Complex Function

Chapter 16
Complex Function
Contents
16.1
Complex Number
16.2
Elementary Functions
11
16.3
Function of Complex Variables, Limit and Derivatives
13
16.4
Analytic Functions and Their Derivatives
18
16.5
Line Integral in the Complex Plane
21
16.6
Cauchys Integral Theorem and Formula
23
16.7
Sequence and Series
25
16.8
Laurents Theorem
29
16.9
Singularity and Zeros, Infinity
30
16.10
Residue Integration Method
31
16.11
Exercise
34
Complex function is the branch of mathematical analysis that investigates functions of complex
numbers. It is useful in many branches of mathematics including algebraic geometry, number theory,
applied mathematics as well as in physics including hydrodynamics and thermodynamics and also in
engineering fields such as nuclear, aerospace, mechanical and electrical engineering.
16.1
Complex Number
Definition 16.1.1 An expression of the form z = x + iy, where x and y are real numbers and i =
or i2 = 1 is called a complex number and the set of complex number denoted by
C = {x + iy|x, y R and i = 1}
Example 16.1 z1 = 5 + i3 and z2 = 1 + i0 are particular examples of complex numbers.
In the expression of a complex number z = x + iy, x is called the real part; that is, Re z = x and y is called
the imaginary part of the complex number; that is, Im z = y.
Example 16.2 z = 4 3i is an example of complex number in which 4 is a real part and -3 is an
imaginary part.
Definition 16.1.2 Two complex numbers z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2 are said to be equal; that is,
z1 = z2 if and only if x1 = x2 and y1 = y2 .

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Complex Function
Figure 16.1: z = x + iy
Figure 16.2: z = 4 3i
Definition 16.1.3 The sum of two complex numbers z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2 is defined by
z1 + z2 = (x1 + iy1 ) + (x2 + iy2 ) = (x1 + x2 ) + i(y1 + y2 )
Figure 16.3: The sum of two complex number
Definition 16.1.4 The difference of two complex numbers z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2 is defined
by
z1 z2 = (x1 x2 ) + i(y1 y2 )
is again a complex number.
Properties of addition for the set of complex number

Let z1 = x1 + iy1 , z2 = x2 + iy2 and z3 = x3 + iy3 are any complex numbers, then
1. Closure Properties
z1 + z2 C
2. Commutative Properties
z1 + z2 = z2 + z1
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16.1 Complex Number
Figure 16.4: The difference of two complex number
3. Associative Properties
(z1 + z2 ) + z3 = z1 + (z2 + z3 )
4. Scaler Multiplication
For any z = x + iy in C and any constant
z = x + iy C
5. Existence of Identity
For any z = x + iy in C, there exist an element 0 = 0 + i0 in C such that
z+0
= (x + iy) + (0 + i0)
= x + iy
= (0 + i0) + (x + iy)
= 0+z
Hence we call 0 + i0 (denoted by 0) the additive identity element on C.

6. Existence of Inverse
For any z = x + iy in C, there exist an element z = x iy in C such that
z + (z) = (x + iy) + (x iy)
= 0 + i0
= (x iy) + (x + iy)
= (z) + z
Hence z = x iy is called the additive inverse of element on C
Example 16.3 Evaluate (2 + i) + (5 + 3i).
Solution:
(2 + i) + (5 + 3i) = (2 + 5) + (i + 3i)
= 7 + 4i

Example 16.4 Evaluate 2(3 + 5i) 3(2 i).
Solution:
2(3 + 5i) 3(2 i) = (6 + 10i) (6 3i)
= (6 6) + (10i + 3i)
= 13i
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Complex Function
Definition 16.1.5 The product of two complex numbers z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2 is defined by
z1 z2 = (x1 + iy1 ) (x2 + iy2 ) = (x1 x2 y1 y2 ) + i(x1 y2 + x2 y1 )

is again a complex number.
Properties of Multiplication for the set of complex number
Let z1 = x1 + iy1 , z2 = x2 + iy2 and z3 = x3 + iy3 are any complex numbers, then
1. Closure Properties
z1 z2 C
2. Commutative Properties
z1 z2 = z2 z1
3. Associative Properties
(z1 z2 ) z3 = z1 (z2 z3 )
4. Distributive Properties
z1 (z2 + z3 ) = (z1 z2 ) + (z1 z3 )
5. Existence of Identity
For any z = x + iy in C, there exist an element 1 = 1 + i0 in C such that
z1
= (x + iy) (1 + i0)
= x + iy
= (1 + 0i) (x + iy)
= 1z
Hence we call 1 = 1 + i0 the multiplication identity element on C.

6. Existence of Inverse
For any z = x + iy 6= 0 in C, there exist an element xxiy
2 +y2 in C such that
(x + iy)(
Hence
xiy
x2 +y2
x iy
x iy
)=1=( 2
)(x + iy)
x 2 + y2
x + y2
is called the multiplicative inverse of element on C.
Conjugate and Module of Complex Number

Definition 16.1.6 Given a complex number z = x + iy. The conjugate of z, denoted by z, is defined by
z = x iy.
Example 16.5 The complex conjugate of z = 5 + 2i is z = 5 2i
Figure 16.5: z = 5 2i
Remark 16.1.1
1. Every real number has its own conjugate.

2. The product of any complex number with its conjugate is a real number; that is, if z = x + iy is a
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16.1 Complex Number
complex number, then

z z = (x + iy) (x iy)
= x2 i(xy) + i(xy) i2 y2
= x2 (1)y2
= x2 + y2 here x2 + y2 is areal number
Properties of Conjugate
1. For any complex number z = x + iy, we have the following properties
(a) z = z
(b) z + z = 2x
(c) z z = 2iy
2. Let z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2 be any two complex numbers. Then
(a) z1 + z2 = z1 + z2
(b) z1 z2 = z1 z2
(c) z1 z2 = z1 z2
(d) ( zz12 ) = zz12
Definition 16.1.7 Consider the complex number z = x + iy. The modules(or absolute value) of z,
denoted by |z|, is defined by

|z| =
x 2 + y2
Properties of Modules
1. For any complex number z, |z| > 0. But if z = 0, then |z| = 0.
2. Consider the complex number z = x + iy. Since z = x iy, we have
q
p
|z| = x2 + (y)2 = x2 + y2 = |z|
3.
4.
5.
6.
|z| = |z|
|zz| = x2 + y2 = |z|2 for any complex number z.
|z1 z2 | = |z1 ||z2 |
| zz21 | = |z|z1 ||
2
7. |z1 + z2 |2 = |z1 |2 + 2Re(z1 z2 ) + |z2 |2

8. |z1 z2 |2 = |z1 |2 2Re(z1 z2 ) + |z2 |2
Example 16.6 Let z = 2 3i. Then find |
z| and |z|.
Solution: Since z = 2 i3 we have z = 2 + 3i, then
q
|z| =
22 + (3)2 = 13 = |z|
zz = (2 3i)(2 + 3i) = 22 (3i)2 = 13 = |z|2

Division of Complex number

To divide a complex number by a complex number we use the idea of complex conjugate in order to make
the denominator real by rationalizing the denominator. For example, to divide 1 by a complex number
a + bi if a + bi 6= 0 we will multiply both numerator and the denominator by the conjugate of a + bi; that
is,
1
1
a bi
= (
)(
)
a + bi
a + bi a bi
a bi
=
a2 + b2
a
b
=
i 2
a2 + b2
a + b2
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Complex Function
6
1
Example 16.7 Write 25i
in the form a + ib, where a and b are real numbers.
Solution: Multiply the numerator and denominator by the conjugate of 2 5i

1
2 5i
1
2 + 5i
)(
)
2 5i 2 + 5i
2 + 5i
22 + 52
2
5
+ i
29 29
= (
=
=
5+4i
i
in the form a + ib, where a and b are real numbers.

