Re Integration

F UNDAMENTAL C ONCEPTS
AND
T ECHNIQUES
OF
C ALCULUS
Math Refresher Course

R EINHARD O.W. F RANZ
Brigham Young University
BYU ACADEMIC PRINTING

Provo, Utah 84602
August 16, 2010
C ONTENTS
Basic Techniques of Algebra

1.1 Definitions and Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.1 The Language of Mathematics . . . . . . . . . .
Sets and Subsets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Set Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.2 Basic Operations with Rational Numbers . . . .
1.1.3 The Linearly Ordered Field of Real Numbers . .
1.1.4 The Completeness of the Field of Real Numbers
1.1.5 Powers and Radicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.6 Absolute Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.7 Factorial and Binomial Coefficients . . . . . . .
1.1.8 Binomial Formulas, Sums/Differences of Powers
1.1.9 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions . . . . .
1.1.10 Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Linear Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Quadratic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Factoring Polynomials, Zeros . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.11 Solving Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.1 Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.2 Powers, Radicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.3 Absolute Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.4 Factorials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.5 Domain and Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.6 Composition of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . .
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CONTENTS
1.3
1.4
1.2.7 Inverse Functions . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.2.8 Even, odd functions . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.9 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
1.2.10 Logarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.11 Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.12 Complete the Square . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.13 Factoring Polynomials . . . . . . . . .
1.2.14 Quadratic Equations . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.15 Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.16 Equations with Absolute Values . . . .
1.2.17 Inequalities with Absolute Values . . .
1.2.18 Equations with Radicals . . . . . . . .
1.2.19 Exponential and Logarithmic Equations
1.2.20 Line Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.21 Distance and Midpoint . . . . . . . . .
1.2.22 Conics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.23 Powers and Roots, dMoivres Theorem
Hints to the Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.1 Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.2 Powers, Radicals . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.3 Absolute Value . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.4 Factorials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.5 Domain and Range . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.6 Composition of Functions . . . . . . .
1.3.10 Logarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.11 Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.15 Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.20 Line Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.22 Conics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Answers to the Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.1 Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.2 Powers, Radicals . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.3 Absolute Value . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.4 Factorials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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CONTENTS
1.5
1.4.5 Domain and Range . . . . . . . . . . .

1.4.10 Logarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.11 Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.15 Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.20 Line Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.22 Conics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Solutions to Selected Exercises . . . . . . . .
1.5.1 Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5.2 Powers, Radicals . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5.3 Absolute Value . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5.4 Factorials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5.5 Domain and Range . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5.10 Logarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5.11 Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5.15 Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5.20 Line Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5.22 Conics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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2
CONTENTS
Trigonometry
2.1 Definitions and Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.1 Plane Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.2 Geometric Definition of Trigonometric Functions . . .
2.1.3 Circular Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.4 Trigonometric Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.5 Taylor Series Expansions of Trigonometric Functions
2.1.6 The Laws of Sines and Cosines . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.7 Inverse Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.8 Hyperbolic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.9 Hyperbolic Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.10 Derivatives of Hyperbolic Functions . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.11 Integrals of Hyperbolic Functions . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.12 Taylor/Laurent Series Expansions of
Hyperbolic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.13 Inverse Hyperbolic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.1 Simplifying Trigonometric Expressions . . . . . . . .
2.2.2 Sum and Difference Formulas for Sine and Cosine . .
2.2.3 Pythagorean Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.4 Double and Half Angle Formulas . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.6 Special Values of Trigonometric Functions . . . . . .
2.2.7 Simplify Trigonometric Expression
Involving Inverse Trigonometric Functions . . . . . .
2.2.8 Graphing Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.9 Trigonometric Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.10 Converting Cartesian into Polar Coordinates . . . . .
2.2.11 Converting Polar into Cartesian Coordinates . . . . .
2.2.13 Hyperbolic Identies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3 Hints to the Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.1 Simplifying Trigonometric Expressions . . . . . . . .
2.3.2 Sum and Difference Formulas for Sine and Cosine . .
2.3.3 Pythagorean Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.4 Double and Half Angle Formulas . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.6 Special Values of Trigonometric Functions . . . . . .
Involving Inverse Trigonometric Functions . . . . . .
2.3.8 Graphing Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.9 Trigonometric Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.10 Converting Cartesian into Polar Coordinates . . . . .
2.3.11 Converting Polar into Cartesian Coordinates . . . . .
2.3.13 Hyperbolic Identies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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CONTENTS
2.4
2.5
Answers to the Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.4.1 Simplifying Trigonometric Expressions . . . . . .
2.4.2 Sum and Difference Formulas for Sine and Cosine
2.4.3 Pythagorean Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.4 Double and Half Angle Formulas . . . . . . . . .
2.4.5 The Laws of Sines and Cosines . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.6 Special Values of Trigonometric Functions . . . .
Involving Inverse Trigonometric Functions . . . .
2.4.8 Graphing Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . .
2.4.9 Trigonometric Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.10 Converting Cartesian into Polar Coordinates . . .
2.4.11 Converting Polar into Cartesian Coordinates . . .
2.4.12 Hyperbolic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.13 Hyperbolic Identies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Solutions to Selected Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5.1 Simplifying Trigonometric Expressions . . . . . .
2.5.3 Pythagorean Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5.4 Double and Half Angle Formulas . . . . . . . . .
2.5.5 The Laws of Sines and Cosines . . . . . . . . . .
2.5.6 Special Values of Trigonometric Functions . . . .
Involving Inverse Trigonometric Functions . . . .
2.5.8 Graphing Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . .
2.5.9 Trigonometric Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5.10 Converting Cartesian into Polar Coordinates . . .
2.5.11 Converting Polar into Cartesian Coordinates . . .
2.5.12 Hyperbolic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5.13 Hyperbolic Identies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Differential Calculus
3.1 Definitions and Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.1 Limits of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.2 Techniques for Computing Limits . . . . .
3.1.3 Extrema . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.4 Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.5 Differentiability . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.6 Applications of Differential Calculus . . .
3.2 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.1 Two-Sided Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.2 One-Sided Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.3 Limits at Infinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.4 Squeeze Play . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.5 LHopitals Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.6 Continuity, Removable Dicontinuities, etc.
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CONTENTS
8
3.2.7
3.2.8
3.2.9
3.2.10
3.2.11
3.2.12
3.3
3.4
Intermediate Value Theorem . . . . . . . .

Mean Value Theorem . . . . . . . . . . .
Extreme Value Theorem . . . . . . . . . .
Equations of Tangents and Normals . . . .
The Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Applying the Differentation Rules . . . . .
Rational Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . .
Exponential and Logarithmic Functions . .
Miscellaneous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.13 Implicit Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.14 Extreme Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.15 Concavity, Inflection Points . . . . . . . .
3.2.16 Monotonicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.17 Graph Sketching . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.18 Maximum/Minimum Problems . . . . . .
Hints to the Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.1 Two-Sided Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.2 One-Sided Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.4 Squeeze Play . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.5 LHopitals Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.7 Intermediate Value Theorem . . . . . . . .
3.3.8 Mean Value Theorem . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.9 Extreme Value Theorem . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.10 Equations of Tangents and Normals . . . .
3.3.11 The Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.12 Applying the Differentation Rules . . . . .
Miscellaneous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.14 Extreme Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.16 Monotonicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.17 Graph Sketching . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Answers to the Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.1 Two-Sided Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.2 One-Sided Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.4 Squeeze Play . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.5 LHopitals Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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161
161
162
163
163
164
164
164
165
165
166
166
167
167
167
168
169
169
169
169
170
170
170
170
171
171
171
171
171
171
172
172
172
172
172
173
173
173
174
175
175
175
175
175
175
176
CONTENTS
3.4.7
3.4.8
3.4.9
3.4.10
3.4.11
3.4.12
3.5
Intermediate Value Theorem . . . . . . . .

Mean Value Theorem . . . . . . . . . . .
Extreme Value Theorem . . . . . . . . . .
Equations of Tangents and Normals . . . .
The Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Applying the Differentation Rules . . . . .
Miscellaneous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.14 Extreme Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.16 Monotonicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.17 Graph Sketching . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Solutions to Selected Exercises . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.1 Two-Sided Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.2 One-Sided Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.4 Squeeze Play . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.5 LHopitals Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.7 Intermediate Value Theorem . . . . . . . .
3.5.8 Mean Value Theorem . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.9 Extreme Value Theorem . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.10 Equations of Tangents and Normals . . . .
3.5.11 The Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.12 Applying the Differentation Rules . . . . .
Miscellaneous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.14 Extreme Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.16 Monotonicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.17 Graph Sketching . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Integral Calculus
4.1 Definitions and Results . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.1 Definition of the Riemann Integral . . .
4.1.2 Estimating Definite Integrals . . . . . .
4.1.3 Properties of the Definite Integral . . .
4.1.4 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
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176
176
176
177
177
178
178
178
179
179
180
180
181
183
183
185
186
186
190
190
191
191
192
194
194
194
194
196
197
197
197
197
197
197
197
201
202
202
202
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205
205
205
208
210
212
CONTENTS
10
4.1.5
4.1.6
4.1.7
4.1.8
4.2
4.3
Integrals of Elementary Functions . . . . . . . .

Integration Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Improper Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Some Applications of Integration . . . . . . . .
Area between Two Curves . . . . . . . . . . . .
Volume by Slicing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Volumes by Shells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Arc Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Area of a Surface of Revolution . . . . . . . . .
Mass from Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Center of Mass and Centroid . . . . . . . . . . .
Fluid Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Money Stream . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.9 The Theorems of Pappus . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.1 Evaluating Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Integration by Substitution . . . . . . . . . . . .
Integration by parts: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Trigonometric integrals: . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Partial fractions: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Improper integrals: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.2 Applications of Integration . . . . . . . . . . . .
Area between two curves . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Volume by slicing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Volume by shells: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Arc length: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Surface area: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mass from density: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Center of mass and centroid: . . . . . . . . . . .
Fluid pressure: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Work: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.3 Parametric Curves: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Converting Parametric Curves . . . . . . . . . .
Parametrizing Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Slope of Parametric Curves . . . . . . . . .
Arc Length of Parametric Curves . . . . . . . .
4.2.4 Polar Coordinates: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Converting Equations into Polar Coordinates . .
Converting Equations into Cartesian Coordinates
Graphs of Polar Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Area in Polar Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . .
Slope of Polar Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Arc Length of Polar Curves . . . . . . . . . . .
Hints to the Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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214
216
217
220
220
221
224
226
227
228
229
233
233
233
234
235
235
235
236
238
239
240
240
240
240
241
241
241
242
242
242
243
243
243
243
244
244
244
244
244
245
245
245
245
246
246
CONTENTS
4.4
Volume by shells: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Arc length: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Surface area: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fluid pressure: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Work: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Answers to the Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Volume by shells: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Arc length: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Surface area: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fluid pressure: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Work: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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246
246
247
247
247
248
248
248
248
248
248
248
248
248
248
248
248
248
248
248
248
248
249
249
249
249
249
250
250
250
251
252
253
253
254
254
254
254
254
254
254
254
254
254
254
254
CONTENTS
12
4.5
Solutions to Selected Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Volume by shells: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Arc length: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Surface area: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fluid pressure: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Work: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sequences and Series

