee sceeescee eee ee STRESSES IN SOIL MASS This chaps eats with graclems volving sicesses induced by vatous types of loading The exptessions for stasis are obtained on che assumption wat soll is 2 perfectly laisie maieral:problarseelated to plastic equilbsium are net weated i this text. “The chapter i divided into two major sections: (1) cwo-dimersiona (plane stein) problems nd (2) three dimensional probiems 3.1 THO-DIMENSIONAL PROBLEMS BALL Plane Strain State-of-Stress in many soil mechanics problems, 2 ype of state-of-aeess that & encountered & the plane sirain condition, Lang retaining walls and strip (oundatiors ate wo examples of Where plane iain conditions ave encountered, Referring co Fig. 3.1, for the stip Footing the stain in the y direction at any point P in the sol mass s equal (0 20 The notmal streses ¢, at all sections in the x? plane (Ve., normal 19 the / axis) ace che same, and the shear sei on these sections are 2er0, The normal and shear sts Jane normal 19 the x axis are equal 10 Oy And Tya, texpectively. Sumbacy, the horinal and shear siraaés on the plane aormal to the 7 axis att 0, and tag (* te) rexpectively. The eelatonship between the normal stsses can be expressed 33 vlas + 8,) ey swnere vis Pouson’seatio, Thus, hese ae esseotay two-dimensional problems 6168 ADVANCED SOHL MECHANICS Fig 3 Defisoe of rane Hann at 3.1.2 Stresses on an Inclined Plane and Principal Stresses for Plane Strain Problems Using Mohr’s Circle U the stresses at # point ina sol mass ~18,%0 oy (= ru) =at8 known, the nora sess @ and the shear sess ton an inclined plane BE (Pie. 3 Geiermined graphically by mears of 2 Mok’ cle The of te Mohr’ cizce is explained below. ‘The sign esnvention for normal sls & poritve for compression and negative for tension, The shea stress on a given plane is posive i i tends to produce 2 clockwise fouton about 4 point outside che soll element; ts negative Aft tends to produce 4 egunterclockwive rotation This i shown in Fig. 33, Thu, refering to plane AB in Fig. 32, the nowmal stress is +o, and the shear stres & *r,,, Similaily. on the plane AD the strmses ate +o, and ty, The stresses on the pitnes AB ané AD can be jowted graphically with normal sestes along the abscissa tnd shear stresses along the ordinate, The points B and D in Fig, 34 refer 1 the stress conditions on the planes AB and AD, respechively, Now, If points Band D are joined by # straight line the line ‘ell inversect the normal strese at and O' 1 cicle BF, DP, is drawn with O° as the feater and OB a the radius, it wl be the Mohr's circle, The radius of the Mohr's ile is 12) can be conveniently ‘oeedure fot the constroction STRESSES IN SOIL MASS 169 Fieae Any radia) tine in a Mobr's circle represents a given plane, and the coordinates of the point of intersection of the radial ne and the circumference of the Mohs drcle Ever the rvess condition on that plane, For example, let ws find the stresses on the Slane BE. iff Fig. 3.2 we start from the plane AB and mavean ange inthe clockwise Tizection, we reach the plane BE. In