SOIL

16 3 Major Groups of Soil

i
Granular
i
Good load bearing
i
Permeable
i
Incompressible
i
Unchanging strength and volume due to variation in water content
ii
Composed of gravel and sand
i
Fine-grained
i
Poor load bearing
i
Impermeable
i
Compressible under sustained load
i
Subject to change in strength and volume due to variation in water content
ii
Composed of silt and clay
i
Organic
i
Natural moisture content is 100%
i
Deposited plant matter
ii
Unsuitable material
iii
Composed of peat and muck
SIEVE

CLASS

Remarks

mm

3"

75

gravel

#10

sand

#200

0.075

silt

Smooth surface

0.002

clay

Cohesive and plastic when wet

0.001

colloids

16 Common Laboratory Test for Soil

i
Grading
i
Combined Sieve Analysis
1 wash test that determines the percentage passing 0.075mm
i
Hydrometer Analysis
1 calculate the % of grains of various ave. remaining in suspension or those w/c have
settled out
2 100 g weight of sandy soil for hydrometer analysis
3 50 g weight of silty/clayey soil for hydrometer analysis
i
Consistency Tests (Atterberg Limit)
i
Widely used to control the characteristics of soil which are to be incorporated in roadways
ii
Liquid Limit
1 min. moisture content at w/c the soil will flow upon the application of a very small
shearing force
1 moisture content corresponding to 25 blows, brass cup w/ sample is raised and allowed
to drop 10 mm sharply on the base
1
2 rotations/sec
1 Flow Curve - curve in a logarithmic scale where the 25th blow is projected in order to
determine LL
2 A total of 3 determinations should be made
3 Highest moisture content in the plastic consistency of fined grained soil
4 100g for LL determination
i
Plastic Limit

ii

1 min. MC at w/c the soil can be readily be molded w/o breaking or crumbling
1 the soil thread will begin to break at 3.2mm (1/8")
1 PL= [(wt. of sample -wt of oven dried sample)/wt of oven dried] x 100
2 15g for PL determination
3 Indicates a range of moisture content over which a soil is plastic
Shrinkage Limit
1 moisture content by w/c just enough water is added to fill all the voids of an oven dried
sample
2 between solid and semi solid states and is defined as the highest moisture content of
which the mass attain its volume but continues to lose weight/mass
3 30g sample for SL determination
Plasticity Index , PI = LL - PL
1 Indication of % clay content
2 Indicates compressibility of soil
3 Range of water content that a soil is in a plastic state
4 High PI, high degree of compressibility and lower permeability

Shrinkage Index
1. Plastic Limit Shrinkage Limit
Compaction Test (moisture-density relation)
i
Determines the amount of water to be used when compacting the soil in the field and to obtain
the maximum dry density (MDD) and optimum moisture content (OMC) under the specified
compacted effort
i
Soil sample should be air dried
1 Air dry sample under the heat of the sun
1 oven dry at 60C
1 Oven Dried sample
a 110C 5C (230F 41F)-temp for oven drying soil sample
a already oven-dried if it reach its constant weight
i
CBR (California Bearing Ratio)
i
Determines bearing ratio of soil when compacted
i
Determines the potential strength of aggregate
ii
Sample soaked for 4 days before tested
iii
CBR of 2 weak
iv
CBR of 15 or more very stable
v
10, 30, and 65 blows no. of blows used in preparation of CBR samples
vi
35 kg weight of sample
vii
Used to determine strength of subgrade
i
Los Angeles Abrasion Test (%mass of wear)
i
% of wear represent abrasion loss
ii
Determines hardness of CA
i
unit weight
i
moisture content
i.
Ratio of weight/mass of water in the soil to the weight/mass of dry soil after it has been
dried to constant weight/mass at temperature of 1105C
ii.
Tested by Calcium Carbide Gas Pressure
Unconfined Compressive Strength Test
i.
Test for clayey soils
Direct Shear Test
i.
Test cohesion and internal friction of soil
Vane Shear Test
i.
Determines the in-situ shear strength of soft to medium clay
Bearing Test
Triaxial Shear Test
Plate Bearing Test
ii.
Determines soil bearing capacity by loading a steel plate usually 30 dia.
Consolidation Test
iii.
Performed on undisturbed soil sample.
i

ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.

16 Common Field Test for Soil

i
i
i

FDT (field density test) - degree of compaction

i
Sand cone method
1 Sand should pass #10 and retained #200
i
Apparatus for FDT
1 Sand cone (1/2" or 12.77mm)
1 Jug (at least 4L)
1 Guide plate
1 Moisture cans
1 Sand
1 Weighing scale
1 Oven w/ temp control
1 Chisel or digging tools
1 Plastic bags
1 Labelling mat'ls
i
% Degree of Compaction =(Dry Density/ Max Dry Density) x 100
1 Dry Density = Wet Density / [1 + (MC/100)]
Moisture content - amount of water present in soil
i
Natural MC - moisture of undisturbed soil
i
Hygroscopic MC - moisture of air dried soil
i
W=(wt. of water/wt. of oven dried soil) x 100
Density Control Strip
i
335 sq.m.
i
Determines the target density before construction
Soil Exploration
Boring test / Standard Penetration Test(SPT)
i
measures depth of soil layer
ii
Most commonly used method in soil exploration
iii
Extends to at least 1m below proposed grade line
iv
Made at an average of 250m interval
v
If the characteristic of bedrock is questionable, the minimum depth of boring into bedrock is
3m.