Example 16.8 Write
Solution: Multiply the numerator and denominator by the conjugate of i
5 + 4i
i
5 + 4i i
)( )
i
i
2
5i 4i
=
i2
= 4 5i
= (

Example 16.9 Write 7+2i

3i in the form a + ib, where a and b are real numbers.
Solution: Multiply the numerator and denominator by the conjugate of 3 i

7 + 2i
3i
7 + 2i 3 + i
)(
)
3i 3+i
19 + 13i
32 + 12
19 13
+ i
10 10
= (
=
=
Theorem 16.1.2 For any three complex numbers z1 , z2 , and z3
1.
2.
3.
4.
|z| Re z |z|
|z| Im z |z|
|z1 + z2 | |z1 | + |z2 | Triangular inequality
||z1 | |z2 || |z1 z2 |
Polar Form of Complex Number

There is a one to one corresponding between the complex number z = x + iy and the order pair (x, y) in
the complex plane. The plane on which the complex number are representing is called the complex plane
or rectangular form of complex plane. A complex number z = x + iy may also identified as a vector.
Figure 16.6: Polar form of complex number
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16.1 Complex Number
De-Moivers Formula
Since z1 and z2 are complex number
z1 z2
= (r1 (cos 1 + i sin 1 )r2 (cos 2 + i sin 2 )

= r1 r2 (cos 1 + i sin 1 )(cos 2 + i sin 2 )
= r1 r2 (cos(1 + 2 ) + i sin(1 + 2 ))
An induction argument shows that if zi has modules ri and argument i , where i = 1, 2, , n, then
z1 z2 zn = r1 r2 rn (cos(1 + 2 + + n ) + i sin(1 + 2 + + n ))
If we let z1 = z2 = = zn = z in the above equation, we obtain
zn = rn (cos n + i sin n )
For |z| = 1 (the unit circle), then we have
(cos + i sin )n = (cos n + i sin n )
is called De-Moivers Formula.
Theorem 16.1.3 De-Moivers Formula for any n N
(cos + i sin )n = (cos n + i sin n )
7 in rectangular form.
Example 16.10 Simplify ( 3 + i)
Solution: First we have to write z = 3 + i in polar form as z = 2 cos 6 + i sin 6 since r = 2 and =
hence
( 3 + i)7 = (2ei( 6 )7 since r=2 and =

6
= 27 ei(
pi
6,
7 )
6
7
7
) + i sin( ))
6
6
7
2 (cos( + ) + i sin( + ))
6
6
7
2 ( cos( ) i sin( ))
6
6
3
1
27 (
i
2
2
6
2 ( 3 i)
64 3 64i
= 27 (cos(
=
=
=
=
=
(1 + i)20
Example 16.11 Simplify

in rectangular form.
Solution: First we have to write z = 1 + i in polar form as z = 2 cos 4 + i sin 4 since r = 2 and = 4 ,
hence
( 3 + i)7 = ( 2ei( 4 )20 since r=2 and =

6
20 i( 20 )
4
=
2 e
= 210 (cos 5 + i sin 5)

= 1024(1)
= 1024
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Complex Function
Example 16.12 Use the De-Movirs Theorem to express cos 4 and sin 4 in terms of powers of cos
and sin .
Solution: We know that
(cos + sin )4 = cos 4 + sin 4 6 cos 2 sin2 + i(4 cos3 sin 4 cos sin3 )
from De-Movires theorem
(cos + sin )4 = cos 4 + sin 4
so from the above two equation
cos 4
= cos 4 + sin 4 6 cos 2 sin2
sin 4
= 4 cos3 sin 4 cos sin3

Roots
We can use De-Moveres formula to find the nth roots of a complex number
z = r(cos + i sin )
write z = wn ; that is w =
n z, where w = R(cos + i sin ). Thus

r(cos + i sin ) = Rn (cos n + i sin n )
By equating the absolute value on both sides in the above equation

Rn = rn ; that is, R =
n
r
where the root is real positive and thus is uniquely determined. By equating the argument, again we obtain
n = + 2k; that is, =
where k is an integer. Consequently,
w=
2k
+
n
n
n z for z 6= 0, has the n distinct values
2k
2k
n
z = n r(cos( +
) + i sin( +
))
n
n
n
n
where k = 0, 1, 2, , n 1.
Theorem 16.1.4 Let n be positive integers, then any non-zero complex number has n distinct nth roots.
3
1 + i.
Solution: Let z = 1 + i z = 2(cos 4 + i sin 4 ) and w = 3 z w = R(cos + i sin ). So
3
z = w
Example 16.13 Find
z = (w)3
2(cos + i sin ) = (R(cos + i sin ))3

4
4
2(cos + i sin ) = R3 (cos 3 + i sin 3 ))3

4
4
2 = R3 and 3 = + 2k where k = 0, 1, 2
4
2k
6
R = 2 and =
+
where k = 0, 1, 2
12
3
If k = 0, then 0 = 12
and w0 = 6 2(cos 12
+ i sin 12
).
2
3
3
If k = 1, then 1 = 12 + 3 = 4 and w1 = 2(cos 4 + i sin 3
4 ).
17
17
17
If k = 2, then 2 = 12
+ 4
=
and
w
=
2(cos
+
i
sin
2
3
12
12
12 ).
Therefore, w0 , w1 and w2 are the third root of z = 1 + i.
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16.2 Elementary Functions
16.2
Elementary Functions
Exponential Function
Exponential function can be defined as
exp(z) = ez = ex+iy = ex eiy = ex (cos y + i sin y), where z = x + iy
Example 16.14 Find exp(z + w), where z = x + iy and w = u + iv.
Solution:
exp(z + w) = ez ew
= ex+iy eu+iv
= ex (cos y + iex sin y)eu (cos v + ieu sin v)
= ex eu (cos y + iex sin y)(cos v + ieu sin v)
= ex+u (cos(y + v) + i sin(y + v))
Example 16.15 Show that exp(z + i2) = exp(z).
Solution:
exp(z + i2) = ez ei2
= ex+iy eu+iv
= ex (cos y + iex sin y)(cos(2) + i sin(2))
= ex (cos y + iex sin y)(1 + i0)
= ex (cos y + i sin y)
= ez
Trigonometric Function
Trigonometric function defined cosine and sine as
cos z =
eiz eiz
eiz + eiz
and sin z =
2
2i
where we are using ez = exp(z).

Example 16.16 Show that sin(z + 2) = sin z for all z.
Solution:
sin(z + 2) =
=
=
=
=
ei(z+2) ei(z+2)
2i
eiz+i2 eizi2
2i
eiz ei2 eiz ei2
2i
since ei2 = 1 and ei2 = 1
eiz eiz
2i
sin z
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Complex Function
10
Example 16.17 Show that cos(z + 2) = cos z for all z.
Solution:
cos(z + 2) =
=
=
=
=
ei(z+2) + ei(z+2)
2
eiz+i2 + eizi2
2
eiz ei2 + eiz ei2
2
since ei2 = 1 and ei2 = 1
eiz + eiz
2
cos z
Example 16.18 Show that sin(z +
2 ) = cos z
for all z.
Solution:
sin(z +
) =
2
=
=
=
=
=
ei(z+ 2 ) ei(z+ 2 )
2i
eiz+i 2 eizi 2
2i
eiz ei 2 eiz ei 2
2i
i
since e 2 = i and ei 2 = i
eiz i eiz (i)
2i
eiz + eiz
2
cos z
Hyperbolic Function
Since for real t
sinht =
et et
et + et
and cosht =
2
2
Thus,
sin(it) =
ei(it) ei(it)
et et
= i(
) = i sinht
2i
2
Similarly, cos(it) = cosht.