the Mohr’s circle in Fig. 3.4, the radia line OD represents the plane AB. We wll have to move an angle 26 in the same clockwise dection to reach point F. Now, the radial line O'F in Fig. 3.4 represents the plane BE ot Fig, 2. The coordinates of the point F will give us the stresses on the plane BE. Note that the ordinates of the point P, and Fy are zero, which means that O'R, 14 el Fig 33. Sin convention for shear fuca used for te comsuveton of Mons er° 19 Hl & 170 ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS (er Fig 34 None ice and O'F cepresent the major and minor principal planes and that OF = oo) any 02, =00' + 08, = = 3) snd op¢y 7 07,200" -O= os) rinoepeincoa sets rexpetvely ener opyy 3nd dpgyae tke major and minos pins pein” Sorta of Sato, + 21) = Gry aac) We itermedate praia + ‘auo nots that the principal plane O°P, 0 the Moir’ cicle ean be ceached by moving Clockwise from 0'8 through an angle “Tne other principal plane O'F, can be ceached by moving trough an angle 20%, 180" + a0" STRESSES IN SOLL MASS IT in the clockwise direction from 0'8, So, in Fig, 12, if we move from plane AB through ” (2) wwe will reach the plane BP, oa which the principal stess op, sets; similarly, moving clockwite from the plane A@ tough an ange [asso ( 22) eae an (2) sve reach the plane BP, on which the principal stress gps) 1c 3.1.3 Stresses due to a Vertical Line Load on the Surface of a SemisinBinite Mass Figure 3.5 shows the cate where a line oad of @ pee unit Length is applied ac ue surface of a homogeneous, eassc, and Hoceopie vod mass, The strasses ata point P de by rand 9 can be determined by using the res junceion ring ath resions foc the steeies are as feo Gee any theory af eanicicy texte g., Timoshenko and Goodies, 1970) 88 Fig, 35 Vesa une lot on the sulsce of wemvindite mas,ITD ADVANCED SomL MECHANICS ae a eae en alee wt ee BL stg 08 Substituting te alves of inthe aber equations we get 9%) sent, ano 10) ae FO eu) “Te sues fotvon sumed ng, (08) will eB he comperbin eouanon yet! 118g io ae Nbr? ou [Aigo ft ean He seen that renter obsained in Eqs. (3.9) 10 3.11} ately He ‘oundary’ condions. For § = 50" and r> 0, 0,=0: and, atr=0, 0, i theoretically gad te lnfizity, whieh sgrifes that plastic low el oeeur locally. Note hat oar fe ate the major and minor principal streues at point P. Using the above expressions for oy, fp, and Hye, we can derive the stresses In th rectangular eooteinate system (Fig. 26) eenesce? t+ ai Peg ain cord me core aq 2 na ~eeGes) eo om Sindy, oem or tBh Bog et Ones Gs) oe tin e058 + 0, sin 8 con® + re(eos? 6 ain? @) reare Gis) For the plane suin ase, aye t a) “The values for op, and typi z Rondirens al form are even in Table 2.2 Fin ae Sewer STRESSES IN SOUL MASS 178 jet svete Une land eeangaeooidates Table 3.1 Values of oy /(a/2), oxI(alz). and resf(@H8) {Eas (6.13) 103.199) a ale) agli) tani) exe ° 63 ° ° a ost 1.006 082 a2 oes 0 ans a3 ase oes oust oe on aor cues as 0407 0103 2c 26 oes one oz uo 267 oe 010: as 27 aust 0189 28 ose oust ous sa ons oss oss us 9.060 ase 