5.1 Definitions and Results . . . . . . .
5.1.1 Sequences of Real Numbers
5.1.2 Infinite Series . . . . . . . .
5.1.3 Convergence Tests . . . . .
5.1.4 Power Series . . . . . . . .
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254
254
254
254
254
255
255
255
255
255
256
256
256
259
260
264
264
264
264
264
264
264
264
264
264
264
264
264
264
265
265
265
265
265
265
265
265
265
265
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267
267
267
270
271
273
CONTENTS
5.2
5.3
Index
5.1.5 Taylor Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.1 Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Boundedness and Monotonicity . . . .
Convergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.2 Infinite Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Repeated Decimals . . . . . . . . . . .
Convergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Absolute and Conditional Convergence
5.2.3 Power Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Interval of Convergence . . . . . . . .
Radius of Convergence . . . . . . . . .
Limit Function . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Expansions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Limit Function . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Taylor Series Expansions . . . . . . . .
Anwers to the Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.1 Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Boundedness and Monotonicity . . . .
Convergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.2 Infinite Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Repeated Decimals . . . . . . . . . . .
Convergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.3 Power Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Interval of Convergence . . . . . . . .
Radius of Convergence . . . . . . . . .
Limit Function . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Expansions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Limit Function . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Taylor Series Expansions . . . . . . . .
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275
278
278
278
278
279
279
280
280
281
282
282
283
283
284
284
284
286
286
286
286
287
287
287
287
288
288
288
288
288
288
289
289
290
14
CONTENTS
1
BASIC
T ECHNIQUES OF
A LGEBRA
1.1 Definitions and Results

1.1.1 The Language of Mathematics
To facilitate the clear and concise formulation of mathematical statements, we
begin reviewing some extensions to our natural language which will allow us
to talk about abstract entities. We will confine ourselves to the basic concepts
of naive set theory as opposed to axiomatic set theory.
Although this new terminology and notation might be intimidating at first,
the reader will soon realize its usefulness as we move along and he becomes
more fluent in using the new terms and notation of this language.
Sets and Subsets
According to G. Cantor a set is a well-defined collection of distinct objects,
which are called the elements or members of the set.
Definition 1.1 (Cardinality of a Set)
If S is a set, then the number of its elements of S is called the cardinality of
S and denoted by #(S).
15
Figure 1.1:
Georg Cantor (18451918)
16
CHAPTER 1. BASIC TECHNIQUES OF ALGEBRA
Although this is not a valid definition (since it just replaces the name set by
the equally undefined name collection), it it is sufficient for our purpose.
For us a set S is well-defined if for each object x it can be decided whether
it is an element of S, which we will denote by x S, or whether it is not an
element of S, which will be expressed by x 6 S.
We can describe a set S by listing its elements in the following way between
curly parenthesis: for instance:
S = {x1 , x2 , . . . , xn },
Figure 1.2: Venn Diagram of a Set.
The figure shows the Venn-diagram
of the set S containing the elements
x1 , x2 , . . . , xn . The elements of the set
are enclosed by a curve separating the elements belonging to the set from those that
do not belong to the set. Here, for instance,
the elements y1 , y2 , . . . , ym do not belong
to the set S.
Often it is more convenient not to represent the elements of the set by dots, but to
let the region inside the curve represent the
elements of the set, while the region outside represents the elements that do not belong to the set.
(1.1)
which can be expressed by S is the set consisting of the elements x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ,

etc. This is often called the tabular form of the set (cf. Figure 1.1.1). Another
way for defining a set is by specifying a property P that its elements are to
satisfy:
S = {x | x has the property P }.
(1.2)
Thus S is the set of all those elements that satisfy the property P . This way
of defining sets is often referred to as the set-builder or descriptive form. If
all elements belong to some bigger set N from which they are selected by the
property P , we simply write
S = {x N | x has the property P }.
Definition 1.2 (Empty Set)
The unique set := {x | x 6= x} which does not contain any element is
called the empty set.
Example 1.1
1. R := {x | x is a real number}
This is the set of all real numbers, which is usually denoted by the
blackboard bold version of the letter R. The symbol := (equal by
definition) indicates that the expression on the left (where the colon is)
is defined by the expression on the right.
2. N := {n | n is a natural number} = {1, 2, 3, . . .}.
3. N0 := {n | n is a natural number or n = 0} = {0, 1, 2, 3, . . .}.
4. Z := {z | z is an integer} = {. . . , 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .}.
5. Q := {x | x is a rational number} = { pq | p Z and q N}.
6. C := {z | z is a complex number} = {x + yi | x, y R}.
1.1. DEFINITIONS AND RESULTS
17
Definition 1.3 (Intervals)

Let a, b R, then we define
1. [a, b] := {x R | a x b}
2. (a, b) := {x R | a < x < b}
3. [a, b) := {x R | a x < b}
4. (a, b] := {x R | a < x b}
and call the sets [a, b], (a, b), [a, b) and (a, b] the closed, open, and half-open
intervals defined by a and b. Note that these intervals are empty if a > b.
We will now consider two fundamental relationships between sets, equality and the subset relationship.
Definition 1.4 (Equality of Sets)
The sets A and B are equal, which we abbreviate by A = B, if they possess
the same elements, i.e.: if for all x holds: x A x B. If the sets A and
B are not equal, we write A 6= B.
Recall that for propositions and the expression is a shorthand
for implies or if then . The implication is only false if
is true and is false. In particular, is true if is false.
is short for and are equivalant, i.e. is true if and only if
is true. Hence, is identical to the conjunction of the two propositions:
and . See the truth table for the implication in the margin.
Example 1.2
1. N 6= N0 , since 0 N0 , however 0 6 N.
2. {1, 2, 3, 4} = {1, 1, 1, 4, 2, 3, 3}.
Definition 1.5 (Subsets)
A set A is called a subset of a set B, which we abbreviate by A B, if for
all x holds: x A x B. If A is not a subset of B we write A 6 B.
Example 1.3
1. S S, since x S x S.
2. S for any set S, since x x S is true as, by definition,
x is false for any element x.
3. N N0 , N0 Z, Z Q, Q R, R C.
4. {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} 6 {2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.
5. {2, 3, 4, 5, 6} 6 {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}.
Figure 1.3: Subset

The set A, represented by the dark region,
is a subset of the set B, represented by the
light region containing the dark region.
18
The following useful statements concerning the inclusion can be easily established. We list them as
Lemma 1.1 (Properties of )
If M , N , and L are sets then the following statements hold:
1. If M N and N M then M = N .
2. If M N and N L then M L.
(anti-symmetric)
(transitive)
To verify the correctness of these statements, we have to show that they follow from the definitions of = and , respectively. We include the simple
proof as an easy example for mathematical reasoning.
Figure 1.4: Intersection Set.
The intersection A B of the sets A and B
is represented by the dark region common
to both light regions representing the sets
A and B.
P ROOF : (1) Suppose M N and N M . We have to show that M and

N possess the same elements. However, M N implies by definition that
x M x N , and N M implies similarly that x N x M .
Hence, x M x N and thus, by definition, M = N .
(2) Now suppose that M N and N L. We have to show that x
M x L. However, M N implies x M x N and N L
implies x N x L. Hence x M x L, which means M L.
Set Operations
We will now describe operations which allow the construction of new sets from
old sets.
Definition 1.6 (Intersection)
For sets A and B the set
Figure 1.5: Union Set.

The union A B of the sets A and B is
represented by the dark region comprising
the regions A and B.
A B := {x | x A and x B}
is called the intersection of A and B. If A B = , the sets A and B are
called disjoint.
Definition 1.7 (Union)
If A and B are sets then the set
A\B
A B := {x | x A or x B}
is called the union of A and B.

Definition 1.8 (Difference)
Figure 1.6: Difference Set.

The difference A \ B of the sets A and B
is represented by the dark region consisting
of that part of the region A that does not
intersect with the region B.
A \ B := {x | x A and x 6 B}
is called the difference of A and B. A \ B is usually read as A without B.
19
Definition 1.9 (Cartesian Product)

A B := {(x, y) | x A and y B}
is called the Cartesian product of the sets A and B. The elements (x, y) of
A B are called ordered pairs. Two ordered pairs (x, y) and (x , y ) are
defined to be equal if x = x and y = y . If A = B, we often write A2
instead of A A. Similarly, if A1 , . . . , An are sets, we denote by by
A1 An :=
n
Y
k=1
Ak := {(a1 , . . . , an ) | ak Ak , k = 1, . . . , n}
the Cartesian product of the sets A1 . . . , An , whose elements (a1 , . . . , an )

are called n-tuples. Again, if A1 = = An = A, we usually denote their
Cartesian A A product simply by An .
Figure 1.7: Product Set.

A visualization of the
{1, 2, 3, 4} {2, 5}
product
set
Example 1.4
Let A := {1, 2, 3, 4} and B := {2, 5} then
A B = {2},
A B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5},
A \ B = {1, 3, 4},
A B = {(1, 2), (2, 2), (3, 2), (4, 2), (1, 5), (2, 5), (3, 5), (4, 5)}
and
B A = {(2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (5, 1), (5, 2), (5, 3), (5, 4)}
Remark 1.1
Note that the Cartesian product, in general, is not commutative, as the previous
example illustrates.
Example 1.5
Let A := (1, 5] and B := [2, 5], then
A B = (1, 5] [2, 5] = {(x, y) | 1 < x 5 and 2 y 5}
Example 1.6
The sets
R2 = {(x, y) | x, y R},
R3 = {(x, y, z) | x, y, z R},
or more general,
Rn = {(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) | x1 , . . . , xn R}
Figure 1.8: Product Set.

A visualization of the set (1, 5] (2, 5].
The bolded edges of the rectangle indicate
that part of the boundary of (1, 5] (2, 5]
that belongs to the product set
20
represent the Euclidean plane, the 3-dimensional Euclidean space and the ndimensional Euclidean space, respectively.
Some important properties of the set operations introduced above are listed
for easy reference in the following
Lemma 1.2 (Algebraic Properties of , and \)
For sets M , N , and L the following properties hold:
1. M N = N M and M N = N M
(commutativity)
2. M (N L) = (M N ) L
M (N L) = (M N ) L
(associativity)
3. M (N L) = (M N ) (M L)
M (N L) = (M N ) (M L)
4. M \ (N L) = (M \ N ) (M \ L)
M \ (N L) = (M \ N ) (M \ L)
(distributive law)
(De Morgans rules)
Suppose S is a set and P a statement concerning the elements x of S, then

it is often convenient to abbreviate the lengthy formulation
for all x S the statement P is true
by the more compact symbolic expression
x S : P.
Similarly, we will often replace the phrase
there exists (at least) one x S for which the statement P is true
by the shorter expression
x S : P.
Example 1.7
Suppose A and B are sets then, by the definition of and 6, we have
A B (x A : x B)
A 6 B (x A : x 6 B)
Example 1.8
The lengthy formulation of the Archimidean Axiom: For each real number
x there exists a natural number n which is greater than or equal to x can be
shortened to
x R n N : n x
21
Definition 1.10 (Generalized Intersection and Union)

Suppose I is a nonempty set and for each i I let Si be a set.
1. The (generalized) intersection of the sets Si is defined as the set
\
Si := {x | i I : x Si }
iI
2. The (generalized) union of the sets Si is defined as the set

[
Si := {x | i I : x Si }
iI
If I = {1, . . . , n} we write
for the union.
Tn
i=1 Si instead of
i{1,...,n} Si and similarly
Figure 1.9: Generalized Intersection.