Logarithmic Function
Logarithmic function can be defined as
log z = ln |z| + iarg z, if z 6= 0
For any value of log z we have
1. elog z = eln |z|+i arg z = eln |z| ei arg z = z
2.
log(ez ) = ln ex + i arg i
= x + (y + 2k)i
= z + i2k where k is an integer
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16.3 Function of Complex Variables, Limit and Derivatives
11
3.
log(zw) = ln(|z||w|) + iarg(zw)
= ln |z| + iargz + ln |w| + iargw
= log z + log w + 2ki, for some integer k
16.3
Function of Complex Variables, Limit and Derivatives
Corresponding to each value of a complex variable z, there corresponds one value or more than one value
of another complex variables w, then w is said to be a function of z and written as
w = f (z) = u + iv = u(x, y) + iv(x, y), where x and y are real
If to each value of z, there corresponds one and only one value of w, then w is said to be a single valued
function of z, otherwise a multiple valued function of z.
Example 16.19 w = 1z ,where z 6= 0 is a particular examle of single valued function of z and defined at
all points of z-plane except at z = 0.
z, where z 6= 0 is a particular examle of multiple valued function of z.

Example 16.20 w =

Definition 16.3.1 If a0 , a1 , a2 , , an are complex constants, then the function
P(z) = a0 + a1 z + a2 z2 + + an zn
is defined in the entire complex plane and is called a polynomial in z.
P(z)
Definition 16.3.2 If P(x) and Q(x) are two polynomials, then the quotient Q(z) is called rational
function and is defined for all z with Q(z) 6= 0.

Example 16.21 Find the real and imaginary part of the function f (z) = z2 .
Solution: Let w = f (z) = u + vi and z = x + yi, then

w
u + vi
f (z)
= (x + yi)2
= (x2 y2 ) + (2xy)i
u(x, y) = x2 y2 and v(x, y) = 2xy
f (z) = z4
Example 16.22 Write

Solution: Let z = x + yi, then
in the form of f (z) = u + iv for z = x + iy.
f (z) = z4
= (x + iy)4
= x4 + 4x3 yi + 6x2 (yi)2 + 4x(yi)3 + (yi)4
= (x4 6x2 y2 ) + (4x3 y 4xy3 )i

Example 16.23 Express
f (z) = zRe(z) + z2 + Im(z)
in the form of f (z) = u + iv for z = x + iy.
Solution:
f (z) = zRe(z) + z2 + Im(z)
= (x iy)x + (x2 y2 + 2xyi) + y
= (2x2 y2 + y) + (xy)i
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Example 16.24 Express f (z) = 4x2 + i4y2 by formula involving the variable z and z.
Solution: Let z = x + yi. Then z = x yi. This implies that
x=
z z
z + z
and y =
2
2i
Therefore, we have
z + z 2
z z 2
) + 4(
) i
2
2i
= z2 + 2zz + z2 (z2 + 2zz + z2 )i
f (z) = 4(
= (1 i)z2 + (2 + 2i)zz + (1 i)z2
Limit
Limit of complex functions have the same properties as that of vector valued function since complex
function also considered as a vector valued function.
Definition 16.3.3 Let S be an open subset of the complex plane C. Let f be a function on S and L be
a complex constant we say that
lim f (z) = L
zz0
if for every > 0, there is > 0 such that if z S and 0 < |z z0 | < , then | f (z) L| < .
Geometrically the definition states that given any open disk with center L and radius , there exist an open
disk with center z0 and radius such that for all points of z(6= z0 ) in the disk 0 < |z z0 | < , the image
w = f (z) lies in the disk | f (z) L| < .
Figure 16.7: The image of f (z)
Remark 16.3.1 If a function f (z) approaches to two different values as z z0 along two different
paths, then lim f (z) does not exist.

zz0
Example 16.25 Show that lim zz does not exist.

z0
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Solution: If z 0 along the line y = mx, where m R and z = x + yi, we have

z
z0 z
lim
=
=
=
=
x yi
(x,y)(0,0) x + yi
x (mx)i
since y = mx
lim
x0 x + (mx)i
x(1 mi)
lim
x0 x(1 + mi)
1 mi
lim
x0 1 + mi
1 mi
1 + mi
lim
If the value of m varies, the limit also varies. Therefore, lim zz does not exist.
z0
(x+y)2
Example 16.26 Find the limit of f (z) = x2 +y2 as z 0.
Solution: Now we have to show the limit of the function as z 0 from any direction in the complex plane
C. So
lim (lim f (z)) = 1
x0 y0
lim (lim f (z)) = 1
y0 x0
But along the path y = mx, we have

lim f (z) =
z0
(x + mx)2
x0 x2 + (mx)2
lim
(1 + m)2
1 + m2
The limiting value here depends on m and hence lim f (z) does not exist.
z0
Theorem 16.3.2 Let f (z) = u(x, y) + v(x, y)i be a complex function that is defined in some neighbor-
hood of z0 , except perhaps z0 = x0 + y0 i. Then

lim f (z) = w0 = u0 + v0 i
zz0
if and only if
lim
(x,y)(x0 ,y0 )
u(x, y) = u0 and
lim
(x,y)(x0 ,y0 )
v(x, y) = v0
Theorem 16.3.3 Let f and g be two functions whose limits at z0 exists such that lim f (z) = w0 and
zz0
lim g(z) = k0 , then
zz0
1. lim [ f (z) g(z)] = w0 k0

zz0
2. lim f (z) g(z) = w0 k0

zz0
f (z)
zz0 g(z)
3. lim
w0
k0 ,
where k0 6= 0
Theorem 16.3.4 Let f (z) be a complex function

1
=0
zz0 f (z)
lim f (z) = w0 lim f ( 1z ) = w0
z
z0
1. lim f (z) = lim

zz0
2.
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Complex Function
14
1
1
z0 f ( z )
3. lim f (z) = w0 lim

z
=0
.
Example 16.27 Evaluate lim iz+1
z1 z+1
z+1
z1 iz+1
Solution: Since lim
Theorem 16.3.5
iz+1
z1 z+1
= 0, then lim
= .
1. If lim f (z) = L, then lim f (z) = L

zz0
zz0
2. If lim f (z) = L, then lim | f (z)| = |L|

zz0
zz0
3. lim f (z) = L if and only if lim Re f (z) = Re L and lim Im f (z) = Im L
zz0
zz0
zz0
Example 16.28 Evaluate lim (2x + iy)2 .

z2i
Solution:
lim (2x + iy)2
z2i
lim 4x2 + i4xy y2
z2i
lim
(x,y)(0,2)
4x2 y2 + i
lim
(x,y)(0,2)
4xy
= 4
Continuity
Definition 16.3.4 Let f be a complex valued function defined in a region S of the complex plane.
Then f is said to be continuous at z0 if lim f (z) = f (z0 ). Thus f is continuous at z0 if given > 0
zz0
there exist a > 0 such that

|z z0 | < | f (z) f (z0 )| <
Definition 16.3.5 A function f is continuous at a point z0 , if the following three conditions are satisfied
1. lim f (z) exists

zz0
2. f (z0 ) exists
3. lim f (z) = f (z0 )
zz0
A complex function f is continuous if and only its real and imaginary parts u and v are continuous.
Continuity of complex functions has the same properties as that of real functions.
Theorem 16.3.6 If f and g are continuous at z0 , then the following functions are continuous at z0
1.
2.
3.
4.
Their sum and difference f (z) g(z)

Their product f (z) g(t)
f (z)
, provided that g(z0 ) 6= 0
Their quotient g(z)
Their composition f (g(z)), provided that f (z) is continuous in a neighborhood of the point g(z0 ).
2
2i
Example 16.29 Show that lim z2z2z+2
= 1 i.
z1+i
Solution:
z2 2i
z1+i z2 2z + 2
lim
(z 1 i)(z + 1 + i)
z1+i (z 1 i)(z 1 + i)
z+1+i
= lim
z1+i z 1 + i
= 1i
=
lim
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15
Example 16.30 Show that lim f (z) does not exist, where
z0
z2
|z|2
f (z) =
Solution: Along the line y = x
z2
z0 |z|2
lim f (z) =
lim
z0
x2 y2 + 2xyi
x2 + y2
(x,y)(0,0)
lim
2x2 i
(x,y)(0,0) 2x2
= i
=
lim
Along the line y = 2x

z2
z0 |z|2
lim f (z) =
lim
z0
x2 y2 + 2xyi
x2 + y2
(x,y)(0,0)
lim
x2 + i4x2
5x2
(x,y)(0,0)
1
4
= +i
5
5
=
lim
since the two limits are different, we conclude that the limit of f (z) at z = 0 does not exist.
Theorem 16.3.7 If f (z) is continuous in a closed and bounded region R, then | f (z)| reaches a maximum
value some where in R.
Derivatives
Definition 16.3.6 Let w = f (z) be a single value function defined in a domain S and let z0 be any fixed
point in S. The derivatives of f at z0 written as f 0 (z0 ) is defined by

f 0 (z0 ) = lim
zz0
f (z) f (z0 )
z z0
provided this limit exists.