2080 20 aor ont 0st 1 2008 90st 0019 SRE eee eee174 ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS “emt Fig a7 Example 3.1 For the point 4 in Fig. 37, 2, due 10 the (wo Line loads, ate the increase of vertical steas Sovurton The increase of vertical atetsatd due tothe line load q, = 20iN/m is x_2m rer From Table 3.1, forx/t = 3, o,/(a/*) = 0.006, Thus, oov (2) «sre! So, the total increase of vertical 0, 2,64 + 8497 159 + 0.08 158 KN? 3.1.8 Stresses due to a Horizontal Line Load on the Surface of a Semiinfinite Mass ‘Tne nasser due toa hodiaantal ine Toad fg per wait length (Fig. 3 8) can be evaluated by ates funceon of he form on tia cod 18) Proceeding in a similar manner {0 that shown in See, 3.1 3 far the case of vertical, line load, we obtain Zino ey STRESSES IN SOUL MASS 175, yao ue) 120 es) ln the rectangular coordinate system, eames 629 F@ ery G21) 62) For the plane sain ete, 0, = ¥(0_+ Some values of o, 2,24 typi 8 3.1.5 Stresses due to 8 Line Load Inside’a Semiinfinite Mass Vertical line Sond, Melan (1952) gave she solution of strestt at 2 point P due to 4 vertical Une load of per uit length appies insite & semi 14, Fig. 3.9), The final equations ace given below finite mast (a point Fig 34 Moroni une ond en tne Y alice of vem iaaite mas176 ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS Table 3.2 Values of ey/(a/), en iKel#)e and rasiCel3) {Eq (3.20) t0 3.22)] ae exite salle) tl ° ° ° ° a oot 0008 00 ar one 0.008 2 nie ‘ous oe ous 0303 os one 0.0509 oro 06 207 aoe oe a 208 nosee ou a outs oun cist ro ous aya wis 13 ons9 ons9i cise us 000 0% one 20 nos 2031 ator 30 ons oats cos? slab low id kafieem Y “ere Fig 39 1 fer ade? +d) asp 2ae? Bare taps] STRESSES IN SOIL MASS 177 see (325) Horitental line load. For 2 horizontal Line Toad of intensity @ per unit length (Fig, 3.10), elan' solutions for stresses may be given as follows ze lh suey ean axt od Bee parece ee) qecalt cee 7 Se ate 2) 27) +1 Sarid 4x7 ie ae] cay | i sch tae tet teat) a | i | : | es Ie : Fig 220. Horitent tne fond ince senbininte mas ©178 ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS 3.1.6 Stresses due to a Vertical Line Load on an Elastic Soil Layer Underlain by a Rigid Rough Base Figure 3.11 shows an elastic sol layer of thickness h and underlain by @ tiga rough bags, A line load ¢ ger unit length is acting on the surface of the sol layer, The vertical tess ata point canbe expressed as (Poules, 1966) 4 7 29) wehese a, 6 the vetca stress ata point, ¢, and J is the inQuence factor, which i function of z/h, ft, and r. The values of for various values of 2/A,x/h, and w are sBven in Table 3:3 3.1.7 Uniform Vertical Loading on an Infi Surface of a Semi-infinite Mass ce Strip on the sigue 3.12 shows the case where #uriform vera lond of @ get stn ating ere cubic mace snp on the surTace of sembfie ease mat, To obtain he sacaes ues point Pa, t, we can conuger an elnenacy strip of width located at sees wo fom ne enter line of te land The load per uislengihof ts elementary Senpli gat andit ea be approninated