T
The intersection 3i=1 Si = S1 S2 S3
of the sets S1 , S2 , S2 .
Lemma 1.3 (De Morgans Rules)

Suppose S is a set, I a nonempty set and for each i I let Si be a set. Then
holds
!
[
\
1. S \
(S \ Si ).
Si =
iI
iI
2. S \
iI
Si
iI
(S \ Si ).
Figure 1.10: Generalized Union.

S
The union 3i=1 Si = S1 S2 S3 of
the sets S1 , S2 , S2 .
22
Functions
Definition 1.11 (Function, Domain, Range, Image)

1. Suppose S and T are sets. A function or map from S into T is an
association which assigns to every element of S precisely one element
of T . Instead of the somewhat lengthy formulation f is a function
from S into T , we shall often write f : S T .
2. If f : S T is a function and x S then we denote the unique
element assigned to x by f (x) and call it the value of f at x or the
image of x under f .
Figure 1.11: Function.
The function f : S T maps the elements of its domain S into its co-domain
T . The set im(f ) of all images of f (also
called the range of f , denoted range(f )) is
the shaded subset of T .
3. If f : S T is a function, then the set S is called the domain of f ,

the set T the co-domain of f , and the set
im(f ) = {f (x) | x S}
of all images of S under f the image of f . or the range of f . The
image of a function f is often also called the range of f and denoted
by range(f ).
4. Moreover, if f is a function from S into T , it is often convenient to use
the notation x 7 f (x) to indicate that f (x) is assigned to x. Note that
the arrow describes the global association between the sets S and
T , while 7 describes the local association between the elements of
S and T .
5. Two functions f1 : S1 T1 and f2 : S2 T2 are equal if S1 = S2 ,
T1 = T2 and
f1 (x) = f2 (x)
for all x S1 = S2 .
Remark 1.2
In applications, real-valued functions of one or several real variables are often
defined (sloppily) by an equation of the form
y = f (x1 , . . . , xn )
without explicite indication of their domain and codomain. For instance,
x2
.
y=
1 x2
This is done with the understanding that the domain is the largest subset of Rn
for which the term f (x1 , . . . , xn ) is defined, and that the codomain is R.
Example 1.9
Let S = T = R, and let f : R R be the map defined by f (x) := x2 for
23
all x R. We can also express this by saying that f is the map from R into R
such that x 7 x2 for all x R. The image of f is the interval [0, ).
Example 1.10
Find the domain and range of the function
f (x) =
S OLUTION :
for which
x2
9 x2
.
3x + 2
(i) Domain of f : The domain of f is the largest subset of R
9 x2
9 x2
9 x2
=
=
f (x) = 2
2
x 3x + 2
(x 2)(x 1)
x 32
1
4
is defined. Therefore, we have to eliminate those x R for which 0 = x2

3x + 2 = (x 1)(x 2), i.e. x = 1 and x = 2, and confine ourselves to those
x R for which 0 9 x2 = (3 x)(3 + x), i.e. x [3, 3]. Thus, the
domain of f is given by
Df = [3, 3] \ {1, 2}.
Since f (1) 6 0 and f (2) 6= 0, f has vertical tangents at 1 and 2 which are also
called poles of f . Since the multiplicity of the linear factors (x 1) and (x 2)
are both 1, each pol is of order 1.
(ii) Range of f : To determine the range of f , we will first compute the
range of its restrictions to each of the subdomains given by the intervals [3, 1),
(1, 2) and (2, 3]. Note that the only zeroes of f are the boundary points 3,
and 3 and also note that f is continuous on its domain. We can therefore apply
the Intermediate-value Theorem to each closed subinterval of its domain:
We begin with the subinterval [3, 1). Since f (3) = 0, f (x) 0 for all
x [3, 1) and limx1 f (x) = , as can be easily verified, we conclude
using the Intermediate-value Theorem that the range of the restriction of f to
the interval [3, 1) is [0, ).
We will now consider the behavior of f on the subinterval (1, 2). Clearly,
both limx1+ f (x) = limx2 f (x) = and f (x) < 0 for all x (1, 2).
It can be easily verified that f attains its global maximum on the subinterval
2
(1, 2) where the denominator of f which is given by the parabola x 23 41
has its smallest value which is precisely at 32 where the parabola has its vertex.
The corresponding function value of f is
q
2
9 32

3
f 2 =
= 6 3.
1
4
Hence, again by the Intermediate-value Theorem, the
range of the restriction
of f to the interval (1, 2) is given by the interval [6 3, ).
Figure 1.12: Domain and Range.

The graph of the function f . Note that
f has poles at 1 and 2. The domain
Df = [3, 3] of f and its range (or im
age) range(f ) = [6 3, ) [0, )
are are shaded.
24
Figure 1.13: Restriction.

The figure depicts the restriction fS of the
function f : S T . The function fS assigns to each element x S the element
f (x) as image. fS has therefore domain
S , and co-domain T . Domain and image
of fS are shaded dark-gray in the illustration. Note that im(fS ) im(f )
Finally, consider the interval (2, 3]. Clearly, f (x) 0 for all x (2, 3],
f (3) = 0 and limx2+ = , as can be easily verified. Hence, again by the
Intermediate-value Theorem, the range of the restriction of f to the interval
(2, 3] is [0, ).
The range of f on its total domain Df = [3, 1)(1, 2)(2, 3] is therefore
the union of the ranges of the restrictions of f . Hence
range(f ) = [0, ) [6 3, ) [0, )
= [6 3, ) [0, ).
Definition 1.12 (Restriction of a Function)

If f : S T is a map and S S a subset of S, then we can define another
map from S into T by the same association x 7 f (x) for all x S . This
map is called the restriction of f to S and is denoted by f |S : S T .
Definition 1.13 (Injective)
A map f : S T is called injective or one-to-one if for all x1 , x2 S
whenever x1 6= x2 then also f (x1 ) 6= f (x2 ). Note this is equivalent to the
statement

x1 x2 f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) x1 = x2 .
Figure 1.14: Not Injective.

The function f : S T is not injective
since the elements x1 and x2 are mapped
on the same image y = f (x1 ) = f (x2 ).
Remark 1.3
Recall the following geometric formulation of Definition 1.13, called the horizontal line test: Suppose S, T R. Then the function f : S T is injective,
if any horizontal line (line parallel to the x-axis) intersects the graph of f in at
most one point.
Example 1.11
The map f (x) := x2 for all x R defined in the previous example is not
injective, since, for example f (1) = f (1). However, the map g : R R
defined by g(x) := x + 1 is injective, since x1 + 1 = x2 + 1 implies x1 = x2
for all x1 , x2 R.
Definition 1.14 (Surjective)
A map f : S T is called surjective or onto if its image f (S) = T , i.e. if
for any y T there exists an x S such that f (x) = y. Those elements
x S with f (x) = y are called inverse images of y.
Example 1.12
The map f (x) := x2 for all x R defined above is not surjective, since, for
example 1 does not have an inverse image. However, the map g : R R
defined by g(x) := x+1 is surjective, since for all y R we have y = g(y1).
25
Definition 1.15 (Bijective)

A map f : S T is called bijective if it is both injective and surjective.
Definition 1.16 (Identity Map)
Let S be a nonempty set, then the map id = idS : S S defined by x 7 x
is called the identity map on S.
Remark 1.4
Note that id is both injective and surjective, hence bijective.
Definition 1.17 (Composition)
Suppose S, T and U are sets and f : S T and g : T U are maps. Then
we define the composition g f : S U of f and g by

(g f )(x) := g f (x)
for all x S.
Example 1.13 ( is not commutative)

Consider again the maps f, g : R R defined by f (x) := x2 and g(x) :=
x + 1 for all x R. Then we can form both g f and f g and we obtain

g f (x) (x) = g(x2 ) = x2 + 1,
while

f g(x) (x) = f (x + 1) = (x + 1)2
for all x R. Hence, we see that in general
f g 6= g f.
Example 1.14
Suppose that
f (x) = ln(1 x)
and
g(x) = x2 .
Determine the domain of the composition f g of f and g.
S OLUTION :
Since ln is only defined for x > 0, the function f has the
domain Df = (, 1). g is defined on R. Thus, the domain of f g can only
contain those x R for which g(x) = x2 (, 1), ie. for which x2 < 1.
Hence, the domain of f g is given by
Df g = (1, 1).
Figure 1.15: Horizontal Line Test.

The function f : R R defined by
f (x) = x2 + 9x + 5 is not injective, since (for instance) the horizontal line
through 6 41 intersects the graph of f in
and
two points, namely at x1 = 15
2
x2 = 32 . However, f can be made injective by restricting its domain (for instance)
to the interval [ 29 , ). The graph of the
restriction of f to this interval is bolded.
26
Definition 1.18 (Invertible Functions)

The map f : S T is called invertible if there exists a map g : T S such
that
g f = idS and f g = idT .
(1.3)
If f is invertible then there exists precisely one map g satisfying the equation
(1.3). This map is called the inverse map of f and usually denoted by f 1 .
Lemma 1.4 (Invertiblity Criterion)
If f : S im(S) is invertible if and only if f is injective.
Lemma 1.5
If f : S T is either (strictly) increasing or decreasing, then f is invertible.
Figure 1.16: Inverse Function.