16 Item 200: Aggregate Subbase Course

i
Structural layer w/c accepts greater compressive stress than the subgrade, thus reduces the
deformation of the concrete pavement under traffic loading
16 Item 201: Aggregate Base Course
i
Reduces the vertical compressive stress induced by traffic in the subbase and the subgrade
i
Prevents pumping and provides drainage for PCCP slabs
16 Base and Subbase
i
Chief load bearing element of gravel roads
i
Improper design can lead to structural failure of slabs
i
Material Requirements
i.
Consists of hard, durable particles, of crushed stone, crushed slag, or crushed or natural gravel
filler of natural or crushed sand or other finely divided mineral matter
ii
Strength of Aggregates
i
A well graded aggregate is better than a uniformly graded agg.
i
The larger the maximum aggregate is, the greater its strength since large particles provide
greater interlocking.
i
The more flat, broken faces the particles have, the greater the strength developed through
interlocking.
i
Compaction increases the shearing strength of aggregate of any size, shape and gradation.
i
Rough particle surfaces increase strength because of greater friction between them.
i
Construction Requirement
i
Before subbase/base construction is started, a trial section of 500m shall be made to check
the suitability of the mat'l and the efficiency of the equipment and construction method.

-*
16 Soil Classification Tests
i
Grading/sieve analysis/particle size analysis/mechanical analysis
i
determines particle size distribution in soil by sieve, hydrometer or a combination

i
i

SIEVE #

OPENING SIZE (mm)

4.75

3.35

2.36

12

1.68

16

1.18

20

0.85

30

0.6

40

0.425

50

0.3

60

0.25

80

0.18

100

0.15

140

0.106

200

0.075

270

0.053

Plastic & Liquid Limit test

Group Index = (F-35)[0.2 + 0.005(LL-40)] + 0.1(F-15)(PI-10)
i
F=passing #200(0.075mm)
i
GI=0~20
1 0=good subgrade soil
1 20=poor subgrade soil

16 Reducing sample to testing size

i
Sample splitter (Method A)
i
Quartering (Method B)
16 Sample for PL & LL test should pass sieve #40 (0.425mm)
16 Sample for Compaction Test
i
Method A&B use sample passing #4 (4.75mm)
i
Method C&D use sample passing #3/4 (19mm)
Method A - 4" mold - 25 blows (V-0.000943 m)

Method B - 6" mold - 56 blows (V-0.002124 m)

Method C - 4" mold - 25 blows (V-0.000943 m)
Method D- 6" mold - 56 blows (V-0.002124 m)
16 Compaction test method
i
AASHTO T-99 (Embankment)
i
95% degree of compaction
i
uses 2.5kg (5.5lbs) rammer w/ a drop of 12" height,
i
3 approx. equal layers
i.
AASHTO T-180 (Subbase and Base)
i.
100% degree of compaction
i
uses 4.54 kg (10lbs) rammer w/ a drop of 18" height
i
5 approx equal layers
ii.
Effects of Proper Soil Compaction
ii.
Increase in stability and strength
ii
Minimize future settlement
ii
Decrease permeability
17 Stages in Compaction
i.
Swelling Stage
1. Soil grains are forced apart by the water added, thus the grain is reduced
ii.
Saturation Stage
1. Stage in which all free air is expelled and replaced with water by water, if further pressure
is applied to the soil mass, the tendency is to reduce its volume
iii.
Lubricating Stage
1. Additional water replaces some of the entrapped air and the soil particles move closer
together with a resulting increase in density.
17

Specific Gravity - ratio of the wt. in air of an equal volume of water at a stated temp.
18
TEST / ITEM

200 SUBBASE

201 BASE

202 CRUSHED
BASE

PI

AASHTO T-90

6 max

12 max

6 max

6 max

LL

AASHTO T-89

30 max

35 max

25 max

25 max

95% min

100% min

100% min

100% min

50% max

50% max

45% max

15cm compacted

15cm compacted

15cm compacted

CBR

25% min

80% min

80% min

GRADING

Passing #200 shall

not
exceed 2/3 of the
passing #40

Passing #200
shall not
exceed 2/3 of the
passing #40

Passing #200 shall

not
exceed 2/3 of the
passing #40. Filler
Material not contain
more than 15%
retained #4 sieve

COMPACTION
ABRASION
MAX THK.

MAX SIZE OF AGG

104 EMB

AASHTO T-96

20cm loose

3"

2"

17.