Example 16.31 If f (z) = z3 , then show that f 0 (z) = 3z2 .
Solution:
z3 z30 )
zz0 z z0
(z z0 )(z2 + zz0 + z20 )
= lim
zz0
(z z0 )
f 0 (z0 ) =
lim
lim z2 + zz0 + z20
zz0
= 3z20
since z0 is arbitrary, it follows that f 0 (z) = 3z2 .
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16
Example 16.32 Show that the function w = f (z) = z = x yi is no where differentiable.

Solution: Along the line parallel to the x-axis
lim
zz0
z z0
z z0
(x yi) (x0 + y0 i)
(x + yi) (x0 + y0 i)
x x0
=
lim
(x,y)(x0 ,y0 ) x x0
= 1
=
lim
(x,y)(x0 ,y0 )
Along the line parallel to the y-axis

lim
zz0
z z0
z z0
(x yi) (x0 + y0 i)
(x,y)(x0 ,y0 ) (x + yi) (x0 + y0 i)
(y y0 )
=
lim
(x,y)(x0 ,y0 ) i(y y0 )
= 1
=
lim
since z0 is arbitrary, it follows that it is no where differentiable.
Theorem 16.3.8 If f is differentiable at z0 , then f is continuous at z0 .
Basic Properties of Derivatives

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
d
dz C = 0, where C is a constant.
d n
n1 , where n is a positive integral.
dz z = nz
d
0
dz C f (z) = C f (z)
d
0
0
dz [ f (z) g(z)] = f (z) g (z)
d
0
0
dz ( f (z) g(z)) = f (z)g(z) + f (z)g (z)
0
0
f (z)g(z) f (z)g (z)
d f (z)
, provided that g(z) 6= 0
dz ( g(z) ) =
(g(z))2
d
0
0
dz f (g(z)) = f (g(z))g (z)
d 2
Example 16.33 Find dz
(z + 2zi + 3)4 .
Solution:
d 2
(z + 2zi + 3)4
dz
d 2
(z + 2zi + 3)
dz
= 4(z2 + 2zi + 3)3 (2z + 2i)
= 4(z2 + 2zi + 3)3
= 8(z2 + 2zi + 3)3 (z + i)

f (z) = zn
If n is a positive integer, then

is differentiable in the entire complex plane whereas f (z) = Rez,
f (z) = Imz and f (z) = z are not differentiable but f (z) = 1z is differentiable in C {0} on the other hand
f (z) = |z|2 is differentiable only at z = 0.
16.4
Analytic Functions and Their Derivatives
A function f is said to be analytic at a point z0 , if it is differentiable throughout some -neighborhood

of z0 . A function f is analytic in a region if it is analytic at every point of the region. A function which
is differentiable at a point, need not necessarily be analytic at that point, for example f (z) = |z|2 is
differentiable only at z = 0.
Definition 16.4.1 Let f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y), where the partial derivatives of u and v with respect to
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16.4 Analytic Functions and Their Derivatives
17
x and y exist and denoted as ux , vx , uy and vy . Then the Cauchy-Riemann equation is satisfied as
ux = vy and uy = vx
Theorem 16.4.1 f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) is analytic or differentiable at a point z0 , if the partial deriva-
tives of u and v exists, are continuous and satisfies the Cauchy-Riemann condition.
Theorem 16.4.2 Suppose that
f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y)

and that f 0 (z) exists at a point z0 = x0 + iy0 . Then the first order partial derivatives of u and v must
exist at (x0 , y0 ), and they must satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann equation
ux = vy and uy = vx
there also, f 0 (z0 ) can be written
f 0 (z0 ) = ux + ivx
where these partial derivatives are to be evaluated at (x0 , y0 ).

Example 16.34 Show that f (z) = z2 is analytic.
Solution: Let z = x + yi,

f (z) = z2
= (x2 y2 ) + (2xy)i
u(x, y) = x2 y2 and v(x, y) = 2xy
ux (x, y) = 2x and uy (x, y) = 2y

vx (x, y) = 2y and vy (x, y) = 2x
Therefore, ux = vy and uy = vx . Here Cauchy-Riemann equation is satisfied and ux , vx , uy , vy are exists

and also the partial derivatives are continuous. Hence f (z) = z2 is analytic or differentiable.

Example 16.35 Show that f (z) = z3 is analytic.

f (z) = z3
= (x3 3xy2 ) + (3x2 y y3 )i
u(x, y) = x3 3xy2 and v(x, y) = 3x2 y3
ux (x, y) = 3x2 3y2 and uy (x, y) = 6xy

vx (x, y) = 6xy and vy (x, y) = 3x2 3y2
Therefore, ux = vy and uy = vx . Here Cauchy-Riemann equation is satisfied and ux , vx , uy , vy are exists

and also the partial derivatives are continuous. Hence f (z) = z3 is analytic or differentiable.

Example 16.36 Show that f (z) = |z|2 is analytic.

f (z) = |z|2
= x 2 + y2
u(x, y) = x2 + y2 and v(x, y) = 0
ux (x, y) = 2x and uy (x, y) = 2y

vx (x, y) = 0 and vy (x, y) = 0
Here Cauchy-Riemann equation is not satisfied. Therefore, f (z) = z2 is not analytic.
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18
Definition 16.4.2 f (x, y) is a harmonic function if and only fx , fy , fxx and fyy exist and continuous
and satisfies the condition

fxx + fyy = 0
This equation is known as Laplace equation.
Definition 16.4.3 If f (x, y) = u(x, y)+iv(x, y), satisfies Laplace equation, then u is harmonic conjugate
of v and v is also harmonic conjugate of u.

Example 16.37 Show that f (z) = ez is analytic and f 0 (z) = ez .

f (z) = ez
= ex+yi
= ex eiy
= ex (cos y + i sin y)
= ex cos y + iex sin y
u(x, y) = ex cos y and v(x, y) = ex sin y
ux (x, y) = ex cos y uxx (x, y) = ex cos y

uy (x, y) = ex sin y uyy (x, y) = ex cos y
vx (x, y) = ex sin y vxx (x, y) = ex sin y
vy (x, y) = ex cos y vyy (x, y) = ex sin y
Here, ux , vx , uy , vy , uxx , vyy are exists and also the partial derivatives are continuous and
uxx + uyy = 0 and vxx + vyy = 0
Therefore u and v are harmonic. And Cauchy-Riemann equation is satisfied since ux = vy and uy = vx .
Therefore v is a harmonic conjugate of u. Hence f (z) = z2 is analytic or differentiable. In addition to this
f 0 (z) = ux + ivx
= ex cos y + iex sin y
= ez

Example 16.38 Show that f (z) = ez is not analytic.
Solution: Let z = x + yi, then z = x yi

f (z) = ez
= exyi
= ex cos y iex sin y
u(x, y) = ex cos y and v(x, y) = 3x2 y3
ux (x, y) = ex cos y and uy (x, y) = ex sin y

vx (x, y) = ex sin y and vy (x, y) = ex cos y
Here, ux 6= vy and uy 6= vx . So, Cauchy-Riemann equation is not satisfied.Therefore f (z) = z3 is not

analytic.