The graph of the restriction f+ of the function f defined by f (x) = x2 + 9x + 5
is depicted with a bolded curve, its domain
, ) are shaded.
[ 92 , ) and range [ 61
4
1
The graph of its inverse f+
is depicted
with a darkly shaded curve. Note that the
1
domain of f+
coincides with the range of
1
f+ and the range of f+
with the domain
of f+ .
Example 1.15
Let f (x) = x2 + 9x + 5. Determine whether f has an inverse. If so, find it.
S OLUTION :
Clearly, the function f : R R defined by
f (x) = x2 + 9x + 5 = x +

9 2
2
61
4
(note that its graph is a parabola!) is not injective (one-to-one), since, for
example,
f
1
2
=
=
=

9 2
61
2
4
2
5 61
=
(5)
61
4
4

19
9 2
61
2 +2 4 =f
1
2
2

19
2 .
Therefore, f is not invertible on it naturual domain R. However, we can

restrict f (for instance) to the subinterval [ 29 , ). This restriction, which we
will denote by f+ , constitutes a bijection f+ : [ 29 , ) [ 61
4 , ), as can
be easily verified.
We will now determine the inverse of f+ :
To this end, first set y =

9 2
61
x + 2 4 . Next interchange x and y, which leads to the equation x =
2
y + 92 61
4 . Then solve for y: Taking the square root of
y+
yields

9 2
2
=x+
61
4

q
y + 9 = x +
2
61
4
27
and
y+
9
2
q
x+
61
4

since y [ 29 , ), implies y + 29 = y + 92 . Thus
y = 92 +
q
x+
61
4 .
Hence, the inverse function

1
9
f+
: [ 61
4 , ) [ 2 , )
is given by
1
f+
(x) = 92 +
q
x+
61
4
for x [ 61
4 , ).
1
We conclude by showing that f+
is indeed inverse to f on [ 29 , ): Let
9
x [ 2 , ) then

2
1
1
x + 29 61
f+ (x) = f+
f+
4
q
2
9
= 2 +
x + 92 61
4 +

9
9

= + x+
2
= 29 + x +
61
4
2
9
2
= x.
Conversely, let x [ 61
4 , ) then
q

f+ f 1 (x) = f+ 29 + x + 61
4
q

2
9
= 29 + x + 61
+
4
2
=x+
= x.
61
4
61
4
61
4
28
1.1.2 Basic Operations with Rational Numbers

Definition 1.19 (Equality, Cancellation)
The rational numbers (fractions) a/b, c/d Q are equal if ad = bc. In
particular,
ak
a 6k
a
=
=
(1.4)
bk
b 6k
b
for all integers k Z. The integer n Z is identified with the fraction n/1:
n=
n
1
(1.5)
for all n Z. Note that a/b = 0 if and only if a = 0.
Example 1.16
1
2
3
4
1k
= = = = =
,
2
4
6
8
2k
3=
3
6
9
3k
= = =
1
2
3
k
for all k Z.
Definition 1.20 (Multiplication, Inverse)
Let a/b, c/d Q. Then their product (a/b) (c/d) is defined by
a c
ac
:=
b d
bd
(1.6)
Note, that if a 6= 0 then its (multiplicative) inverse is given by

a 1
b
1
a
b
b
a
(1.7)
Hence, since x y := x y 1 for y 6= 0,

a
ad
c
a c 1
=
=
b
d
b
d
bc
provided c 6= 0.
Example 1.17
1
1. 21 = 12
=

1
2. 21
= 21 = 2
3. 3
5
6
3
1
5
6
4.
1
2
35
16
5
2
5.
2
3
5
6
2
3
2
3
2
3
4
1
(1.8)
6
5
2
3
4
5
1
4
1
6
29
Definition 1.21 (Addition, Inverse)

For rational numbers a/b, c/b Q, their sum is defined by
a+c
a c
+ :=
b
b
b
(1.9)
or more general
a
c
ad
bc
ad + bc
+ :=
+
=
b
d
bd
bd
bd
(1.10)
for all a/b, c/d Q. The (additive) inverse of a/b Q is
a
a a
=
=
b
b
b
(1.11)
hence
a
c a c ad bc
=
= +
b
d b
d
bd
(1.12)
Adding the fractions (1.10) can usually be simplified by first finding the
least common denominator lcd(b, d) of b and d and then writing the the
two fractions with this lcd.
Example 1.18
Find the difference
7
5
14 60
S OLUTION :
1. Find the least common denominator (multiple) of 14 and 60:
14 = 21 30 50 71
60 = 22 31 51 70
hence
lcd(14, 60) = 22 31 51 71 = 420

2. Write each fraction with the least common denominator of 420 and add
the fractions using (1.9):
5
7
5 21 31 51
7 71
14
60
14 21 31 51
60 71
150
49
199
=
=
420
420
420
30
Definition 1.22 (Order Relation)

For rational numbers a/b, c/d Q we define
a
c
b
d
if and only if ad cb
(1.13)
Example 1.19
Order the following pairs of rational numbers:
(a) 12 , 34 , (b) 35 , 74 , (c) 53 , 76
S OLUTION : (a) 12 43 , since 1 4 = 4 6 = 2 3
3
4
(b) Recall that 53 = 3
5 . Hence 5 7 , since (3) 7 = 21 20 = 4 5
6
3
(c) Similarly, 5 7 , since 21 30.

Theorem 1.1 (Linear Order, Monotony Laws)
Let a, b, c Q, then
1. a a
(reflexive)
2. If a b and b a then a = b
(anti-symmetric)
3. If a b and b c then a c
(transitive)
4. a b or b a
5. satisfies the Monotony Laws: For all a, b, c Q,
(a) If a b then a + c b + c for all a, b Q.
(b) If a b and c > 0 then a c b c
(dichotomic)
31
1.1.3 The Linearly Ordered Field of Real Numbers

Recall that the rational numbers are contained in the real numbers, in fact we
have the inclusion
NZQR
The following theorem states the basic algebraic and order theoretic properties
of R:
Theorem 1.2 (Algebraic and Order Properties of the Real Numbers)
1. (R, +) is a commutative group:
(a) a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c for all a, b, c R, (+ is associative).
(b) 0 + a = a + 0 = a for a R, (0 is the neutral element with

respect to +).
(c) For each a R there exists a (unique) element b R such that

a + b = b + a = 0. This unique element b is called the additive
inverse of a and denoted by a.
(d) a + b = b + a for all a, b R, (commutative law).

2. (R \ {0}, ) is a commutative group:
(a) a (b c) = (a b) c for all a, b, c R \ {0}, ( is associative).
(b) 1 a = a 1 = a for all a R \ {0}, (1 is the neutral element

with respect to ).
(c) For each a R \ {0} there exists a unique element b R \ {0}
such that a b = b a = 1. This unique element b is called the
multiplicative inverse of a and denoted by a1 or a1 .
(d) a b = b a for a, b R \ {0}, ( is commutative).

3. Distributive Law: a (b + c) = a b + a c for all a, b, c R.
4. (R, ) is a linearly ordered set: Let a, b, c R, then
(a) a a
(b) If a b and b a then a = b

(c) If a b and b c then a c
(d) a b or b a
(reflexive)
(anti-symmetric)
(transitive)
(dichotomic)
(e) satisfies the Monotony Laws: For all a, b, c R,

i. If a b then a + c b + c
ii. If a b and c > 0 then a c b c
32
Definition 1.23 (Subtraction, Division, <)

1. For all a, b, c R with c 6= 0 we define a b := a + (b) and
a
1
c := a c
2. For a, b R, we define a < b to be equivalent to a b and a 6= b.
Example 1.20
Given the binomial formula (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2 , find the expansion of
(a b)2 .
S OLUTION : Using the definition of subtraction and the given binomial expansion, we first obtain
2
(a b)2 = a + (b) = a2 + 2a(b) + (b)2
and with Corollary 1.1:4d
= a2 2ab + b2
Corollary 1.1 (Rules for Manipulating Terms)

1. Cancellation Laws for Addition and Multiplication: Let a, b, c R,
then
(a) If a + c = b + c then a = b
(b) If a c = b c then a = b, provided c 6= 0,
2. a 0 = 0 for all a R.
3. a b = 0 if and only if a = 0 or b = 0 for all a, b R.
4. Laws for the Inverse: Let a, b R, then
(a) a = (1) a
(b) (a + b) = (a) + (b) = a b

(a)
a
a
(c)
=
= , provided b 6= 0
b
(b)
b
(d) (a) b = a (b) = (a b)
(e) (a) (b) = a b
5. Fractions of Real Numbers:

a
c
ad+cb
+ =
b
d
bd
ac
a c
(b) =
b d
bd
(a)
Let a, b, c, d R with b, d 6= 0, then
33
Corollary 1.2 (Rules for Manipulating Inequalities)

Suppose a, b, c, d R, then
1. If a < b then a + c < b + c

2. If a b and c d then a + c b + d
3. If a < b and c d then a + c < b + d
4. If a < b and 0 < c then ac < bc
5. If 0 a b and 0 c d then ac bd
6. If 0 a < b and 0 < c d then ac < bd
7. If a b and c < 0 then ac bc
8. If a < b and c < 0 then ac > bc
9. If 0 < a then 0 <
1
a
10. If 0 < a < b then 0 <
1
b
<
1
a
11. 0 < 1
Example 1.21
Find the solution set of the inequality |3x 1| < 2.
S OLUTION :
|3x 1| < 2 is equivalent to 2 < 3x 1 < 2. In order
to isolate x, we first apply Theorem 1.2:4(e)i and add 1 to each component
of the double-inequality, which implies 1 < 3x < 3. Applying 4(e)ii of
the same theorem and multiplying each component of the double-inequality by
1
1
3 , yields 3 < x < 1. The solution set of the given inequality is therefore
1
S := ( 3 , 1).
1.1.4 The Completeness of the Field of Real Numbers

Definition 1.24 (Upper/Lower Bounds)
Let S R be a nonempty set of real numbers and b R.
1. b is said to be an upper bound of S if s b for all s S.
2. b is said to be a lower bound of S if b s for all s S.
3. S is said to be bounded from above if it possesses an upper bound.
4. S is said bo be bounded from below if it possesses a lower bound.
5. S is said to be bounded if it is bounded from above and below.
34
Definition 1.25 (Maximum, Minimum)

Let S R be a nonempty set of real numbers, and b S.
1. b is said to be the maximum of S if s b for all s S. The maximum
of S is unique and denoted by max(S).
2. b is said to be the minimum of S if b s for all s S. The minimum
of S is unique and denoted by min(S).
Remark 1.5
Note that the minimum and the maximum of a set are elements of the set. This
is different in the case of supremum and infimum of a set as we will see below.
Example 1.22
Find an upper/lower bound and maximum/minimum of the S := (0, 1].
S OLUTION : Clearly,
5 is an upper bound and 1 a lower bound of (0, 1].
Moreover, max (0, 1] = 1, (0, 1] does not possess a minimum. Why?
Definition 1.26 (Supremum/Infimum, etc.)

Let S R be a nonempty set of real numbers and b R.
1. b is called the least upper bound or supremum of S if

(a) b is an upper bound of S and
(b) if b R is any upper bound of S then b b .
The least upper bound or supremum of S is unique and is denoted by
lub(S) or sup(S).
2. b is called the greatest lower bound or infimum of S if
(a) b is a lower bound of S and
(b) if b R is any lower bound of S then b b .
The greatest lower bound or infimum of S is unique and denoted by
glb(S) or inf(S).
Remark 1.6
Note that if sup(S) S, then sup(S) = max(S). Similarly, if inf(S) S,
then inf(S) = min(S).
Example 1.23
Find max, min, sup, inf of S1 := {1/n | n N}
S OLUTION :
Clearly, S1 = {1, 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, . . .} is bounded from above
and below, for instance by 2 and 1. Note that inf(S1 ) = 0 does not belong
to the set S1 , hence min(S1 ) does not exist. On the other hand sup(S1 ) =
max(S1 ).
35
Example 1.24
Determine whether the set S := {(x + 1)/x | x (0, )} is bounded and
determine sup(S), inf(S) if they exist.
S OLUTION :
Clearly,

1
x+1
lim
= ,
= lim+ 1 +
x
x
x0+
x0
so that S is not bounded from above. Hence sup(S) does not exist. On the
other hand, S is bounded from below, for instance, by 1, which is the greatest
lower bound, i.e. inf(S) = 1. Note that 1 6 S. Therefore, min(S) does not
exist!
Theorem 1.3 (Completeness of R, Least Upper Bound Axiom)

If S R is nonempty and bounded above then S possesses a least upper
bound in R.
Remark 1.7
Both Q and R are linearly ordered fields, i.e. they satisfy properties 1, 2, 3 and
4 of Theorem 1.2. However, while Q possesses only countably infinitely many
elements, R is uncountably infinite, since R in addition satisfies the completeness property stated in Theorem 1.3.
Example 1.25
Show that 2 6 Q, i.e. that 2 is not a rational number.

