American Management Abroad: A Comparative Study of Management Practices of

American Subsidiaries and Local Firms in Developing Countries

Author(s): Anant R. Negandhi
Source: Management International Review, Vol. 11, No. 4/5 (1971), pp. 97-107
Published by: Springer
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AMERICAN MANAGEMENT ABROAD:

A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
OF AMERICAN SUBSIDIARIES AND LOCAL FIRMS IN
DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
Prof. Anant R. Negandhi,
Kent State University, Kent, Ohio, U.S.A.
Introduction

Since the early 1950's the literature dealing with international management

creased tremendously, and yet our knowledge concerning the management practic
effectiveness of American subsidiaries abroad has increased very little. Except f

few authors in the 1950V, the international management researchers seem

neglected studies of this sort. The recent efforts to study management in interna
perspective have been directed mainly toward the investigation of interaction b
environment-cum-culture and management practices. Although this, by itself, is
useful approach, many so-called comparative management theorists have focused
on environment, and in so doing have forgotten "management baby"2.

The study of management practices and effectiveness of American subsidiaries a

can serve many useful purposes and provide needed theoretical insights for buil
organization theory3. Some of the important advantages gained by such studies

follows:

a) Provide guidelines to the newer American companies going overseas about

modifications in management practices required of them in operating over

b) Furnish the "benchmark" or upper limit to the transferability of Am

management know-how and practices in foreign countries, particularly de

ing nations4.
1 For sudi earlier attempts, see E. R. Barlow, Management of Foreign Manufacturing Subsidi-

aries (Boston: Division of Researdi, Harvard Business Sdiool, 1953); and F. Harbison and
C. A. Myers, Management in the Industrial World (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company,

1959).

2
See,
for
example,
R
Progress
(Homewood
see
S.
B.
Prasad,
"Com

nal

of

AIESEC

Inter

Management
Theory
81
97;
and
Jean
Bo
Scott,
Foresman
and

For

detailed

disc

Management
(New
Yo
4
For
a
research
desig

and
comparable
loca
Determine
the
App

and/or
Environment
319-323.
Based
on
th
For
the
findings
see

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97

c) Provide some insights concerning the impact of environment on management

practices and effectiveness.
Purpose of This Paper

The main purpose of this paper is to report the findings of our study concerning the

management practices of American subsidiaries and comparable local firms in five

developing countries. The study was undertaken in Argentina, Brazil, India, the Philippines, and Uruguay.
Sample and Method

A total of 92 industrial firms were studied. Of these, 47 were American subsidiaries and
45 were local firms comparable in size, technology, location, sales, volume, and product
lines. Semi-structured interview techniques were employed to collect necessary data from
the companies; five researchers were involved in conducting these interviews. On the
average, we interviewed 20 senior and middle-level executives and 25 supervisors and
blue-collar workers in each company studied. These interviews took some three to ten
working days for each company.

Research Findings
The paper reports the findings concerning the following management practices and

effectiveness:

a) Planning process

b) Organizing

c) Manpower management
d) Controlling

e) Leadership

f) Employee morale
g) Interpersonal relationships
h) Absenteeism

j) Turnover

Planning Process
Planning is considered a prerequisite to the company's growth and profitability. The
Stanford Research Institute, for example, found that ain cases of both high growth and
low growth companies, those that now support planning programs have shown a superior growth rate in recent years"5.
Formal comprehensive planning is still a comparatively new practice even among large
scale U.S. companies. As the recent research of Ringbakk indicates, formal long-range

planning is generally no more than aivory tower" planning by staff to which line

managers are unwilling to commit themselves6. Nevertheless, the studies by Holden and
5 Quoted from George A. Steiner, "Does Planning Pay Off?" California Management Review,
Vol. V, No. 2 (Winter, 1962), p. 37.
6 Kjell-Anne Ringbakk, Organized Corporate Planning Systems: An Empirical Study of Planning Practices and Experience in American Big Business, unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, University of Washington, 1968.