Example 16.39 Show that ez = ez .
Solution: Let z = x + yi, then z = x yi

ez
= exyi
ez
ex cos y + iex sin y
(1)
(2)
from equation (1) and (2)

ez
= ez
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16.5 Line Integral in the Complex Plane
19
16.5
Line Integral in the Complex Plane
Definition 16.5.1 Let S C be a region. Let [a, b] be some interval. A path (curve or contour) in S is
defined to be a continuous function

: [a, b] S
we call (a) the initial point and (b) the terminal point.
Definition 16.5.2 (t) is said to be a smooth curve if 0 (t) is continuous and 0 (t) 6= 0, since 0 (t) is
continuous in [a, b], then the smooth arc has length L; that is,
Z b
L=
| 0 (t)| dt
where L is arc length.

Definition 16.5.3 A path is said to be rectifiable if L() < .
Rb
Definition 16.5.4 If is piecewise differentiable, then is rectifiable and L() = a | 0 (t)| dt.
Definition 16.5.5 Let : [a, b] C be a rectifiable path with S C and f : S C be defined and
continuous on the trace . Then the line-integral of f along is defined by the equation
Z b
Z b
f ((t)) d(t) =
( f o) d
denoted this integral by

Z
f (z) dz =
f dz
Definition 16.5.6 A curve is a piecewise smooth curve, that is it consists of a finite number of smooth
arcs joined end to end.
Figure 16.8: Piecewise smooth curve

Example 16.40 Consider z(t) such that z(t) =
t + it
t +i
t [0, 1]
is piecewise smooth curve and
t [1, 2]
joined end to end.
Definition 16.5.7 Let C be a piecewise differentiable curve given by the equation z = z(t), where a
t b. Let f (z) be a continuous complex valued function defined in a region containing the curve C,
we define
Z
Z
b
f (z) dz =
C
f (z(t))z0 (t) dt
Example 16.41 Let : [0, 2] C be given by ( ) = ei and defined f (z) = 1z for z 6= 0. Evaluate
the integral of f over the circle .

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20
Solution: We have to evaluate the integral of f over the circle; that is,
Z
1
dz where 0 2
z
by definition, this integral is equal to

Z 2
1
iei d = i
ei
Z 2
d = i2
0
1. We call a differentiable path if 0 (u) exist for each u [a, b] and 0 : [a, b] C
is continuous.
2. is said to be piecewise differentiable if there is a partition on [a, b] such that is differentiable
on each sub-interval.
3. The set { : a t b} is called the trace of where : [a, b] C is a path.
4. The trace is denoted by {} and the length is denoted by L().
Remark 16.5.1
Definition 16.5.8 The curve C is said to be simple if t1 6= t2 , then (t1 ) 6= (t2 ); that is, it does not
cross it self.
Definition 16.5.9 The curve C is called a closed curve if (a) = (b) but the curve C is called a simple
closed curve if (a) = (b) and (t1 ) 6= (t2 ) for any other distinct real numbers t1 ,t2 [a, b] and
t1 6= t2 .
Figure 16.9: Simple and non simple curves
Remark 16.5.2 A simple closed curve is also called a Jordan Curve.

Example 16.42 Show that the curve (t) = cost + i sint, 0 t 2 is simple closed curve.
Solution: since (t1 ) 6= (t2 ) for any other distinct real numbers t1 ,t2 (0, 2) and (0) = (2) = 1.
Then the circle is simple closed curve.

Properties of Line Integral

1.
( f (z) + g(z)) dz =
2.
f (z) dz =
f (z) dz + g(z) dz. It can be easily generated for a finite number of functions.
3.
R
1 +2
R
R
f (z) dz =
f (z) dz, where traversed in the opposite direction of

f (z) dz +
f (z) dz, where the final point of 1 coincides with the initial point of
2 . In general, if = 1 + 2 + + n , where the final point of k coincides with the initial point of
k+1 , k = 1, 2, , n 1, then
Z
f (z) dz =
f (z) dz +
1
f (z) dz + +
f (z) dz
n
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16.6 Cauchys Integral Theorem and Formula

R
21
4. C f (z) dz = C f (z) dz, where C is any complex constant.

R
R
R
R
5. (C1 f1 (z) dz +C2 f2 (z) dz + +Cn fn (z) dz) = C1 f1 (z) dz +C2 f2 (z) dz + +Cn fn (z) dz
6. An improper inequality | f (z) dz| | f (z)||dz|
16.6
Cauchys Integral Theorem and Formula
Definition 16.6.1 A simple connected region R is a region such that every simple closed contour with
in it encloses only the point of R; that is,

R = int of
Definition 16.6.2 If a region is not simply connected, then it is multiply connected; that is,
R 6= int of
Figure 16.10: Simple and non simple connected region
Theorem 16.6.1 If a function is analytic everywhere, throughout a simply connected domain, then any
simple closed contour in R

Z
f (z) dz = 0
Figure 16.11: Simple connected region D
Theorem 16.6.2 Greens Theorem For real valued Function
If is a closed contour and P(x, y) and Q(x, y) have continuous partial derivatives, then
Z
ZZ
(P dx + Q dy) =
R
(Qx Py ) dx dy
where R is called interior to and on .

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22
Applying greens theorem for evaluating complex functions from contour integral
Z b
f (z) dz =
f ((t)) 0 (t) dt = 0 where a t b
Theorem 16.6.3 If a function f is analytic at a point z0 , then its derivatives of all orders exist and are
also analytic functions at that point and

f (n) z0 =
n!
2i
Example 16.43 Find
f (z)
dz, where n z+
(z z0 )n+1
R z
dz, where |z| = 1 in C.
z3
Solution: f (z) = z is analytic on C and interior of C. Here n + 1 = 3 n = 2.

z
dz =
z3
z
dz
(z 0)3
2i (2)
f (0)
2!
2i
=
(0)
2!
= 0
=
R e2z
dz, where |z| = 4 in C.
Example 16.44 Find
z4
Solution: f (z) = e2z is analytic on C and interior of C. Here n + 1 = 4 n = 3.

Z
e2z
dz =
z4
e2z
dz
(z 0)4
=
=
=
2i (3)
f (0)
3!
2i 0
(8e )
6
8
i
3
Theorem 16.6.4 Moreros Theorem
If a function is continuous throughout a region R and if

then f is analytic throughout R.
f (z) dz = 0 for every closed contour on R,
Theorem 16.6.5 Cauchy-Goursat Theorem
Let T be a rectangle and let f be analytic on T , then

Example 16.45
(3z + 1) dz, where
R
1
f =0
is the sides of a square with vertices (0, 0),(1, 0),(0, 1) and (1, 1).
Solution:
Z 1
(3z + 1) dz =
Z 1
(3x + 1) dx +
0
(3(1 + iy) + 1) dy +
0
Z 0
Z 0
(3(x + i) + 1) dx +
1
(3yi + 1) dy
1
= 0
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16.7 Sequence and Series
23
is a simple closed contour and f (z) = 3z + 1 is analytic everywhere. Hence, using Cauchy-Goursats
theorem
Z
(3z + 1) dz = 0
Theorem 16.6.6 Cauchys Integral Formula
Let f be analytic everywhere inside and on a simple closed contour , taken in the positive sense. If z0
is any point interior to , then
Z
1
f (z)
f (z0 ) =
dz
2i z z0
Example 16.46 Let C be the positive oriented circle |z| = 2, since the function
z
9 z2
is analytic within and on C and since the point z0 = i is interior to . So,
f (z) =
z
dz =
(9 z2 )(z + i)
z
9z2
Z
C
z (i)
dz = 2i(
)=
10
5
16.7
Sequence and Series
Definition 16.7.1 An infinite sequence z1 , z2 , , zn , of a complex numbers has a limit z if for each
positive , there exist a positive integer n0 such that

|z zn | < whenever n > n0
In other words, for large value of n the points zn are arbitrary close to the point z.
Theorem 16.7.1 The sequence can have at most one limit. That is, a limit z is unique if it exists when
that limit exists,the sequence is said to converge to z and we write

lim zn = z
If the sequence has no limit, it diverges.