S OLUTION :
Suppose
2 Q. Then there exist m, n Z such that
m
2=
n
where m, n can be chosen to be relatively prime, i.e. their greatest common

divisor is 1. We first square this equation
2=
m2
n2
and then multiply it by n2 yielding

2n2 = m2
Clearly, m2 is divisible by 2, and therefore (by Euclids Lemma) also m.
Hence, m = 2m.
Replacing m by 2m,
we obtain
2n2 = 4m
2
36
Dividing the new equation by 2

n2 = 2 m
2
we see that also n2 and therefore n is divisible by 2. I.e. both m and n are
divisible by
2, in contradiction to m and n are
relatively prime. Hence, our
assumption 2 Q is false, which implies that 2 6 Q.
Theorem 1.4 (Existence of n-th Roots in R)

For every real number a R, a > 0 and every natural number n N there
exists a unique real number x R, x > 0 such that
xn = a
This number x is denoted by
n
a
i.e. x =
or a1/n
n
a = a1/n .
P ROOF : (1) Uniqueness: Since 0 < x1 < x2 implies that 0 < xn1 < xn2 ,
there can at most be one such x.
(2) Existence: Consider the set
X := {t R | t > 0, tn < a}
(a) E 6= : consider t := a/(1+a). Clearly, 0 < t < 1, hence tn < t < a
and thus t E, i.e. E 6= .
(b) E is bounded from above: E is bounded by 1 + a. If t > 1 + a > 1
then tn > t > 1 + a > a, hence t 6 E.
Hence, by Theorem 1.3, sup(E) exists. Let
x := sup(E)
To verify that xn = a, show that both xn < a and xn > a lead to contradictions. Well omit this technical part of the proof.
37
1.1.5 Powers and Radicals

Definition 1.27 (Powers with Integer Exponents)
For a R and n N0 we define the power an recursively by
a0 := 1 and an+1 := an a,
i.e. if n > 0, we have
an = |a a{z a} .
n times
If a R \ {0} and n N, then we define
an := a1 )n = an
1
The number a is called the base, while the number n is called the exponent
of the power.
Example 1.26
Find 53 and 53 .
S OLUTION :
53 = 5 5 5 = 125
1 1 1
53 =
5 5 5
1
1
=
=
555
125
Theorem 1.5 (Real Roots)

For any n N and any positive a R there exists precisely one positive
r R such that
rn = a.
This unique number r is called the principal n-th root of a and denoted by
1
n
a := a n := r.
If n N is odd, we define n a := n a. The symbol n a is called a

radical symbol, the number n the index of the radical and the number a the
radicant.
Example 1.27
2
Simplify and rationalize the expression 51/5
.
38
S OLUTION :
51/5
2
=
=
2
51/5
1
52/5
1
52/5
53/5
1 53/5
=
= 15 53/5
3/5
5
5
Theorem 1.6 (Complex Roots)

For any n N and any complex number z = r cos + i sin C, z 6= 0,
there exist precisely n numbers k (k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1) such that
kn = z
k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1,
namely,

1
k = r n cos
1
= r n ei
+2k
n
2k
n
+ i sin
2k
n

for k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1. The numbers k are called n-th roots of z . If z = 1,

they are called n-th roots of unity.
Example 1.28
Compute the 4-th roots of 8i.
S OLUTION :
Thus
First note that the argument of 8i is 3/2 and | 8i| = 8.

3
8i = 8 cos 3
2 + i sin 2 .
Hence, by Theorem 1.6, the four fourth roots of 8i are given by
Figure 1.17:
The four roots of 8i

wk = 81/4 cos 41
for k = 0, 1, 2, 3, or explicitly
3
2

+ 2k + i sin 41

3
w0 = 81/4 cos 3
8 + i sin 8

7
w1 = 81/4 cos 7
8 + i sin 8

11
w2 = 81/4 cos 11
8 + i sin 8

15
w3 = 81/4 cos 15
8 + i sin 8
3
2
+ 2k
39
Definition 1.28 (Powers with Rational Exponents)

For any positive real number a R and any rational number
define
n
n
a m := m an = m a .
n
m
Q, we
Example 1.29
2
Find 8 3 !
S OLUTION :
By definition,
32
=8
2
3
3
= 82 =
r
3
1
=
82
r
3
1
1
= .
64
4
Definition 1.29 (Powers with Real Exponents)

For any positive real number a R and any real number r R, we define
ar := er ln a .
where e R is the Euler constant. Recall that
ex =
X
x2
x3
xn
=1+x+
+
+
n!
2!
3!
n=0
for all x R.
Example 1.30
2
Evaluate the power 3 !
S OLUTION :
Again, by definition, we have
2
3 = e 2 ln( 3)
40
Theorem 1.7 (Laws of Exponent)

Let a, b R and r, s R, then
1. ar as = ar+s
2.
1
ar
= ars = sr
s
a
a
3. ar br = (a b)r
a r
ar
4. r =
, b 6= 0
b
b
5. (ar )s = ars
6. For all n Z we have

n
(1) =
if n is even
1,
1, if n is odd
Corollary 1.3 (Laws of Radical)

Let a, b R, a, b > 0 and n, m N, then
1. n 1 = 1, n 0 = 0
n
n
2. m an = m a = a m

3. n a n b = n a b
r
n
a
a
n
=
4.
n
b
b
p
p
5. n m a = m n a = nm a
n
6. n a = a
(
|a| if n is even
n
n
7. a =
a
if n is odd
41
1.1.6 Absolute Value

Definition 1.30 (Absolute Value)
For any x R the number
(
x,
|x| :=
x,
if x 0,
if x < 0
is called the absolute value of x.

Theorem 1.8 (Properties of | |)
For all x, y R,
1. |x| 0 and |x| = 0 x = 0

2. |xy| = |x||y|
3. |x + y| |x| + |y|
(triangle inequality)
Lemma 1.6
Suppose x, a, R and > 0, then
1. |x| < < x <

2. |x a| < a < x < a +
3. The two previous statements remain true if < is replaced by .
1.1.7 Factorial and Binomial Coefficients

Definition 1.31
For all n N0 , we define the number n! (read: n factorial) recursively by
0! := 1
and (n + 1)! := n!(n + 1),
i.e.: n! = 1 2 3 (n 1) n
Example 1.31
Compute 3! and 4!.
S OLUTION :
3! = 1 2 3 = 6, 4! = 3! 4 = 6 4 = 24.
42
Definition 1.32 (Binomial Coefficients)

For all a R and k N0 we define the Binomial coefficient
by

a
a
a ak
,
:= 1 and
:=
0
k+1
k k+1
a
k
recursively
i.e. for k > 0

(a k + 1)
a (a 1) (a 2)
a
=
1
2
3
k
k
Example 1.32
Compute the binomial coefficients
2
k
and
3
k
for k = 0, 1, 2, 3.
S OLUTION :

2
=1
0

2
2
= =2
1
1

2 (2 1)
2
=
=1
2
1 2

3
=1
0

3
3
= =3
1
1

3 (3 1)
3
=
=3
2
1 2

3
3 (3 1) (3 2)
=1
=
1 2
3
3
Lemma 1.7
Let k, n N0 , then

n!
n
=
1.
, for k n.
k!(n k)!
k

n
n
=
, for k n.
2.
k
nk

n
n
n+1
+
=
, k n 1.
3.
k
k+1
k+1

n
4.
= 0, for k > n.
k
43
Remark 1.8 (Pascals Triangle)

1
1
1
@
R
@
1
2
1
@
R @
@
R
@
3
3
1
1
@
R @
@
R @
@
R
@
4
6
4

The trianglular arrangment of the binomial coefficients nk suggested by the
recursion formula 3 allows
a systematic computation
of the binomial coeffi

cients starting with 00 = 1. The coefficients n0 = nn (n N0 ) forming
the sides of the triangle are all 1, while the coefficients in the interior are the
sum of the two binomial coefficients directly above as indicated by the arrows
in the diagram above.
1.1.8 Binomial Formulas, Sums/Differences of Powers

Theorem 1.9 (Binomial Formula)
For all a, b R and n N, we have
n
X
n nk k
(a + b) =
a
b
k
n
k=0
in particular
(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2
(a + b)3 = a3 + 3a2 b + 3ab2 + b3
(a + b)4 = a4 + 4a3 b + 6a2 b2 + 4ab3 + b4
Example 1.33
Expand the binomials (a b)2 and (a b)3
S OLUTION :
We apply Definition 1.23:1
2
(a b)2 = a + (b) = a2 + 2a(b) + (b)2 = a2 2ab + b2
Similarly
3
(a b)3 = a + (b) = a3 + 3a2 (b) + 3a(b)2 + (b)3
= a3 3a2 b + 3ab2 b3
44
Example 1.34
2
Expand the binomial expression 2x3 y z 2
S OLUTION :
2x3 y z 2
2
2
= 2x3 y + (z 2 ) = (2x3 y)2 + 2(2x3 y)(z 2 ) + (z 2 )2
= 22 (x3 )2 y 2 4x3 yz 2 + (z 2 )2 = 4x6 y 2 4x3 yz 2 + z 4
Lemma 1.8 (Completing the Square)

If , x R, then
x2 + 2ax = (x + a)2 a2
Remark 1.9
Note that a is half the coefficient of the linear term on the left side!
Example 1.35
Solve the quadratic equation x2 + 4x 7 = 0 by completing the square.
S OLUTION : 0 = x2 + 4x 7 = [x2 + 4x] 7 = [(x + 2)2 22 ] 7 =
(x + 2)2 11 which is equivalent to(x + 2)2 = 11. Taking the
square root
11
and
thus
x
+
2
=
11. Hence,
on both sides,
we
obtain
|x
+
2|
=
x = 2 11.
Theorem 1.10 (Differences of Powers)

an bn = (a b)
n1
X
an1k bk
k=0
in particular
a2 b2 = (a b)(a + b)
a3 b3 = (a b)(a2 + ab + b2 )
a4 b4 = (a b)(a3 + a2 b + ab2 + b3 )
45
Theorem 1.11 (Sums of Powers)

a
2n+1
+b
2n+1
= (a + b)
2n
X
(1)k a2nk bk
k=0
in particular
a3 + b3 = (a + b)(a2 ab + b2 )
a5 + b5 = (a + b)(a4 a3 b
+ a2 b2 ab3 + b4 )
a7 + b7 = (a + b)(a6 a5 b + a4 b2
a3 b3 + a2 b4 ab5 + b6 )