a5 ine load Tae ears ot venue! ates, 0,21 ? due tothe alementacystnp loading an be obiaied by nonstutng ~# fort ant ds fore in Ee, 2132.0" ua? eee se 3.30 oe ea tee fa “The tot nese of vertical srs, 0,26? due 10 the loaded sri canbe deter cvna by iueqraing Eq, (330) wih its of = 8 tor = 8:30, as feo =f for ean | tunis Wena ae bape STRESSES IN SOUL MASS 179, 8 2 aie Fig 1.12 Ueatarm vero toadiog onan nite ep Ina simdar manner fering 10 £93. (3.18) and (3.15), Seta a @apr eee 1 9n(Q.and teelg a2 sven in Table 3.4 The expressions f een in Ea 5 ve preien for 0, 9, and to, Bven in Eqs, 3 31) 40 (3.33) ean be pres nes G31) 103.33) can be presented a oak fot inacon(a+ 25) aaa =) fa-snax ft J fe sina sos (a + 25] 635) 4 tar S fun asin (a + 25)] ag where @and 6 are the Jes shown in Fig, 3.126. 3.1.8 Uniform Hoszonal Lead al Loading ona Innit Srp onthe Surface of a Semi-infinite Mass . eee Winn hoszon xe é nn applet ca mie sp of wh 2 a son a Fu 310 be ees pat nade malate ta om deco Oyae 8090 #4 ame te 3 PE FeyOg DH 231005 neg nape Aa FIVE (u0- 1009~ GU (ove ade? 1908-900 L000 OV IL-0 100o~ oxo 1900 Ive- tod 1690~ Woe 2000 000-9 zo oayo~ zm ot {299 60 ro 1000 sao roo qove SUD CoT- op O80 deo sooo ope soo ODE ‘eee $202 9009 soon 00 $000 OD soo too 190 tooo 10 $100 sou ctov 909 gD so” wore G00 seu coe © oD MoD sev yoo toro S000 900 S000 SDF Kove sov9 WD Ho SY Liew toe HOD ADH LIDDY sIDY_tEoDLOD 308 Soy $070 {HOD yOv|-GODY- HOU FOE yD SoD OGD fOHY- sO9U ole or 3000-9000 9600-1 600 Nov HD F100 LD HPD AHO tO EOD ROD 108 0060 790 99D" POO C1DO- WOE F100- FO GI sare Beye LoyO~ SOD £2 S000- crvu~ supe- FTG Jo0'9- CoO 9000 oIDY SHU EOD see ROO SIO FEEV HOT GVO TOD wOG- FIOO- BOE Flod- TOU ot Lid ROO 60 8H YE- (LON eee gE OOD SHV HOD HOw YD MVE HBV ALOV- UU UO GWU OO GOD TOO 9OOB- OLE 5177 W900- swe~ gere~ OKO HO roe- noe coe ston ou 100- Stoo GOD how s100- m100- coo woo oust ts0a- 1(00- 900~ fs00- 1 OV ox OLD SD GLO. tsoo- 910- soe xloo scaN cody 28D 2800 ID «ATH a suyo- oto two aro qo 4tz@ ee need wreo- 1900 sro bate say CY wr, SCD too ovwu aera 5810 sro vito gore seo oto anv 900 sora ez te sco aro tera gra sy tra 6. . - ~ ‘ e an@ 182 ADVANCED SOIL MECHAMICS Table 3.4 Values of fa, aula, and rey for vertical strip loading (Eqs. 6.31) 19 .33)] wo @ o o 6 » 2 ale oat alt ° ° 1.200 ferry ° as 03596 bass 0 to an out? o us users 0803 ° Zo 45508 aos ° as ogi? aons 3 as ° 1.000 1.000 ° eas asrar ostis 0.0522 os aso 03320 rrr 10 ansz oes 1590 us sora 58s oars 20 stor ose 0.0959 2s aan Ersoy ore ta 02s 2936 04208 oan os 0.369 0.2596 Lo ons 1s aaa 0.2037 to 308s rey as as701 oars us ors aor 2079 0.0608 os oss 286 0.465 10 as oan 2101 Ls 2708 oueo) 207 to ae ous oarse as pert 0.168 as gon aos ares os so1se bine ass 10 2776 2021 01305, us aust au Osea to aie 01456 ase? us 204s 0256 ous as os 2.0068 ano ors no anst oasis pons, 1s oor 01683 0.1036. 