Theorem 16.7.2 Suppose that zn = xn + iyn , where n = 1, 2, 3 and z = x + iy. Then
lim zn = z if and only lim xn = x and lim yn = y
Definition 16.7.2 An infinity series z1 + z2 + z3 + + zn + of complex numbers converges to a

n
sum S if the sequence sn = zi of partial sums converges to s. we then write

i=1
zn = s.
n=1
Remark 16.7.3
1. As a sequence can have at most one limits a series can have at most one sum.
If the series does not converges it is said to be divergent.
n
2. A series
zn converges to s if for every > 0, there is a positive integer n0 such that | zi
n=0
i=0
s| < , whenever n > n0 . If this is the case, we say that s is the sum of the infinite series and
denoted by s = zi .
i=0
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24
3. A necessary condition for the converges series
lim zn = 0.
zi is that n
i=0
Theorem 16.7.4 The terms of a convergent series of complex numbers are bounded.
Definition 16.7.3 The series
zn converges absolutely if |zn | converges.
n=0
n=0
Test of convergence
These tests are applicable to series whose terms are either complex or real( or even for functions of
complex variables)
Theorem 16.7.5
Let
1. Ratio test
fn (z) = f1 (z) + f2 (z) + + fn (z) + be a series of non zero functions of complex
n=0
variables and

fn+1 (z)
= |(z)|

lim
n f n (z)
Then
(a) The series converges absolutely for these value of z for which 0 < |(z)| < 1.
(b) The series diverges for these value of z for which |(z)| > 1.
(c) No information can be drawn from the test for those of z for which |(z)| = 1.
2. Cauchys root test
Let
fn (z) = f1 (z) + f2 (z) + + fn (z) + be a series of non zero functions of complex
n=0
variables and

1
fn+1 (z) n

= |(z)|
lim
n f n (z)
Then
(a) The series converges absolutely for these value of z for which |(z)| < 1.
(b) The series diverges for these value of z for which |(z)| > 1.
(c) No information can be drawn from the test for those of z for which |(z)| = 1.
Definition 16.7.4 A representation of an analytic function by infinite series of complex function are
called Taylor series.

Every analytic function can be represented by a power series and are quiet similar to the familiar series of
real valued function.
Definition 16.7.5 A power series about z0 is an infinite series of the form
an (z z0 )n = a0 + a1 (z z0 ) + a2 (z z0 )2 +
n=0
Where z0 and a0 , a1 , a2 , and complex numbers. If z0 = 0, in the above series we obtain as a
particular case of a power series
an zn = a0 + a1 z + a2 z2 +
n=0
Suppose the power series
an (z zn )n = a0 + a1 (z z0 ) + a2 (z z0 )2 + , we would like to consider
n=0
all the points z in the complex plane for which the series converges. The following three possibility arise
1. The series converges only at z = 0
2. The series converges in the entire complex plane.
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16.7 Sequence and Series
25
3. There exists an open disk |z z0 | = R such that the series converges in side the disk and diverges
out side the disk. Its radius R is called the radius of convergence for the series
an (z zn )n .
n=0
Figure 16.12: Radius of convergency
Example 16.47 Identify the region where
zn
n! converges and diverges.
n=0
Solution: Using ratio test for convergence, we obtain

n+1
z
n!

=
lim
n (n + 1)! zn
=

z

lim
n n + 1
lim
|z|
|n + 1|
= 0
zn
since 0 < 1, then the series
n! converges absolutely for all z in the entire complex plane. Consequently,
n=0
zn
the series
converges in the entire complex plane which means the radius of convergence for the
n=0 n!
n
z
is R = .

series
n=0 n!
(1)n z2n+1
converges and diverges.
n=0 (2n + 1)!

(1)n+1 z2(n+1)+1 (2n + 1)!

lim
=
n (2(n + 1) + 1)! (1)n z(2n+1)

z2

lim
n (2n + 3)(2n + 2)
|z2 |
n |(2n + 3)(2n + 2)|
= 0
=
lim
(1)n z2n+1
converges absolutely for all z in the entire complex plane.
n=0 (2n + 1)!
(1)n z2n+1
Consequently, the series
converges in the entire complex plane which means the radius of
n=0 (2n + 1)!
(1)n z2n+1
convergence for the series
is R = .

n=0 (2n + 1)!
since 0 < 1, then the series
n!zn converges and diverges.
n=0
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26

(n + 1)!zn+1
=
lim

n
n!zn
=
lim |(n + 1)z|
lim |z||n + 1|

if z 6= 0
=
0 if z = 0
n
Therefore,
n!zn converges at z = 0 and hence its radius of convergence is R = 0.
n=0
zn
converges and diverges.
n=0 n

n+1
z
z(n)
n

= lim |
|
lim
n n + 1
n (n + 1) zn

n

= lim |z|
n
n+1

n

= |z| lim
n n + 1
= |z|
zn
converges for |z| < 1 and the series diverges |z| > 1. Furthermore, at z = 1 the
n=0 n
series diverges and at z = 1 the series converges.
Therefore, the series
Theorem 16.7.6 Suppose that a function f is analytic throughout a disk |z z0 | < R0 , centered at z0
and with radius R0 . Then f (z) has the power series representation
f (z) =
an (z z0 )n , (|z z0 | < R0 )
n=0
where an =
f (n) (z0 )
n!
with n = 0, 1, 2, . That is, series
an (z z0 )n converges to f (z) when z lies in
n=0
the stated open disk.
Notice that f 0 (z0 ) = f (z0 ) and 0! = 1 so series
an (z z0 )n can be written as
n=0
f (1) (z0 )
f (2) (z0 )
+ , (|z z0 | < R0 )
1!
2!
Any function which is analytical at a point z0 must have a Taylor series about z0 . If z0 = 0, in which case
f (n) (0) n
series becomes f (z) =
(z) , (|z| < R0 ) is called a Maclaurin Series.
n!
n=0
f (z) = f (z0 ) +
Theorem 16.7.7 If f is entirly analytic and bounded in the complex plane, then f (z) is constant
throughout the plane.

Theorem 16.7.8 Suppose that a function f is analytic inside and on a positive oriented circle CR ,
centered at z0 and with radius R. If MR denoted the maximum value of | f (z)| on CR , then
| f (n) (z0 )|
n!MR
where n = 1, 2, 3,
Rn
(1)
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27
Inequality (1) is called Cauchys Inequality.