Definition 1.33 (Exponential Function with Base a)
For a R, a > 0 and a 6= 1, the association x 7 ax defines a functions
expa : R R called the base-a exponential function. In the special and
important case where a = e, the Euler constant, exp := expe is called the
natural exponential function. (cf. Defintion 1.29),
Example 1.36
Sketch the graphs of the exponential functions
exp1/2 (x) :=
exp2 (x) :=2
exp4 (x) :=4
S OLUTION :

1 x
2
x
Figure 1.18:
Graphs of exp1/2 , exp2
and exp4
Note that expa is increasing for a > 1 and
decreasing for 0 < a < 1. Also note that
all exponential functions have y-intercept
y = 0.
46
Theorem 1.12 (Properties of expa )

Let a R, a > 0, a 6= 1. For all x1 , x2 R:
1. expa (0) = 1
2. expa (x1 + x2 ) = expa (x1 ) expa (x2 )
3. expa (x1 ) = expa (x2 ) x1 = x2
i.e. expa is injective (one-to-one) and therefore invertible. Its inverse
is the logarithmic function loga .
4. If 0 < a < 1 then expa is decreasing
If a > 1 then expa is increasing.
5. expa has domain R
6. expa has range (0, )
Remark 1.10
Because of Theorem 1.12:1,2, expa (x) is usually written as ax . Therefore,
these equations can be written in the more familar form:
1. a0 = 1
2. ax1 +x2 = ax1 ax2
3. ax1 = ax2 x1 = x2
Definition 1.34 (Logarithmic Functions)
Let a R, a > 0, a 6= 1. The logarithmic function loga : (0, ) R with
base a is the inverse of the base-a exponential function expa : R R and is
implicitly defined by
loga (x) = y expa (y) = x
ay = x
for all x (0, ) and y R. The logarithm with base e, loge , is called the
natural logarithm and is usually denoted by ln
Example 1.37
Sketch the graphs of log2 and exp2 .
Figure 1.19:
Graphs of log2 and exp2
S OLUTION :
47
Theorem 1.13 (Properties of loga )

1. loga (1) = 0
2.
loga (x1 x2 )= loga (x1 ) + loga (x2 )
x1
loga
= loga (x1 ) loga (x2 )
x2

3. hloga xr = r log
i a (x)

r
loga a = r
4. loga (x1 ) = loga (x2 ) x1 = x2

i.e. loga is injective (one-to-one) and therefore invertible. Its inverse
is the exponential function expa . In particular, we have the cancellation equations:

expa loga (x) = x x (0, )

loga expa (x) = x x R
or in simplified notation:
aloga x = x x (0, )
loga ax = x x R
5. loga has domain (0, )

6. loga has range R
7. Base Change Formula: Suppose a, b R, a, b > 0, a, b 6= 1. then
loga (x) =
logb (x)
logb (a)
for all x (0, ).
Example 1.38
Evaluate log6 5 correctly to nine decimal places.
S OLUTION :
Using the base change formula, we obtain

log6 5 =
ln 5
0.898 244 401 7
ln 6
48
1.1.10 Polynomials
Definition 1.35 (Polynomial)

An expression of the form
p(x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + + an xn
n
X
ak xk ,
=
k=0
is called a polynomial. The numbers ak are called the coefficients of p, a0

the absolute term, an the leading coefficient and n the degree of p, denoted
by deg(p), provided an 6= 0. p is called a monic polynomial if the leading
coefficient an = 1. The symbol x is called an indeterminant. Polynomials of
degree 0, 1, 2, 3 are called constant, linear, quadratic and cubic polynomials,
respectively.
Let p be a polynomial. To emphasize that all the coefficents of p are integers, rational numbers, real numbers or complex numbers, we say that p is a
polynomial over Z, Q, R or C, respectively.
Example 1.39
Classify the following polynomials and sketch their graph:
p1 (x) = x 3
p2 (x) = x2 + 3

2 x3 2
p3 (x) = 12 x5 21 x4 + 21 x3 + 6x2
Figure 1.20:
171
20 x
27
2
S OLUTION : p1 is a monic linear polynomial (also called a linear function),

p2 is a quadratic polynomial, and p3 (x) is a polynomial of degree 5. p1 is a
polynomial over Z, p2 is a monic polynomial over R, p3 is a polynomial over
the field of rational numbers Q.
49
Linear Functions
Theorem 1.14 (Line Equations)
1. Slope of a line: If (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) are two points of a line and
if x1 6= x2 , then the slope m = m() of is defined by
m = m() =
y2 y1
y
=
x
x2 x1
2. Slope-Intercept Form: If the line has slope m and y -intercept b,

then
y = mx + b
3. Point-Intercept Form: If the line has slope m and passes through
the point (x1 , y1 ) then
y y1 = m(x x1 )
If is a vertical line, then y = x1 .

4. Intercept Form: If the line has x-intercept a and y -intercept b then
x y
+ =1
a
b
5. Parallel Lines: If 1 and 2 are two lines then

1 k 2 m(1 ) = m(2 )
6. Perpendicular Lines: If 1 and 2 are two lines then

1 2 m(1 ) m(2 ) = 1
Quadratic Functions
Definition 1.36 (Standard Form of the Quadratic Function)
The quadratic function
p(x) = a(x x1 )2 + y1
is said to be in standard form, a 6= 0. Its line of symmetry is the vertical line
y = x1 , its vertex is the point (x1 , y1 ).
Example 1.40 (Rewriting in Standard Form)
Transform the quadratic function p(x) = ax2 + bx + c, a 6= 0, into standard
form.
50
S OLUTION :
Using completing the square we obtain:

p(x) = ax2 + bx + c

= a x2 + ab x + c
h
i

b 2
b2
= a x + 2a
4a
+c
2

b2
b 2
+ c 4a
= a x + 2a

2 4acb2
b
= a x 2a
+ 4a
| {z }
| {z }
x1
y1
Example 1.41
Solve the quadratic equation x2 + 4x 7 = 0.
S OLUTION :
We first transform the quadratic function into standard form
using completing the square:
0 = x2 + 4x 7 = [x2 + 4x] 7 = [(x + 2)2 22 ] 7 = (x + 2)2 11
2
which is equivalent
the square root on both
sides, we
to (x + 2) = 11. Taking
obtain |x + 2| = 11 and thus x + 2 = 11. Hence, x = 2 11.

Theorem 1.15 (Quadratic Formula)
Suppose that p(x) = ax2 + bx + c is a quadratic polynomial. Then its zeroes
are
b b2 4ac
.
x=
2a
Example 1.42
Rewrite the quadratic function p(x) = x2 6x + 7 in standard form, find its
line of symmetry, vertex and zeroes.
S OLUTION :
Completing the square, we have

p(x) = x2 6x + 7
= (x 3)2 (3)2 + 7
= (x 3)2 2
Hence, x = 3 is the line of symmetry of p and (3, 2) its vertex. To find its
zeroes (x-intercepts), we solve
0 = p(x) = (x 3)2 2
Figure 1.21:
which is equivalent to
(x 3)2 = 2
51
and from which by taking the square root follows
x=3
Factoring Polynomials, Zeros

Lemma 1.9 (Factoring Quadratic Polynomials)
1. x2 + 2ax + a2 = (x + a)2
2. x2 + (a + b)x + ab = (x + a)(x + b)
3. a1 a2 x2 + (a1 b2 + a2 b1 ) x + b1 b2 = (a1 x + b1 )(a2 x + b2 )
Lemma 1.10 (Differences of Powers)
For all x, a R and n N, we have
n
x a = (x a)
n1
X
xn1k ak
k=0
in particular
x2 a2 = (x a)(x + a)
x3 a3 = (x a)(x2 + xa + a2 )
x4 a4 = (x a)(x3 + x2 a + xa2 + a3 )
Lemma 1.11 (Sums of Powers)
For all x, a R and n N, we have
x2n+1 + a2n+1 = (x + a)
2n
X
(1)k x2nk ak
k=0
in particular
x3 + a3 = (x + a)(x2 xa + a2 )
x5 + a5 = (x + a)(x4 x3 a + x2 a2 xa3 + a4 )
x7 + a7 = (x + a)(x6 x5 a + x4 a2 x3 a3 + x2 a4 xa5 + a6 )
52
Theorem 1.16 (Division Algorithm)

If p and d are polynomials with d 6= 0 then there exist unique polynomials q
and r such that
p = dq + r
where either r = 0 or deg(r) < deg(d).

The polynomial p is called dividend, d the divisor, q the quotient and r the
remainder.
If r = 0, we say that the polynomial d divides the polynomial p and we write
d | p.
Example 1.43 (Long Division)
Divide the polynomial p(x) = 2x4 + 4x3 5x2 + 3x 2 by the polynomial
d(x) = x2 + 2x 3 using long division.
S OLUTION :
2
x + 2x 3
2x2
+
2x + 4x 5x2 + 3x
2x4 + 4x3 6x2
x2 + 3x
x2 + 2x
x +
1
2
2
3
1
We obtain
p(x)
}|
{
z
2x4 + 4x3 5x2 + 3x 2 =
=
(x2 + 2x 3)(2x2 + 1) + x + 1
|
{z
}| {z } | {z }
d(x)
q(x)
r(x)
Example 1.44 (Long Division)

Divide the polynomial p(x) = 6x3 19x2 + 16x 7 by the polynomial
d(x) = x 2 using long division.
S OLUTION :
x2
6x2
6x 19x2
6x3 12x2
7x2
7x2
3
7x + 2
+ 16x 7
+ 16x
+ 14x
2x 7
2x 4
3
53
Thus
p(x)
z
}|
{
6x3 19x2 + 16x 7 =
= (x 2)(6x2 7x + 2) + (3)
| {z }|
{z
} | {z }
d(x)
q(x)
r(x)
Since deg(x 2) = 1 and deg r < 1, the remainder has to be a constant

polynomial. Moreover, since d(2) = 0, the value of p at 2 is p(2) = 3.
Definition 1.37 (Zeros or Roots of a Polynomial)

If p is a polynomial over C, then C is called a zero or root of p if
p() = 0.
Corollary 1.4 (The Remainder Theorem)
If p is a polynomial over C and a C then p(a) is the remainder in the
division by x a.
P ROOF : By the Division Algorithm (Theorem 1.16), there exist unique polynomial p and r with r = 0 or deg(r) < deg(d) = 1 such that
p(x) = (x a)q(x) + r
Note that a polynomial of degree less than 1 is a constant! Hence
p(a) = (a a)q(a) + r = 0 + r = r
as claimed.
Corollary 1.5 (The Factor Theorem)
Let p be a polynomial over C and C. Then
p() = 0 (x ) | p,
i.e. is a zero of p if and only if x is a factor of p.