19

Soil Stabilization
i.
Cement or lime
ii.
Geotextile
iii.
Chemical Admixture (calcium chloride)

16.

Soil Sampling
i
Shelby tube - thin tube sampler for undisturbed soil
i
Wax - sealing undisturbed soil sample
i
Split spoon sampler - tube sampler for disturbed sample
i
Load Test (Dynamic Load Test) - dynamic test used in the field to obtain empirical results w/c can be
used to estimate shear strength and bearing capacity
i.
Diamond bit - coring bit in rock coring
Specific Gravity ratio of weight in air of an equal volume of water at a stated temperature
18.

Problem Solving
i
Moisture
i
Given:
1 Wt. of air dry soil
1 Wt. of oven dry soil
1 Wt. of wet soil
i
% Hygroscopic Moisture = (Air dry soil - oven dry soil) / oven dry soil
i
% Natural Moisture - (Wet soil - oven dry soil) / oven dry
i

Field Density Test

i
Given

Wt. per cu. of calibrated sand

1532 kg/m3

Wt. of moist soil taken from the hole

7.62 kg

Moisture content of soil

11.1 kg

Wt. of calibrated sand to fill the hole

4.5 kg

Max dry density

2172.7kg/cu.m.

Compute for Compaction

i
Volume of Hole = 4.5/1532 = 0.002937 cu.m.
i
Wet density = 7.62/0.002937 = 2,594.5 kg/cu.m
i
Dry density = wet density / [1+(MC/100)]
Dry density = 2594.5 / [1 + (11.1/100)] = 2335.5 kg/cu.m.
i
Degree of Compaction = dry density / max dry density
Degree of Compaction = 2335.5/2172.7 = 1.0749 107.5%

Item
Thickness of Layer
Level of Surface
Crossfall or Camber
Longitudinal Grade over 25m Length
Surface Irregularity

TOLERANCES
105
200
20mm
+20
-30
0.5%
0.1%
30mm

+10
-20
0.3%
0.1%
20mm

201
10mm
+5
-10
0.2%
0.1%
5mm

300
+15
-5mm
+15
-5
0.2%
0.1%
5mm

ITEM 100 : CLEARING AND GRUBBING

1. Removal of undisturbed stumps and roots and non-perishable solid objects with a minimum depth of 1
meter below subgrade.
2. Cogon/talahib shall be cut to a maximum depth of 150mm
small tree
large tree

150mm to 900mm diameter with a height of not less than 1.4m

over 900mm with a height of not less than 1.4m

ITEM 104 : EMBANKMENT

Passing 75mm and not more than 15% passing #200 sieve
Unsuitable Materials
1. PI>55
2. LL>80
3. Natural density<800 kg/m
4. Moisture content>100%
ITEM 107 : OVERHAUL
Free haul distance of 600m

ITEM 200 : AGGREGATE SUBBASE COURSE

Table 200.1 Grading Requirements
Sieve Designation
Standard, mm
Alternate US Standard
50
2
25
1
9.5
3/8
0.075
No. 200

Mass Percent Passing

100
55 85
40 75
0 - 12

ITEM 201 : AGGREGATE BASE COURSE

Table 201.1 Grading Requirements
Sieve Designation
Standard, mm

Mass Percent Passing

Alternate US Standard

Grading A

50

100

37.5

1-1/2

100

25.0

60 85

19.0

60 85

12.5

35 65

4.75

No. 4

20 50

30 55

0.425

No. 40

5 20

8 25

0.075

No. 200

0 12

2 14

ITEM 202 : CRUSHED AGGREGATE BASE COURSE

Table 201.1 Grading Requirements

Grading B

Sieve Designation
Standard, mm

Mass Percent Passing

Alternate US Standard

Grading A

Grading B

37.5

1-1/2

100

25

100

19

60 85

12.5

60 90

4.75

No. 4

30 55

35 65

0.425

No. 40

8 25

10 30

0.075

No. 200

2 - 14

5 15

ITEM 300 : AGGREGATE SURFACE COURSE

Table 300.1 Grading Requirements
Sieve Designation
Standard
Alternate
Mm
U. S. Standard
25
1
9.5
3/8
4.75
No.4
2.00
No. 10
0.425
No.40
0.075
No. 200

Grading
A
100
50-85
35-65
25-50
15-30
5-20

Mass Percent Passing

Grading
Grading
B
C
100
100
60-100
50-85
55-100
40-70
40-100
25-45
20-50
5-20
6-20

Grading
D
100
70-100
55-100
30-70
8-25

When crushed aggregate is called for in the Bill of Quantities, not less than fifty (50) mass percent of the
particles retained on the 4.75 mm (No. 4) sieve shall have at least one (1) fractured face.
Materials for gravel surface course and crushed aggregate surface course shall have a soaked CBR
Value of not less than 25% and 80% respectively as determined by AASHTO T 193. The CBR Value shall
be obtained at the maximum dry density and determined by AASHTO T 180, Method D.