20 ans oie ase 2s 109 ins 01266 ‘Afict & lurgenioa, Tee Applisaon of Theones of Eanisty and Prasiiy 10 Foundation Plemt, Con bunon Sul lechani 19251940, Bonon Society af Cl Engaee, Boson, 1934 STRESSES IN SOIL MASS 1S | \ Y 4.119 Une nontnal ining on mine using a similar ps ure oF superposition soualined in See, 31.7 for vertical loading, For an elementary sinp of wide di, the lond per nit length i @-ds, Approximating his 48 a line load, we can subscvute @ ds for g and.x —s for x a Eqs. (3.20) 103.22) ae 9s. 3.20) 10 G ae soars? Rae I 637 Aer P PP ew] a da pene _enap teen fe =J84 ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS Note Oat Eq. (2.37) i in the same form ag. (2.83), and Eq. (539) inn same form as Gq. G32), So the nondimensiona eases ghen tn col. § 0h Table 44 fan be used for Eq. (B57), and those gen és col, 4 of Tabe 3& can be used for Ea (229). Some nondimensiona! cues for 2, {Eg,(2.48)) ate Sven in Table 3 § sions for sitente given by Eqs. (331) 0 3.39) may aso be simplifies Stunesnto 38 Ga0) @ al ee! (2305 igh — sna sine +28)) a eS eae te r ean tae Ltenanacer(e + 23) ea where Ry, ig 3.33 3.1.9 Linearly Increasing Vertical Loading on an Infmite Strip on the Surface af # Sombinfinite Mass ite stip ef wnGth ZA. The load iacieater sath of width de, the load per oe his as line Lond, we can substitute 1 £6 (2.15) te determine the sess at ea Bay o> Vs, fen Fen a30n biog + nai em 1y p29 MT eas ce) 648) Nordimensional elves of 4g. (3.48)) me Sven in Tabses aovaner 01 ween Ait Fig 3:14 Linasy increasing vera lonting 3.1.10 Vertical Stress in a Semniinfinite Mass duc 10 Embankment Loading te sees peace, iis sen to deteine the nctease of veel sl Ue en ae bankoent ding, Ts can be dane bythe method of superpoadon S anown in Fig 315 and destbed blow Se duc the embankment Teanga showin ig, 3.152 equal 19 eee doh loading shown i Fg. 3.15 minus the sess a4 det the lonaing shown in Fig 3.158 ending mown TG a), the venta sets at A due 16 he loatag shown 8 Fig 30 at blee (ara) ‘Table 3.6 Values of alg (Ea G.43)) ao a A rreeeassven geet secre eres eee eee eee Te antes 80018 0.60958 g0107 017 B0N5 22} Goons 20053 corso ne2 00256 O08s8 ZG Soon bon? o0se7 o0sia cor 9085s SS Bona 0172 01528 0.1592 01883 01469 8 ty Gana du092 O31 02749 07309 0.1973 5 Ganz o3sae 0.2952 0.500 o298 01872 2 GS Goise cosas 0.1010 03206 at2s8 01288 2 8 Soo canis ours oss? 0.0596 006FF $2 Qeoos cuss a0097 a01a2 0.027 00358 cons ems OOD ER ere Nove that in this case we have substi eee hosututed a+ b for x, (@ + bY? for B, and @, +0, Simdarly, the suet 3¢ A Sut 10 ee tading sh byt (4) eee Thus the stcess ac due co embartument loading (Fig, 3.152) Bl(Fleres fq Fig. 3.feis where /is the influence factor, oe a ( Yee tea The values of the inilue ped ple donannaseedeusrol Sy 36s previneemge32 Example 32 a1 ah veight of compacted sail is 120It reba te solely (0 the embankment at 1,23 C. calculate the vertical steess due Sotution @ = 9H = 120% 19 = 120008 fertcal tess at A~ Using whe method of ae 15 the method of superposiion and ceferning 19188 AOVANCED Sol MECHANICS aos pn oa Bale 0.0 He 8 oon eh at 3 o r Tit rt Brekgar eh ratio teeters ange | g ales i Fig 3.17 ior tevale | 2 { > a190 ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS 2 * et) For the left-hand section, (2 = 5/10 = 05 andafe = 10f10 = 1. From Fig. 3.18, 1, = 0396. For the righthand section, 6/2 = 15/10 = 15 and aje = 10/10 = 1 From Fig. 3.16,/, = 0.477 So, aay = UE # h)a = 396 + 0877) 1200 = 1947 6tb fe Vere srear at 8 Uivog Fig. 3.18, 29 * 853) 8 )~ 809 For the lefthand secdon, ble = Of10=0, aft = 5/10 = 05. $0, from Fig. 3.16, 1, =0.18. For the middle section, gf = 25/20 = 25, a/e = 16/20 = 1. Hence, fy =0.893. For the righthand section, /, 0.14 (sameas the lefthand section), So typ * (120 8) + £,(120X 10) -4,(020x 8) = 0.493(1200) = 591. 61ife Vertical sass 0 C. Refesring 0 Fig. 3.680, Sic ™ 01) ~ Bay For uhe lefthand section, bfe = 40/10 = 4, ele = 19/10 = 1. $0 /, = 04498. For the righthand section, bfx = tO/10* Left = 10/10 = 1, So fy = 0.456. Hence 240 = Uy ~ha}a = (0498 0.456} (200 © sa.aressi 3.2 THREE-DIMENSIONAL PROBLEMS 3.2.1 Scresses due to Vertical Point Load Acting on the Surface of a Semiinfinite Mass Boussinesg (1883) solved the problem for strestes inside a temidnfinite mist due (0 2 point load acting on the surface. In ceetingular courcinates, the sitessex may be expressed 25 follows (Fiy, 3.19) 7 om vlie SF lawen wars om lao A -B} owm ancer dy a4 030 Fa 319 Concenustes point ond an where 2 point tong ¥ = Poision’s aie fe eylindsiral cogedinates, the age STRESSES IN SOIL MASS 191 oan 33) ‘cesses may be expressed as fous (Fig, 3.29) 033) 059) 085) 056)182 ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS Ft 320 Concenvsied pint lene (otra onthe sutfuet (nda coordina 3.2.2 Stresses due to Horizontal Point Loading'on the Surface Figure 3.21 shows a horizontal point loag @ scting on the surface of a semiinfinite mass, The stresses a a point P due 10 this horizontal line load ate as follow, 30x? one as) Fig 3.21 Stews due to portal point toad onthe sce, STRESSES IN SOIL MASS 193 Qs C= R THER + a2 LE ig ms 7 3 sale O-PS Pera Qe ly 4 Gem rare ae apie MEER os ULL Pert to ara B61) B es) 3 This is penerey cafered to as Ceutds oodles © 3.2.3 Stresses below Circularly Loaded (Vertical) Flexible Arca u& sirete bel g the center of the loaded area. Integration of the Boustinesg equation fen See, 2.2.1 can be adopted to obtain the stretsm below the center ofa cireuadly joeded fexibe ares, Figure 3.22 shows a eicular ares of radius b being subjected to : unifcim lod of q per unit atea. Consider an elementary afea dA. The load over the ve ee equal to @-4A, and thy can be weated 2p 4 pisint lod. To determine che Fig 222 Sueae Wow the center oft ‘Srey fended wea,194 ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS vestcal stress due to the dlementary load at a poiat'P, we c Qand YF +E? for R in Eq, (3.47). Thus a2 G8) Reese substitute g-a for Since dt =r 49 dr, the verclgal stess at P due to the entice loaded area may now be obtained by substituting for dA in Eq, (3.63) and then integrating fete prog Pr de dr acts ner hepa (3.64) ies torr ol orl omy Proceeding ina sina maner, we ca alo detemine and op 3 pot Pas Hae cetera | gna