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his colleagues7 and George Steiner8, among others, suggest that an increasing number of
American firms do plan for a period of at least five years.
Planning Orientations of Companies Studied

The analyses of data concerning the nature and time-orientation of planning, as well as
the nature and review of plans among those 92 companies, suggest that the U.S. subsidiaries' plans are systematic, of long duration (five years or more), and comprehensive,
as compared to those of the local firms in the five countries studied. For example, of the

47 subsidiaries, 33 undertook comprehensive planning for a period of five years or

more. Of the 45 local companies, only 12 undertook comprehensive planning, and 14

planned for a period of five years or more.
Data thus shows that American subsidiaries operating in these five developing countries
are able to emulate their parent companies' practices of long-range planning in spite of

the diverse socio-economic, political, legal, and cultural factors, as well as the local
business orientations toward a short-range profit philosophy. Needless to say, the

American subsidiaries, undertaking long-range planning in these countries, were highly

successful in both profitability and long-term growth9.

To be sure, some of the environment factors in these countries create problems for
undertaking long-range planning. Many executives mentioned the following environmental factors affecting planning processes:
1. Economic and political instability
2. Runaway inflation
3. Governmental control on prices and the availability of raw materials
4. Unfavorable governmental attitudes towards the business community

5. Lack of competition
In spite of environmental constraints encountered in planning, executives felt that the
organization does need a sense of direction. For example, an American executive of a
U.S. subsidiary in India expressed:
It is true that our forecasts and targets will never be realized in India due to
the economic and price instability and uncertainties of the availability of raw

materials ... but if we don't plan for five or six years, our people will lose a
sense of direction; and as a company, we will never grow in a systematic
manner . . . our growth is largely due to our long-range planning. (The company

expanded its sales by 150 per cent during the five year period.) It gives us a

sense of direction and a preview of the problems we will have to face.

7 P. E. Holden, C. A. Pederson and G. E. Germane, Top Management (New York: McGrawHill

Book

Company,

1968),

p.

3-4.

__

_____

8 George A. Steiner, d., Manager

Company, 1963), and George A. S
Planning (New York: MacMillan C
9 American subsidiaries were maki
creased

their

sales

by

three

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to

99

four

A similar theme was sounded by an Indian executive of a local firm:

Planning for the future is one thing which we never underemphasize. Those who
don't believe will argue against it and point out the rising prices, governmental
controls and so on, and ask why they should plan. But they have to realize that
the government itself does this and pours out a lot of figures which business can
use to chart their growth.

Organizing
In the last decade or so, management concepts such as "decentralization**, "participative
management", "project management", and "theory Y" have become prevalent in managerial thinking and practices. In essence, all of these concepts convey the message to

delegate authority and push decision-making power down to the lower levels. The

results expected are higher productivity and increased profitability. Decentralization in

decision-making has become commonplace in the American industrial scene. However,
when American executives go overseas, they are faced with the perplexing problem of
whether to decentralize, delegate authority and push down decision-making power, or

to follow the authoritative pattern widely practiced by the local firms in under-

developed countries.

To determine the degree of decentralization and delegation of authority in U.S. subsidiaries and local firms in these countries, we investigated the following factors:
1. Layers of hierarchy
2. Locus of decision-making with respect to major policies
3. Authority definition
4. Decision-making with respect to the setting of standards

5. Decision-making with respect to various functional areas

6. The uses of committees

7. Participation level in planning process

8. The degree of information-sharing

To arrive at a composite index for decentralization, we devised a three-point ranking

scale for each of the above factors evaluated. The final decentralization index for each
company was computed by adding up the points for each factor and dividing by the
number of factors (i. e. eight). This gave us an index ranging from a minimum of 1.0
("highly decentralized") to a maximum of 3.0 ("highly centralized")10.
The average decentralization index for the American subsidiaries in India, for example,

was 1.77 while the comparable local companies' index was 2.06. Although the dif-

ferences between these averages were not found statistically significant, the distribution

pattern shown in Table 1 indicates that the larger number of U.S. subsidiaries were
relatively decentralized as compared to the local Indian companies.
10 For details see A. R. Negandhi and B. Reiman, "Task Environment, Decentralization and
Organizational Effectiveness", Forthcoming.