Theorem 16.7.9 Any polynomial P(z) = a0 + a1 z + + an zn (an 6= 0) of degree n(n 1) has at least
one zero. That is, there exist at least one point z0 such that P(z0 ) = 0.
16.8
Laurents Theorem
If a function f fails to be analytic at a point z0 , we cannot apply Taylors theorem at that point. It is often
possible, however, to find a series representation for f (z) involving both positive and negative powers of
z z0 ; that is,
f (z) =
n=0
n=0
an (z z0 )n + bn (z z0 )n
Theorem 16.8.1 Laurents series expansion theorem
Let C1 and C2 be two concentric circles having center at z0 and radius r1 and r2 respectively with
r1 < r2 . Suppose f be single valued function on the circles and with in the annuls between C1 and C2 ,
then
f (z) = Cn (z z0 )n
f (t)
1 R
where Cn = 2i
(tz0 )n+1 dt with is any circle lying between C1 and C2 having z0 as a center for all
values of n or
f (z) =
n=0
n=1
bn
an (z z0 )n + (z z0 )n
Figure 16.13: Concentric circle
1
Example 16.51 Find the Laurents series for z(z1)
2 at the point z = 1.
c
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Complex Function
28
Solution: Putting z 1 = z1 , then
1
z(z 1)2
=
=
=
=
=
1
(z + z1 )(z1 )2
1
(1 + z1 )1
z21
1
[1 z1 + z21 z31 + ] using binomial expansion
z21
1
1
+ 1 z1 + z21
2
z1 z1
1
1
+ 1 (z 1) + (z 1)2
2
(z 1)
(z 1)
n
n2 . This expansion is valued in the region out side the circle with
Thus, z(z1)
2 = n=0 (1) (z 1)
center at the point 1 and z = 0 should not be a point with in the circle |z 1| < 1. That is,
1
= (1)n (z 1)n2 , |z 1| < 1
2
z(z 1)
n=0
16.9
Singularity and Zeros, Infinity
Definition 16.9.1 If a function f fails to be analytic at a point z0 but is analytic at some point in every
neighborhood of z0 , then z0 is called a singular point, or singularity of f .

The point z = 0 is a singular point of a function f (z) = 1z .The function f (z) = |z|2 , on the other hand, has
no singular points since it is nowhere analytic.
Definition 16.9.2 A singular point z0 is said to be isolated if, in addition, there is a deleted neighbor-
hood 0 < |z z0 | < of z0 throughout which f is analytic.

Example 16.52 The function f (z) = z3 (zz+1

2 +1) has the three isolated singular points z = 0 and z = i.
Let D is the domain between two concentric circles at a point a

f (z) =
n=0
n=0
bn
an (z z0 )n + (z z0 )n
1
= R(z z0 ) + P(
)
z z0
1
)=
where P( zz
0
bn
(z z0 )n
is called the principal part and R(z z0 ) =
n=0
an (z z0 )n is the regular
n=0
part of f (z) in the neighborhood of z0 .

Definition 16.9.3 If f (z) is analytic in the domain D except at z = z0 ; that is, f (z) is analytic in the
deleted neighborhood of z0 , then the above Laurents expansion is valid in such a domain and
1. If z0 is an isolated singularity of f and if all but a finite number of the bn are zero, then z0 is
called a pole of f . If k is the highest integer such that bk 6= 0, z0 is called a pole of order k. In
particular, if z0 is a first order pole, then it is called a simple pole.
2. If an infinite number of b0n s are nonzero, then z0 is called an essential singularity.
1
3. The coefficient b1 of za
is called the residue of f at z0 .
0
4. If all the bn s are zero, we say that z0 removable singularity.
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16.10 Residue Integration Method
16.10
29
Residue Integration Method
If f has isolated singularity at z0 , then f admits a Laurent expansion that is valid in a deleted neighborhood
of z0
b2
b1
f (z) = +
+
+ a0 + a1 (z z0 ) +
(z z0 )2 z z0
Where b1 is called the residue of f at z0 . This is written as b1 = Res( f , z0 ).
Now we want to develop techniques for computing the residue with out having to find the whole Laurent
expansion. Of course, if the Laurent expansion is known, there is no problem.
1
1
1
1
Example 16.53 Since e z = 1 + 1z + 2z12 + + n!z
n + the coefficient of z is 1, So, f (z) = e z has
residue 1 at z0 = 0
Residue values
1
If the residue of f at z0 will be the coefficient of zz
in the expansion. If not, consider the following cases
0
Case 1: Let the order of z0 be one; that is, the pole is simple pole, then
f (z) =
b1
an (z z0 )n + z z0
n=0
Therefore,
Res( f (z), z0 ) = b1 = lim (z z0 ) f (z)
zz0
whenever z = z0 is simple pole.

Case 2: Let the order of z0 be m, then
f (z) =
b1
b2
bm
an (z z0 )n + z z0 + (z z0 )2 + + (z z0 )m
n=0
Therefore,
Res( f (z), z0 ) = b1 =
1
d m1
lim (z z0 ) m1 (z z0 )m f (z))
(m 1)! zz0
dz
whenever z = z0 is a pole of order m.

Let g and h be analytic at z0 and assume that g(z0 ) 6= 0, h(z0 ) = 0 and h0 (z0 ) 6= 0, then f (z) =
has a simple pole at z0 and
g(z0 )
Res( f , z0 ) = 0
h (z0 )
g(z)
h(z)
Remark 16.10.1
1. If the function f(z) has no poles, then the residue equal to zero.
2. If a function f fails to be analytic at a point z0 but is analytic at some point in every neighborhood
of z0 , then z0 is called a singular point, or singularity of f .
3. A singular point z0 is said to be isolated, if there is a deleted neighborhood 0 < |z z0 | < of
z0 throughout which f is analytic.
Theorem 16.10.2 Residue Theorem
If C is simple closed curve and if f (z) is analytic within and on C except at a finite number of poles or
isolated singularity with C, then
Z
f (z) dz = 2i(R1 + R2 + + Rn ) = 2i Rk
k=1
where R1 , R2 , , Rn are residues of f (z) at these points in C.
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30
Figure 16.14: Region with a finite number of poles
Example 16.54 Evaluate
R 2z2 +z
dz,C : |z 1| = 1.
z2 1
C
z(2z+1)
(z1)(z+1)
+z
=
dz. Hence it has poles at z = 1 and z = 1. But z = 1 is a pole
Solution: f (z) = 2z
z2 1
outside of C : |z 1| = 1. Therefore,
2z2 + z
dz = 2iR
z2 1
Z
C:|z1|=1
Where
R1
= Res( f , 1)
2z2 + z
)
z1
(z 1)(z + 1)
z(2z + 1)
= lim (
)
z1 (z + 1)
3
=
2
=
Hence,
R 2z2 +z
dz = 2i( 3 ) = 3i where C : |z 1| = 1.
C
lim (z 1)(
z2 1
Example 16.55 Evaluate
Solution: f (z) =
2z2 +z
z2 1
R 2z2 +z
dz, C : |z| = 2.
z2 1
C
z(2z+1)
(z1)(z+1) dz.
Both poles z = 1 and z = 1 lie within the circle C : |z| = 2. Thus,
Res( f , 1) =
=
=
Res( f , 1) =
=
Hence,
2z2 + z
)
z1
(z 1)(z + 1)
z(2z + 1)
lim (
)
z1 (z + 1)
3
2
z(2z + 1)
lim (z + 1)(
)
z1
(z + 1)
1
2
lim (z 1)(
R 2z2 +z
dz = 2i( 3 + ( 1 )) = 2i where C : |z| = 2.
C
z2 1
Evaluation of the definite Integrals