Example 1.45 (Synthetic Division)
If the divisor is a linear factor of the form x x0 , then long division can
be shortened to a procedure called synthetic division illustrated below: Let
p(x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + + an xn and d(x) = x x0 ,
54
x0

an
an1
an2
...

x0 an

?
?
?

an

a1
a0

?
?

r

The vertical arrow represent addition of the column elements above the horizontal line, the diagonal arrows multiplication by x0 . After completion of the
algorithm, the entries in the bottom row of the diagram starting with an are the
coefficients of the quotient polynomial, the right most entry is the remainder r
which coincides with the function value of p at x0 : p(x0 ) = r.
Example 1.46 (Synthetic Division)
Divide the polynomial p(x) = 6x3 19x2 + 16x 7 by the polynomial
d(x) = x 2 using synthetic division.
S OLUTION :
2

6
19
16
12
14

?
?
?
?

6

Again, we obtain
p(x)
}|
{
z
6x3 19x2 + 16x 7 =
= (x 2)(6x2 7x + 2) + (3)
| {z }|
{z
} | {z }
d(x)
q(x)
r(x)
Note that the numbers in the bottom row of the synthetic division diagram
are the coefficients of the quotient polynomial in descending order, the right
most coefficient is the remainder which equals the value of the poylnomial p at
x0 = 3.
55
Corollary 1.6 (Polynomials: Zeros, Factorization)

Suppose p is a polynomial over C and C. Then the following three
statements are equivalent:
1. p() = 0, i.e. is a zero of p;

2. (x ) | p, i.e. (x ) divides p;
3. p(x) = (x ) q(x) where q is the quotient by division of p by x .
Example 1.47 (Factoring)
Write the polynomial
p(x) = x4 2x3 + 2x2 2x + 1.
as a product of linear factors!
S OLUTION : Since p(1) = 0, as can be easily verified by inspection, 1 = 1
is a zero of p. We divide p by the linear polynomial x 1 = x 1 using
synthetic division:

1

?
?
?
?
?

1

Let q0 (x) := x3 x2 + x 1 denote the quotient polynomial. Note that its
coefficients are given by the entries of the last row in the table above. Then
p(x) = (x 1)q0 (x).
Clearly, q0 (1) = 0. We devide q0 by (x 1) using synthetic division:
1

1

?
?
?
?

1

56
Let q1 (x) := x2 + 1 denote the quotient ploynomial. Again its coefficients can
be read of the last row of the synthetic division table. Hence
q0 (x) = (x 1)q1 (x)
and thus
p(x) = (x 1)q0 (x) = (x 1)(x 1)q1 (x)
= (x 1)2 (x2 + 1)
= (x 1)2 (x i)(x + i).
Definition 1.38 (Multiplicity of a Zero/Root)

If the polynomial p is divisible by (x )k but not by (x )k+1 , where
k N, then is called a zero or root of multiplicity k of p.
Example 1.48
Find the zeroes and their multiplicities of the polynomial p(x) = x4 2x3 +
2x2 2x + 1.
S OLUTION :
We have already shown in Example 1.47 that

p(x) = (x 1)2 (x i)(x + i)
Hence, 1 is a zero of multiplicity 2, while i and i are zeros of multiplicity 1

of the polynomial p.
Theorem 1.17 (The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra)

Every non-constant polynomial has at least one zero in C.
Corollary 1.7 (Linear Factorization Theorem)
Every polynomial p of degree n > 0 has precisely n zeroes. I.e. there exist
numbers 1 , 1 , . . . , n C such that
p(x) = an (x 1 )(x 2 ) (x n ),
where an C is the leading coefficient of p.

Figure 1.22:
Carl Friedrich Gau
(17771855)
The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra was
first proved by Gau.
Corollary 1.8 (Factorization over R)

Every real polynomial has a unique decomposition into a product of real
linear factors and real quadratic polynomials that are irreducible over R
(i.e. that cannot be written as a product of real linear factors).
57
Theorem 1.18 (Rational Zero Test)

Suppose p(x) = an xn + an1 xn1 + + a0 is a polynomial over Z, i.e. all
coefficients ak Z are integers, and suppose that = r/s Q is a rational
zero of p. Then
r | a0 and s | an ,
i.e the numerator divides the constant term and the denominator divides the
leading coefficient of p.
Example 1.49
Given the polynomial
p(x) = 6x3 4x2 + 3x 2
Determine all rational numbers that by Theorem 1.18 could be rational zeros
of p!
S OLUTION : The positive divisors of the constant term 2 are: 1, 2; the positive divisors of the leading coefficient 6 are: 1, 2, 3, 6. Hence the rational zeros
of p are a subset of

1 1 1 2
1, , , , , 2
2 3 6 3
and can be checked by inspection using synthetic division.
Definition 1.39 (Variation in Sign)

Suppose p(x) = an xn an1 xn1 + + a0 is a polynomial over R, i.e.
ak R. We say that p has a variation in sign if there exists an index k
{0, 1, . . . , n 1} such that ak ak+1 < 0.
Example 1.50
Determine the variations in sign of the polynomial p(x) = 3x3 5x2 + 6x 4.
S OLUTION :
p has 3 variations in sign, namely:

3 (5) < 0, (5) 6 < 0, 6 (4) < 0.
Theorem 1.19 (Descartes Rule of Signs)

Suppose p(x) = an xn + an1 xn1 + + a0 is a real polynomial, i.e.
ak R with a0 6= 0. Then the number of positive zeroes of p equals the
number of variations in sign of p(x) possible reduced by an even number.
Moreover, the number of negative zeroes of p coincides with the number of
variations in sign of p(x) possible reduced by an even number.
Figure 1.23:
1650).
Rene Descartes (1596
58
Example 1.51
Determine the number of positive/negative zeros of the polynomial p(x) =
3x3 5x2 + 6x 4.
S OLUTION : We have seen in Example 1.50 that p(x) has 3 variations in sign.
Hence p has either 3 positive zeros or 1 positive zero and a pair of complex
conjugate zeros. As also seen by counting the variations in sign of p(x) =
6x3 4x2 3x 2, p does not have any negative zeros.
Theorem 1.20 (Upper and Lower Bound Rule)

Suppose p(x) = an xn + an1 xn1 + + a0 is a real polynomial, i.e. ak
R and suppose the leading coefficient an is positive. Moreover, suppose
that p is divided by (x c) using synthetic division. with last row cn =
an , cn1 , . . . , c0 = r. If c > 0 and ck 0 for k = 0, . . . , n, then c is an
upper bound for the real zeroes of p. If c < 0 and the ck have alternating
signs (zero entries count as positive or negative!), then c is a lower bound for
the real zeroes of p.
Example 1.52
Find the real zeroes of the polynomial
p(x) = 6x3 4x2 + 3x 2.
S OLUTION :
By the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra, p has precisely 3
zeroes. We first consider the rational zeroes of p if it has any. By the Rational
Zero Test, the set Z of rational zeroes of p is contained in the set
o
ns

Z
s | (2) and t | 6
t
o
n
1 1 1 2
= 1, , , , , 2 .
2 3 6 3
Because p has three variations in sign and p(x) = 6x3 4x2 3x 2 has
none, we can conclude with Descartes Rule of Signs that p has no negative
zeroes and either 3 positive zeroes, or 1 positiv zero (and a pair of conjugate
complex zeroes). Hence
n 1 1 1 2 o
Z 1, , , , , 2 .
2 3 6 3
Trying x = 1 yields emplyoing synthetic division

6

?
?
?
?

6

59
Since the remainder r = 3 in the last row of the table, we see that x = 1
is not a zero of p. However, since the last row consists only of non-negative
entries, we know from the Upper and Lower Bound Rule that 1 is an upper
bound for the zeroes of p. Hence
n1 1 1 2o
.
, , ,
Z
2 3 6 3
By inspection, we find that x =
2
3
2
3
is a zero of p:

6

Figure 1.24:

?
?
?
?

6

Hence p(x) = (x 32 )(6x2 + 3). Since 6x2 + 3 has no real zeroes, x =
the only real zero of the polynomial p.
2
3
is
Theorem 1.21 (Complex Zeros Occur in Conjugate Pairs)

Suppose p is a real polynomial (all coefficients are real numbers!), and suppose that z = a + bi C is a zero of p. Then the conjugate z = a bi is
also a zero of p.
Example 1.53
Find the zeroes of the polynomial p(x) = x2 + 1.
S OLUTION : By inspection, we find that i is a zero of p. Since p is a real
polynomial, also i = i is a zero of p. Hence p(x) = (x i)(x + i).

Lemma 1.12
The Product of conjugated linear factors is a real polynomial.
P ROOF :
Let a + bi C. Then

p(x) = x (a + bi) x (a bi)

= (x a) bi (x a) + bi
= (x a)2 (bi)2
= x2 2ax + a2 + b2
is clearly a real quadratic polynomial.
60
1.1.11 Solving Inequalities

Theorem 1.22 (The Intermediate-value Theorem)
If the function f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b] and d is any value
between the minimum and maximum value of f then there exists at least one
number c [a, b] such that f (c) = d.
Corollary 1.9 (Existence Test for Zeros)
If f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b] and if f (a) f (b) < 0 (i.e. they
have different sign!) then there exists at least one number c [a, b] such that
f (c) = 0.
Figure 1.25:
Example 1.54
Solve the inequality
x(6x + 9)(x 3) > 0
S OLUTION :
The term on the left-hand side of the inequality is a continuous function f whose (only) zeroes are 3/2, 0 and 3. By the corollary to
the Intermediate-value Theorem, f cannot change its sign on the subintervals
(, 3/2), (3/2, 0), (0, 3) and (3, ), otherwise it would create further
zeroes! By inspection, we find that f is positive on the intervals (3/2, 0),
(3, ) and negative on the two other intervals. Hence, the solution set of the
inequality above is S := (3/2, 0) (3, ).
Figure 1.26:
1.2. EXERCISES
61
1.2 Exercises
1.2.1 Fractions
Simplify the following arithmetic expressions:
5
2
1.
2.
3
4
5
4
1
2
3
8
2
7
has
1
8
3. 12
4.
10
11
1
4
has
6
33
13
66
1.2.2 Powers, Radicals
3
22
Simplify and rationalize expressions involving exponents and radicals:

1
1. 5 5
2.
2
2
4
25
3. 25
3/4

3/4 2
1/3
4. 125
27
96a5 b3
5.
3a5 b
x4/3 y 2/3
(xy)1/3
p
3
7.
10a7 b
6.
16 + 3 3 54
8.
5
9.
10
has
5
10.
3
10
has
a
has
11.
5+ 6
3 6+5 7
12.
2 63 7
13.
3
5 36
has

Simplify the expressions involving absolute value:

1. 51 15 | 5|
2. | 1| | 2|
3.
|x + 2|
for x < 2
x+2
1.2.4 Factorials
Simplify the expressions involving factorials:
has
a
62
1. 5!
2.
8!4!
3!5!
3.
4!
3!3!
1.2.5 Domain and Range