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Table 1

Decentralization Index for the U.S. Subsidiaries and Local Firms in India

Decentralization U.S. Subsidiary Local Indian Company

Index (n = 15) (n = 15)
1.0

to

1.5

1.6

to

2.0

2.1

to

2.5

2.6

to

3.0

Average

Index

1.77

2.06

Translated into actual operational ter

to 7 hierarchical layers as compared t

The U.S. subsidiary also made extensi

to participate in planning processes a

per cent of the total U.S. subsidiari

tions". In contrast to these, a large

countries can be classified as "highly

people responsible for such an organiz
were determining variables, one wou
sidiaries and their counterpart local fi
by the local personnel.

An intensive inquiry into this problem

giving rise to the centralized structu
situation. Specifically, the majority o
countries are owned and managed by
The family-ownership of industrial e

among

subordinates

manager

of

large

as

well

company

as

in

the

Urugu

I don't believe in anybody having

own family. There is a clear distin
side; the salaried and hourly person

Another factor affecting delegation

cularly for the local companies, is lac
can sell everything without regard t
the productivity of managerial person
profits in spite of high unit cost and

ment

philosophy of course, but on

by. Their counterpart Americ
however, and attempt to utilize th

guided

tralized

decision-making

Manpower
Manpower

as

ways

of

im

Management

Policies

Analysis of intracountry data (India)

suggested some differences between

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ample, of the 17 U.S. subsidiaries and 17 comparable local companies in India, 8 of the
former and 12 of the latter have formally stated policies. Generally, American subsidiaries paid more attention to such policies. This was somewhat clearer when we examined data concerning the locus of such policy-making. We found that the U.S. subsidiaries had had extensive discussions among committee members for formalization of
manpower management policies.

Formalization of manpower policies in the other four countries did not necessarily
follow this pattern. In Latin American countries only 5 out of 20 U.S. subsidiaries and
5 of the 17 local companies seemed to have formalized policies. In the Philippines the
proportion was still less; only 3 of the 10 U.S. subsidiaries and 1 of the 11 local companies formalized these policies.
Selection, Compensation and Development

Selection procedures, however, received greater attention among the U.S. subsidiaries.

Although the selection of managers was based on group-decision making in the U.S.
companies and local companies in all five underdeveloped countries, U.S. subsidiaries
seemed more "objective" about such decisions.
Formal training and development schemes, particularly for managerial and technical
personnel, were not prevalent among the companies studied. Only in a few progressive
companies was there some formalized training and development facilities.

The available data on compensation and promotion policies indicate that only a few
companies pursued a policy of maintaining salaries and wages above the going rate.
A majority of these companies followed the practice of compensating employees at
going rates.

One of the important ingredients in building effective organizations is systematic

managerial succession. The available data on this indicate a very pessimistic outlook.
Only a small proportion of the companies in India (11 out of 34) had some formal
procedures for managerial succession. Companies in the other four countries practiced
"hit and miss" methods.
Controlling

Data on the following factors were collected to evaluate control systems utilized by
the American subsidiaries and local firms:

a) Quality control
b) Cost and budgetary controls
c) Equipment maintenance
d) Feedback and reporting systems
Analyses of these data reveal that the majority of the American subsidiaries in all five
developing countries undertook the quality control, cost and budgetary controls, and
equipment maintenance in a systematic manner. These functions were carried out by

well-qualified and trained personnel in the American subsidiaries. The feedback and
reporting systems were also well-developed in these companies. Among the local companies, only a few of the progressive firms instituted systematic control mechanisms.

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Leadership Style
Management scholars, as well as practitioners, have devoted considerable attention to the
leadership concept and style. In earlier days, attention was focused mainly on identifying "born" attributes of the leader. Since then, however, researchers have endeavored
to develop comprehensive theories of leadership. Although some researchers tend to
equate the leadership concept with that of management, we are among those researchers
who are inclined to consider leadership as one of the important aspects of management.