Integration of the integer 02 F(cos , sin ) d , where F(cos , sin ) is a rational function of cos and
sin that is finite in the interval 0 2.Consider a unit circle C : |z| = 1, hence, z = ei , where
R
c
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Nigussie
16.10 Residue Integration Method
31
i
0 2. Thus, dz = iei d , which gives d = iedzi = dz
iz . Moreover, z = e = cos + i sin and
1
1
1
1
1
i = cos i sin . Therefore, cos = (z + ) and sin = (z ). Hence,
z =e
2
z
2i
z
Z 2
1
1 1
1 dz
F( (z + ), (z )) =
2
z 2i
z iz
C:|z|=1
F(cos , sin ) d =
0
f (z) dz
C
where C is a unit circle with its center at the origin. Hence, using residues theorem, it is equal to 2i( R)
is the sum of the residue of f (z) within C.
R 2
Example 16.56 Evaluate 0 1+adsin , where 1 < a < 1.
Solution: Consider a unit circle C : |z| = 1. Hence, z = ei , where 0 2. Thus, dz = iei d and
2 1
sin = 2i1 (z 1z ) = z 2iz
. Hence,
Z 2
0
d
1 + a sin
dz
iz
2
C 1 + a( 1 ( z 1 ))
2i
z
2izdz
2
C iz(2iz + az a)
Z
dz
= 2
where C : |z| = 1
2 + 2iz a
az
C
Z
Now, consider f (z) =
dz
.
az2 +2iza
The poles of f (z) are at az2 + 2iz a = 0 which gives us
z1
z2
2i + 2i 1 a2
i(1 + 1 a2 )
=
and
2a
a
2i 2i 1 a2
i(1 1 a2 )
=
2a
a
Now, |z| < 1 for 1 < a < 1 and |z2 | > 1 for1 < a < 1. Therefore, the only pole lies inside C : |z| = 1
is z1 and it is simple pole. Thus,
Res( f , z1 ) =
=
=
=
=
=
lim (z z1 ) f (z)
zz1
lim (z z1 )
zz1
1
a(z z1 )(z z2 )
1
a(z z2 )
1
a(z1 z2 )
1
2i 1 a2
1
2 a2 1
lim
zz1
Therefore,
Z 2
0
d
1 + a sin
dz
2 + 2iz a
az
C
1
= 2(2i)(
)
2 a2 1
2
=
, 1 < a < 1
1 a2
Z
= 2
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Complex Function
32
16.11
Exercise
1. Prove that cos 5 = 16 cos5 20 cos3 + 5 cos .

5
4
2
2. Prove that sin
sin = 16 cos 12 cos + 1. If 6= o, , 2, .
1+i3 10
3. Evaluate ( 1i
) .
3
Ans. 12 + i
3
2
4. Find the square root of 15 i8.

Ans.
5. Solve the equation z2 + (2i 3)z + 5 i = 0.
Ans. z = 2 i3 or z = 1 + i
6. Evaluate lim
z3 +8
z2 +4z2 +16
z2e 3
Ans.
7. Show that at z = i, the function f (z) =
3z4 2z3 +8z2 2z+5

zi
3
8
3
8
is removable discontinuouity and evaluate
3z4 2z3 + 8z2 2z + 5

zi
zi
lim
Ans. 4 + i4
8. For what value of z are the function f (z) =
z
z2 +1
is continuous.
Ans. except z = i
1
9. Prove that 1 + z + z2 + z3 + = z1
if |z| < 1.
1
10. Find the derivatives of z tan (ln z).
Ans.
1
1+(ln z)2
+ tan1 (ln z)
10
+1
11. Evaluate lim zz6 +1
.
zi
Ans.
5
3
12. Evaluate lim (cos z) z3 .

z0
Ans. 12
13. Locate and name all the singularities of f (z) =
z8 +z4 +z
(z1)3 (3z+2)2
and determinant where f (z) is analytic.
Ans. Singularities at z = 1 and z = 23 ;

z = 1 is a pole of order 3 and z = 32 is a pole of order 2
and it is analytic everywhere in the finite z plane except at the points z = 1 and z = 23 .
2
14. Verify that the Cauchy-Riemann equation are satisfied for functions f (z) = ez .
R (2,4)
15. Evaluate (0,3) (2y + x2 )dx + (3x y)dy along the parabola x = 2t, y = t 2 + 3.
Ans.
33
2
16. Along the straight lines from (0, 3) to (2, 3) and then from (2, 3) to (2, 4).
Ans.
5
2
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16.11 Exercise
33
17. Evaluate Greens Theorem in the plane for

I
(2xy x2 )dx + (x + y2 )dy
where C is closed curve of the region bounded by y = x2 and y2 = x.

Ans.
18. Evaluate
dz
C (za)n ,
1
30
n = 2, 3, 4, , where z = a is inside the simple closed curve C.

Ans. 0
19. If C is the curve y = x3 3x2 + 4x 1 joining points (1, 1) and (2, 3), find the value of
4iz)dz.
2
C (12z
Ans. 156 + i38

20. Find the region of convergence of the series
n=1
(1)n1 z2n1
(2n1)!
Ans. The series absolutly converges for all z.
c
Natnael
Nigussie

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Chapter 16

Function of Complex Variables, Limit and Derivatives

Analytic Functions and Their Derivatives

Line Integral in the Complex Plane

Cauchys Integral Theorem and Formula

Sequence and Series

Singularity and Zeros, Infinity

Residue Integration Method

or i2 = 1 is called a complex number and the set of complex number denoted by

Example 16.1 z1 = 5 + i3 and z2 = 1 + i0 are particular examples of complex numbers.

Example 16.2 z = 4 3i is an example of complex number in which 4 is a real part and -3 is an

z1 = z2 if and only if x1 = x2 and y1 = y2 .

z1 + z2 = (x1 + iy1 ) + (x2 + iy2 ) = (x1 + x2 ) + i(y1 + y2 )

Figure 16.3: The sum of two complex number

Properties of addition for the set of complex number

16.1 Complex Number

Figure 16.4: The difference of two complex number

Hence we call 0 + i0 (denoted by 0) the additive identity element on C.

Example 16.3 Evaluate (2 + i) + (5 + 3i).

Example 16.4 Evaluate 2(3 + 5i) 3(2 i).

z1 z2 = (x1 + iy1 ) (x2 + iy2 ) = (x1 x2 y1 y2 ) + i(x1 y2 + x2 y1 )

Hence we call 1 = 1 + i0 the multiplication identity element on C.

is called the multiplicative inverse of element on C.

Conjugate and Module of Complex Number

Example 16.5 The complex conjugate of z = 5 + 2i is z = 5 2i

1. Every real number has its own conjugate.

16.1 Complex Number

complex number, then

denoted by |z|, is defined by

7. |z1 + z2 |2 = |z1 |2 + 2Re(z1 z2 ) + |z2 |2

zz = (2 3i)(2 + 3i) = 22 (3i)2 = 13 = |z|2

Division of Complex number

Solution: Multiply the numerator and denominator by the conjugate of 2 5i

in the form a + ib, where a and b are real numbers.

Example 16.9 Write 7+2i

Solution: Multiply the numerator and denominator by the conjugate of 3 i

Theorem 16.1.2 For any three complex numbers z1 , z2 , and z3

Polar Form of Complex Number

Figure 16.6: Polar form of complex number

16.1 Complex Number

= (r1 (cos 1 + i sin 1 )r2 (cos 2 + i sin 2 )

(cos + i sin )n = (cos n + i sin n )

( 3 + i)7 = (2ei( 6 )7 since r=2 and =

Example 16.11 Simplify

( 3 + i)7 = ( 2ei( 4 )20 since r=2 and =

= 210 (cos 5 + i sin 5)

= cos 4 + sin 4 6 cos 2 sin2

= 4 cos3 sin 4 cos sin3

n z, where w = R(cos + i sin ). Thus

By equating the absolute value on both sides in the above equation

n z for z 6= 0, has the n distinct values

Solution: Let z = 1 + i z = 2(cos 4 + i sin 4 ) and w = 3 z w = R(cos + i sin ). So

Example 16.13 Find

2(cos + i sin ) = (R(cos + i sin ))3

2(cos + i sin ) = R3 (cos 3 + i sin 3 ))3

16.2 Elementary Functions

Example 16.14 Find exp(z + w), where z = x + iy and w = u + iv.

Example 16.15 Show that exp(z + i2) = exp(z).

where we are using ez = exp(z).

Example 16.16 Show that sin(z + 2) = sin z for all z.

Example 16.17 Show that cos(z + 2) = cos z for all z.

Example 16.18 Show that sin(z +

Similarly, cos(it) = cosht.

16.3 Function of Complex Variables, Limit and Derivatives