aR] oss) Sueesses at any point below the Loaded area, A detaled tabulation of stresses below 2 uniformly loaded exible citculst area was given by AnIvin and Ulery (1962). Reiersng ta Fig. 3.23, the stresses at point P may be given by =a(a' +8’) 0.66) (tea + CH= 208) oan nalts’ D+ (28) Gey tat tea @.69) where A’, 8", C, D, £,F,and G ace functions of sf and 2/6; the values of these are gven in Tables 3.7 103.18. Note that oy iba pracipal stress, due co symunetry. The remaicing two principal stresee can be determined as taev@aarre 70) eae = an sion : | Fie sa ees a any point STRESSES IN SOUL MASS 195 Example 33. Refer to Fig, 323, Given hat g =20001b/ft?,d=8 ft, and v0.35, Mdovermine the principal stresses 2¢2 point defined by # = 17 ft and? = 16 Souvnon 1/3 i= 0.06275 28k = 1.5;218 © 16 £8 fe» 2, From Tables 3.7 103.13, E = 0.08078 B'=006371 F< 0.02197 C=-90078 — ¢ =0.07808 D= 005589 So, opm ala! +8" 7000 (0.0625 + 0.06371) = 252.9216) salva’ —D + -2El = 2000(2 (0.85) (0.96275) —0.05588 + (1 saat 0, a(ua" + C+ 0-2] (2) (0.85)} 0.08078), 2000 (0,9 (0.06278) ~ 0.00782 + 0.1(0.00197)] = 101 THI? 16 = (2000) (0.07804) SBIR? =e Gat ato sincipal stzess) (252.92 + 1011) s VG VO Fk 1560 2p 350.94 Fo? ope) = 36 900if° {major prinsinal seess} {minor principal sires) 3.2.4 Vertical Stress below 2 Rectangular Loaded Area The stces at 2 point Pata depe low the comer of 2 uniformly leaded (ercal) Aeadble rectangular aren (Fig 3.24) can be determined by integration of Boussinesq's equations given in Sec. 3.2.2, The verscal load over the elementary area di ‘dy may be treated as a point loud of magnitude q-dx -dy, The vertical suess at Pade to his elementary load ean be evaluated sath the aid of Eq. (3.47) Bade 0,0 eo merry ery ‘The total increase of vertical stets at P due to the ence loaded area may be ined by integration of the above equation with honzontal Us of x=0 10 x = Land y = 0 toy =. Newmark (1935) gave the results of the integration ln the folowing form: !, t en eteTable 3.7 Fanetion 4 ee eee seo ape etka Dio te 3a one ea 99645 02187 N08S6 1843308281 1689 996487199 haeeo Hato) 86893 bane 01 90080 -tpreE aBcT9 02 poe “t582¢ “h7FAw 03 nats hose eenr6 2e 62881 “g2015 “soz es ‘ssrn9 seas “Sten nse tie Gut Os tist0 ten “sole ‘core oo ten en Sie ‘tee hosts cece cr ssn Sees hie 8 one 05 Shim daene ons 35383 Jo%se 14328 ‘o9be9cxies 2st afi8? ps260 10396 “0boeE geI18 7471 “ng27s pease C3555 oeten aye Gail “ase “p30 2682 o2409 ga18F Vo Geng a6 37005 ta Gains lanes aie Ls ters 6ss) “sen 2 10857 “ages “ote bs caresz gtave ‘ceser 3 lsat “aston eseae 4 loss 229% C3907 3 longer “aisse ‘ aise: fut 2 fom os a coset ® ce Mier RG. Ahivn and AR Very Ta ate of Stee Stains und De baliee Values for Deteaminirg she Compete Spe, Mnneey eter Pacis Mss» Univ awd oh Hoeoga ee rh Board, Bulletin 342, 1962 ue Tabie 3.8 Function 5 Ps eee eer SG eae gh HOE ROA reiOarttej om ermisee ieee seaee gana Serer eee nea SHEET oo 8 91 9882 101¢9 02 “1aRs7 9306 03 26362 3696 ce saon6 “sz 05 35077 “aszs2 06 32a “ss 27 ag? ose 130% 23524 aa ~09t66 $8006 36356 13383 “o7i6s “ous “press 32mm sen “haaea “eu05 Donte 32 e828 “14906 Ge209 Laver 138 370 — 02325 oe ares 30699 0753 “one 05 [e962 3625s o8s07 _by785 bangs Jee 09210 “02814 — eros 136 { i | 03 “nosey ~o074s oe 5 —00591 ~00368 - 00199 86 a a8 43 1" —ounis -,00608 00346 80118 -90073 ~00m9 ~o0025 —.c9a16 --a0003 00310 90135 — 50052 90048-00028 —co01k ve wo eo? oem we ae ° Raeeree eg : 049281 “ot08t. "ook 82 nia “onse7 “anGR —too48 come _oosn0 03 ‘0ez2“og350 i os a QS 91013 one ona0p AOKTE o00r1 poest vers e00Le aanc# oe a o8 : a ¥ 1742 c0vss 00353 90226 00143 00087 op0S0 00029 90018 32 91935 epeni "po4s9 cones 00101 8ONnS i ES 02042 oiai3 ‘noses 90938 06210 ‘Dot4i 00073 co0Kd n002? t 2 0271 1460 “DOES 00395 daaee noLeD pone Dose “BREE i 25 ems orn (50052 ‘notes atsee Dente torts “anoee cone? & 3 oisee orsia “corr poses ‘ones ‘onnea 00152. ‘0078 S008) { ats82 sites 90%6e “car3¢ ocze4 c0282 tose ‘noe panes 7 $ -s1se5 coves ooves cosahDtase on9e to179 “aB113 coos, 3 & aoHH2 romps es poes> caste nan09toIeh eolne oe 7 07S nose) “noses ‘Douay 036000251 “NoLND ‘9013000081 : £covas “onset aces ons9e Ohya “namte 90169. “Rola “oebee Be 3 nosae to4ee “comos “ocassoo3ol_aense olse 60132 “aoore 58 Ssose 00357 ooas2_908%6 tard ste a \ 9 sissies eet eid aaa pege Tate ea ele ee a ee eee cenaive seo eee egee eae ig tLe }S 94 20210 =.0084 20082 03 -00433 00368 —00083 —o0e24 ~001s — conta Ww; Tie 38 (Contd | o aaa cae neee | 5 . ub 0 02 oF 06 on 1 1a welt omg 3s 6 1 8 10 12 4 12 was gone awn 206 ann any awe aon oom Uwe —oomnt —omr ~aai6 —o0i6 ~ooi0? (3 Mer ims “bt sat Ina “ont “gs Baw Sun {Eeues cance Corot cents ~eoiat 2anle met oc0 : Yim Whee “isiny “ney “hunt “Ose ano “Suns P°SRH TER “eh, Contes Tee sanee “owe nase my ish os ne “ibn “ne Gone One en fe ds Suet conte ~oetn cevto navi coo1se “Oley ~eng9 309487 09394 09099 08625 08033 07325 06551 08354 OSIt 3 O1112 00157-00138 ~99192 -.20279 -.00151. --00099 ~.00065 \ {Shon Sue ois Gon Sus an tun ones aut 1 GUIS tess ts “ites “ante ott cet “ono serie 3 Shim ‘Shs oon ; GS fa nt ant aed “eum sonore “opus meow eet Suet cin {RUB dete ‘Sage Gens deuo “coo “aout capocr soos bp 5 ine ois in + titer ‘Soe Saser ny Suits coum comer “open eee) i, tise ous rr {Slane form ‘nse Gent ouse Gott uns “anes “ows + ain one as er Gclny Gaon vith “tone Smee Soot? -apt & coe oe ec feos0L 0382 _00es1 00195 Tales RG. Atlin and iL R, Wey, Tabulaed Values for Oniemining the Compleve fae y tee of Stree, Strat an Delessont tenesth 4 Untorm Lasé Sn a Homogeneous Hal - Space, Highway Reverch Board Bulein 342, 1982 eee Table 3.9 Function C & G wo woo oft wae os 6 7 eee fe Groene otic or ceeea niet enrortie oo 9 3 09 o © 8 9 © \ G4 04926 sasie2 <.05905 =o7708 “12108 9227 12007 "ours fa “oosos oaies ° oot i 03 =99425 09955 “AgHT2 —12977 — 14552 02819 “14394 O82 02951 o1 con2s “Boles anges o00s9 C0039 i 03 aie Tiss 11son3 22590 otss2 “Lasse ose “bared Perit i a4 16008 ThGs19 Lissss “iiss 01292 Lele 102 05:67 ta | G3 canny “anBs Caney —issas

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