Based on our interviews with executives, managers, and supervisors, we attempted to

classify the most prevalent leadership style in each company into the following categories:
a) Authoritarian

b) Democratic
c) Bureaucratic
The usual management literature definitions are ascribed to these styles of the leadership11.

We also attempted to learn something about the superiors' perceptions of their subordinates. These data were classified into three categories: (a) subordinates regarded as
confident and trustworthy; (b) subordinates regarded as somewhat confident and trustworthy; and (c) subordinates regarded as not trustworthy and confident.
As one would expect, a larger number of U.S. subsidiaries practised a democratic form
of leadership. Specifically, there were 23 of the 47 subsidiaries, as compared to 13 of the
45 local companies, using this form of leadership.
Data collected from companies in India concerning the superiors' perceptions of subordinates support the above findings. Here we found that in a large majority of the
U.S. subsidiaries, superiors perceive their subordinates as trustworthy and confident,
while in a large proportion of the Indian companies, superiors did not feel this way.
Management Effectiveness
In operationalizing effectiveness criteria, we differentiated between management effectiveness and enterprise effectiveness. The former refers to a firm's effectiveness in managing its human resources; the latter deals with the traditional economic and financial
measures.

Only in a very competitive economy can such traditional financial

market-share, sales volume, P/E ratios, etc. give a realistic picture of
tiveness. In underdeveloped countries, where seller's market conditi
valent, these criteria are indeed misleading. Under such market and e
all firms, irrespective of their management practices, can afford to m
In order to more realistically evaluate management effectiveness in
devised several behaviorally oriented measures. In this paper, the fi
the following factors are reported:

11 See Eugene E. Jennings, The Executive: Autocrat, Bureaucrat, and D

Harper and Row, publishers, 1962), especially Chapters 5, 6, and 7.

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a) Employee morale and interpersonal relationships

b) Absenteeism

c) Turnover
Employee Morale

Employee morale in a large majority of the U.S. subsidiaries and local companies was

much less than "desirable". For example, of the 47 U.S. subsidiaries studied, only 11
were able to attain high employee morale. These companies were more successful than
their counterpart local companies in fostering good employee morale largely by paying
higher relative wages and maintaining better working conditions. Still, worker morale
was substantially lower than that of their States-side work forces.
Interviews with some 500 blue-collar workers and supervisors revealed the following
environmental factors as causes: governmental attitudes toward the business community

and the industrial worker; management-union relationships; the wide "distance" in

terms of wages and status between workers and managerial personnel; climatic condi-

tions; health and physical well-being; unstable political and economic situations; and

chronic inflation. Let us examine some of these factors in detail.

The local industrial entrepreneurs in underdeveloped countries seem to have exploited

the situation of an over abundance of labor. Thus, labor tends to be regarded as just
another commodity to be bought as cheaply as possible.
To remedy this situation, many governments among the emerging nations are supporting
industrial workers through various legislative acts. They have also supported trade union

movements. However, in doing so, they have greatly increased the expectations and

aspirations of the industrial worker - in some cases far beyond practical considerations.
Chronic inflation has further widened the gap between the worker's expectations and
actual realizations.

Caught between rising living costs and falling purchasing power, the industrial worker
in underdeveloped countries has become prey to any and every outside force promising
him a better deal. He is exploited by local political parties, governments, and politically
oriented labor unions. Well aware of this, he has lost faith to the point of alienation
from all sides and no longer belongs to any particular reference group.
Under such circumstances, American companies find it difficult, if not impossible, to
attain high employee morale, good interpersonal relationships, and higher productivity.
Of course, higher relative wages, better working conditions, opportunity for advancement and personal growth, proper training of the supervisors and workers, and fair and
equitable employment policies were helpful in improving employee morale and satisfaction in work. This is how some of the American companies have been able to maintain
a somewhat favorable level of morale among their employees. In terms of interpersonal
relationships among workers and supervisors, almost all companies studied were very
"low" in attaining cooperative relationships among the employees.
On the basis of such socio-cultural traits as the agrarian outlook, strong family ties, low
levels of education, respect for age and authority, and high degree of need dependency,
one would expect a higher level of cooperativeness among workers and supervisors in

underdeveloped countries. However, our data suggest quite the contrary. Interviews

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with managers, supervisors, and blue-collar employees revealed the following environmental factors affecting interpersonal relationships in industrial enterprises in the coun-

tries studied:

a) Political nature of trade-unionism

b) Chronic underemployment and unemployment

c) Differences in educational levels and aspirations of younger and older employees

d) Differential social status of the supervisor and the blue-collar worker

e) Inflation
These factors have been discussed in some detail elsewhere12. It is interesting to note,
however, that among the factors outlined above, the most frequently mentioned factor
affecting interpersonal relationships was unemployment. This was vividly expressed by
the workers an India and Argentina:
I dare not say anything to anybody . . . my uncle has taught me a good lesson . . .
not to trust anybody in the factory . . . and not tell my secrets to other ... I do
not wish to go back to my village ... (A worker in India)
Mr. . . . cooperation is for the birds ... we human beings talk a lot about it, but
when it comes to save your skin ... it evaporates ... I feel sorry for my friend

who believed in these cooperativeness and sympathetic attitudes toward each

other and so forth ... he is still looking for a job.
High Absenteeism, Low Turnover

Absenteeism was found to be high among companies studied. In some of the U.S. subsidiaries and local companies surveyed, it was as high as 35 per cent. On the average,
absenteeism rates were 15 to 20 per cent.
Although absenteeism rates are high in these countries, the labor turnover is low, running from 1 to 3 per cent in most of the companies studied. Principal cause was the high
level of unemployment in these countries. Because of this, a worker is not likely to leave
his company - and there is nothing one can do to fire him, principally because of permissive labor legislation in most emerging nations.

An intensive inquiry among the closely matched pharmaceutical firms in India (n = 10)
indicated that the location of the firm, climatic conditions and poor health and wellbeing of workers, and permissive labor legislation were responsible for high rates of
absenteeism among these firms.
High-Level Manpower

All management effectiveness criteria concerning high-level manpower were within the

realm of management control. For example, more progressive firms, through such
mediating variables as higher relative wages, better working conditions and opportunities for advancement and self-growth, and clearer statements of objectives, goals and
procedures, were able to hire and retain high-level managerial and technical personnel.
12 A. R. Negandhi and S. B. Prasad, Comparative Management, op. cit., Chapters 7 and 8.

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They also were able to establish cooperative interdepartmental relationships, effectively

utilize high-level manpower, and adapt to changing environmental conditions.
In summary, our findings suggest that the U.S. subsidiaries in the five developing coun-

tries studied were able to utilize modern management practices and achieve higher
management effectiveness. This, by itself, is not very astonishing; one would expect
this to be so. However, we also found that some comparable local firms in all five of
the underdeveloped countries studied are able to match the performance of the U.S.

subsidiaries.

What then are the implications of these findings?

Implications of the Study

As mentioned earlier, writings in the comparative management area suggest that the
environmental and cultural variables are dominant factors, and perhaps determinants,

in shaping management practices in a given country. For example, Chowdhry, at a

recent international conference on social and cultural factors in management development observed: "Management subjects like administrative practices . . . are especially

culture-bound and require to be understood in relation to the social and economic

environment of the country18.

It would be immature to suggest that environmental and cultural factors do not affect
management practices and effectiveness. However, the actual causal relationships among
environmental variables and management practices and effectiveness still must be determined. It is fair to say that, thus far, systematic attempts have not been made in this
direction.
Our findings suggest some caution in this regard. Although this study reveals the considerable impact of environmental and cultural factors on management effectiveness,
particularly on employee morale, absenteeism, turnover, and interpersonal relationships,
various elements of management practices and effectiveness were under the purview of
managerial control. More specifically, management practices concerning planning, organizing, staffing, and controlling, as well as management effectiveness in handling
high-level manpower, are not unduly constrained by the environmental and cultural
factors. In other words, in a given socio-economic and cultural world, there are a number of options open to managers of industrial enterprises.
A manager is not necessarily a passive agent. He actively interacts with his environment
and tries to mold environment to achieve desired results14. We thus visualize a constant

interaction between the manager and environment, each affecting the other. How well
he is able to mould the environmental constraints will have considerable bearing upon the
firm's effectiveness. By treating environmental variables as determinants, or explanatory
variables, in analysis of management practices and effectiveness in cross-cultural settings,
we may unnecessarily limit our horizon and understanding of other significant variables.
In other words, as Boddewyn has aptly remarked, "A real danger exists ... of letting
the environment crowd out the comparative analysis. Comparisons are somewhat precariously balanced between management itself and its environment"15. One needs, there13 Kamla Chowdhry, "Social and Cultural Factors in Management in India and the Role of
the Expert", International Labor Review, Vol. XCIV, No. 3 (August 1966), 132.

14 H. Schllhammer, op. cit.

15 J. Boddewyn, "Comparative Concepts in Management, Administration and Organization",
unpublished manuscript, p. 12.

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fore, to take care, he adds, "not to throw out the management baby with environmental

bath or smother it in a blanket of social context"16.

References

The study reported in this paper was supported by the Ford Foundation Grant given

through the Chancellor's Committee on International and Comparative Studies,

U.C.L.A. The Center for Business and Economic Research at Kent State University provided the support for this entire study. I wish to acknowledge and express my deep
gratitude to these organizations for their financial support. I am also thankful to my
co-author Dr. S. B. Prasad for his various comments.

- Rsum -

LE MANAGEMENT AMERICAIN A L'ETRANGER:

UNE ETUDE COMPARATIVE DES PRATIQUES

GESTIONNAIRES DE SUCCURSALES AMERICAINES ET

D'ENTREPRISES LOCALES DANS DES PAYS EN VOIE DE
DEVELOPPEMENT

Professeur, Kent State University, Kent, Ohio, U.S.A.

Dr. Anant R. Negandhi,
Introduction

Ds le dbut des annes '50, la littrature concernant le management internati

cormment augment, et pourtant nos connaissances des pratiques gestionnaires et

ficacit de succursales amricaines l'tranger n'ont augment que faiblement. Sauf
ques auteurs des annes '501, les investigateurs du management international semb
avoir nglig les tudes de ce genre. Les rcents efforts d'tudier le management d
des perspectives internationales, ont principalement t dirigs vers l'enqute de l
chanement entre la culture environnante et les pratiques gestionnaires. Bien que
une avance trs utile, un grand nombre des soi-disant thoriciens du management
paratif se sont concentrs uniquement sur l'environnement, et ce faisant, ils ont
le management baby2.
16 Ibid. For similar views also see his recent book Comparative Management and Marketing,
op. cit., especially p. 39.

1 Pour de telles tentatives antrieures, voir E. R. Barlow, Management of Foreign Manufac

Subsidiaries (Boston): Division of Researdi, Harvard Business Sdiool, 1953); et F. Har

and C. A. Myers, Management in the Industrial World (New York: McGraw-Hill Book C
pany, 1959).
2 Voir, par exemple, R. N. Farmer et B. M. Ridiman, Comparative Management and tcon
Progress (Homewood: Ridiard D. Irwin, 1965). Pour une rvision critique dtaille au su
cet accs voir S. B. Prasad, Comparative Managerialism for Economie Development, Q
terly Journal of AIESEC International (August, 1966), 22-30 H. Schollhammer, The
parative Management Theory Jungle, Academy of Management Journal, Vol. II, N
(March, 1969), 81-97; and Jean Boddewyn, Comparative Management and Marketing (G
view, Illinois: Scott, Foresman and Company, 1969), spcialement chapitre 2.

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107