Find the domain and range of the following functions:
1. f (x) = |x 5|
2. f (x) =
x31
3. f (x) =
4 x2
x
5x 3
9 x2
5. f (x) = 2
x 3x + 2
4. f (x) =
1
6. f (x) =
1 4x2
has
1.2.6 Composition of Functions

Find g f , f g and their domains, simplify:
1. f (x) = 2/x, g(x) = 2x3 + 2x2 + 1
2. f (x) =
3
x 1, g(x) = x3 + 1
1.2.7 Inverse Functions

Find the inverse of the given functions if it exists. Determine domain and range:
1. Let f (x) =
2x + 3
for x R \ {1}
3(x + 1)
2. Let f (x) =
3. Let f (x) =
x+1
for x R \ {2}
x2
4 x2
4. Let f (x) = x2 + 9x + 5
5. Let f (x) = (4x 1)3
has
1.2. EXERCISES
63
1.2.8 Even, odd functions

Determine whether the function is even, odd or neither:
1. f (x) = x6 2x2 + 3
2. f (x) = x 1 x2
has
3. f (x) = 4x2/3
ha
4. f (x) = tan x
ha
5. f (x) =
3x3 7x
x4 2x2 7
has
6. f (x) = x3 5x
ha
7. f (x) = x3 5
has
8. f (x) = 1 + x2 cos 2x + x
has

Find the domain and graph the following exponential/logarithmic functions:
1. f (x) = ln(x + 5)
2. f (x) = 5x2 + 4
3. f (x) = 1 ln(x 5)
1.2.10 Logarithms
Manipulate logarithmic expressions:
1. Evaluate log2 64
2. Evaluate log32 8
3. Evaluate log2 43
has
4. Evaluate log4 2 + log4 32
5. Evaluate log10 0.01
6. Write as one logarithm:

1
3 log8 y + 2 log8 (y + 4) log8 (y 1)
has
64
7. Simplify 4 ln 6 3 ln 2 + 2 ln 3 ln 8
has
8. Simplify 5 ln 6 ln 30 + ln 15
has
1.2.11 Complex Numbers

Transform the complex numbers into standard form x + iy:
1. (6 2i)(2 3i)
2. (2 + 3i)2 + (2 3i)2
3.
4.
5.
6 7i
1 2i
3 i
1 2i
i
2i
+
3 2i 3 + 8i
has
has
has
1.2.12 Complete the Square

Complete the square and find the vertex of the given parabola:
1. y = x2 4x + 1
2. y = 3x2 6x + 12
has
3. y = 2x2 + 20x + 3
has
1.2.13 Factoring Polynomials

Solve the polynomial equations using factorization:
1. 9x2 4 = 0
has
2. x2 10x + 25 = 0
3. x2 + 5x + 6 = 0
4. 2x2 + 5x + 3 = 0
5. 25t2 + 5t 2 = 0
6. 12x3 11x2 15x = 0
ha
1.2. EXERCISES
65
7. 4p4 4p3 8p2 = 0
ha
8. 4x4 + 4x2 + 1 = 0
has
9. 4x2 + 12x + 9 = 0
10. x4 6x2 + 8 = 0
1.2.14 Quadratic Equations

Solve the following quadratic equations. First try factorization techniques:
1. x2 x 2 = 0
has
2. x2 x 42 = 0
3. x2 9 = 0
4. x2 6x + 9 = 0
5. 4m2 8m + 1 = 0
6. 2x2 5x 3 = 0
+ 29 x 1 = 0
7.
1 2
3x
8.
x2
=x3
x+2
9. x2 2x + 2 = 0
10. x2 2x + 5 = 0
11. 2x + 5 x = 3
12.
1
x+2
2
4
=5
x+2
13. w4 5w2 36 = 0
has
has
ha
has
ha
ha
66
1.2.15 Inequalities
Solve the following inequalities using the Intermediate-value Theorem:
1. 3x + 5 > 14 (x 2)
2. 2x2 + 9x + 6 x + 2
3. x(6x + 9)(x 3) > 0
4.
x2 9
>0
x+1
5.
1
4
+
>0
x1 x6
has
6.
x2 4x + 3
>0
x2
has
1.2.16 Equations with Absolute Values

Solve the following equations containing absolute value terms by partitioning
the domain of the equations:
1. |y 3| = 4

3x 1

=2
2.
4
3. |5y 2| = |4y + 7|
1.2.17 Inequalities with Absolute Values

Solve the following inequalities containing absolute value terms by partitioning
the domain of the equation:
1. |x 2| < 1
3
2
2. |x 32 |
3. 7 < |8x 72|
has
4. |x 3| |x + 1| x
has
1.2. EXERCISES
67
1.2.18 Equations with Radicals

Solve the following equations containing radical expressions:
1.
17 2x + 1 = x
2.
z2 z 7 + 3 = z + 2
3.
3w + 4 = 2 + w
4.
2x + 5 x 1 = 2
5.
5
x + 23 = 2
6. (5x 2)1/3 + 3 = 0

Solve the following exponential/logarithmic equations:
1. 2x
+3x
= 1024
has
2. 6(23x1 ) 7 = 9
has
3. e2x 4ex 5 = 0
has
400
= 350
1 + ex
4.
5. ln x + 2 = 1
6. ln x + ln(x 2) = 1

7. ln (2x + 1)(x + 2) = 2 ln(x + 2)
8. 2 ln(x + 2)
1
2
ln x4 = 1
9. log4 x log4 (x 1) =
10. log10 4x log10 12 +
1
2

x =2
has
68
1.2.20 Line Equations

Find the equation of the line:
1. through (1, 1), (9, 7)
2. through (4, 10), (4, 5)
3. through ( 21 , 1), ( 52 , 43 )
4. through (1, 1) perpendicular to

2x + 8y = 2
5. through (2, 6) perpendicular to

x + 2y = 1
1.2.21 Distance and Midpoint

Find the distance and midpoint:
1. (1, 1), (9, 7)
2. (4, 10), (4, 5)
3. ( 12 , 1), ( 52 , 43 )
1.2.22 Conics
Graph the following quadratic equations:
1. x2 6x + 2y + 9 = 0
as
2. 16x2 + 16y 2 16x + 24y 3 = 0
has
3. x2 + y 2 2x 31 = 0
has
4. 9x2 24x + 4y 2 8y + 16 = 0
has

1. Cube 1 +
2. Cube 1
3i
3i
has
3. Simplify i39
has
1.2. EXERCISES
69
4. Find the square roots of 16 + 12i
has
5. Find all 6th roots of 64.
has
70
1.3 Hints to the Exercises

1.3.1 Fractions
1. Apply the rules for adding, subtracting, multiplying and dividing fractions!
3. Note that the integer n is identified with the fraction n1 .

4. Apply the laws of exponent systemically!
9. Expand the fraction by 10.

10. Expand the fraction by 102/3 .
11. Exand the fraction by 5 6 and use the identity (a + b)(a b) =

a2 b 2 .


1. First determine the sign of 15 15 .
1.3.4 Factorials

5. In order to determine the domain of f , eliminate those x R for which
f (x) is not defined (or not real). To determine the range of f , investigate the behavior of f at its poles and find its global extrema (on each
subinterval of its domain) and use the continuity of f .

1.3. HINTS TO THE EXERCISES
71

4. First check whether f is injective (one-to-one). Can f be made injective
by restricting it to a subset of its domain?

2. Compute f (x) for an arbitrary x R and compare it with f (x).

1.3.10 Logarithms
3. Consider the corresponding exponential equation and write 4 as power
of 2.
6. Use the logarithmic rules to write the term as the logarithm of one term.
7. Use the logarithmic rules to express the logarithms in terms of ln 2 and
ln 3.
8. Use the logarithmic rules to express the logarithms in terms of ln 5 and
ln 6.

3. Expand the fraction by 1 + 2i.
4. Simplify and expand with the conjugate of the denominator.
5. Choose a common denominator and add the two fractions, then transform the sum into standard form by expanding the fraction by the conjugate of its denominator.
72

2. First factor out the 3
y = 3x2 6x + 12 = 3(x2 2x) + 12,
then use completing the square!
3. First factor out the 2 to obtain
y = 2x2 + 20x + 3 = 2(x2 + 10x) + 3,
then complete the square!

1. Use the formula a2 b2 = (a b)(a + b) to factor the polynomial!
6. First factor out x!
7. First factor out p2
8. Use the formulae a2 + 2ab + b2 = (a + b)2 and a2 b2 = (a b)(a + b)
to factor the polynomial!

1. Use the formula x2 + (a + b)x + ab = (x + a)(x + b) to factor the
polynomial!
4. Use the Binomial formula.
6. Use the formula 1 2 x2 +(1 2 +2 1 )x+1 2 = (1 x+1 )(2 x+
2 ) to factor the polynomial!
8. First determine the domain of the equation. Then multiply by the denominator x + 2
9. Use the quadratic formula to solve the quadratic equations, since it
does not have a rational zero!
11. Substitute y = x. What is the domain of the equation?

12. First determine the domain of the equation. Then substitute y = 1/(x +
2).
73
1.3.15 Inequalities
5. Consider the left side of the inequality as a rational function. Consider
where this rational functions can change sign using the Intermediatevalue Theorem.
6. Consider the left side of the inequality as a rational function and study
where this function can change its sign using the Intermediate-value Theorem


3. Eliminate | | by restricting the domain to the subintervals where 8x
72 0 and where 8x 72 < 0.
4. Decompose the domain D = R of this inequality into subdomains D1 ,
D2 , D3 , definded by x 3 3 and x + 1 0, x 3 < 0 and x + 1
0, x 3 < 0 and x + 1 < 0 and solve the inequality first on those
subdomains. Then combine the solutions.


1. Write 1024 as power of 2.
2. Simplify the equation and apply the respective logarithmic function to
the equation.
3. First reduce the exponential equation to a quadratic equation by a suitable substitution.
8. First determine the domain of the logarithmic equation, then combine the
logarithmic expressions and apply the corresponding exponential function to the compactified equation.
74


1.3.22 Conics
2. First transform the equation into normal form by completing the square.
Then interpret the resulting equation.

2. First transform 1
rem.
3 i into polar form, then apply dMoivres Theo-
3. Reduce the power by using the fact that in = im if and only if 4 divides
m n, i.e. 4 | (m n).
4. Transform 16 + 12i into polar form and then apply dMoivres Theorem.
5. What is the polar representation of 64?
1.4. ANSWERS TO THE EXERCISES
75
1.4 Answers to the Exercises

1.4.1 Fractions
3. 48
1. 7
2.
3
2
4.
59
484

1.
1
5
2. 5
3.
8. 2 3 2 + 9 3 2
9. 12 10
10. 21 3 100

11. 3 6 5
3
5
5
125
8
4. 3/5
4a5
2
b2
6. x 3 y
6
7. 10a7 b
5.
141 + 19 42
12.
39
13. 3 52/3 + 301/3 + 62/3

1.
1
5
5 5 51
2. 1
3. 1
1.4.4 Factorials
1. 120
2. 1344
3.
2
3

1. Df = R, Rf = [0, )
2. Df = [3, ), Rf = [1, )
3. Df = [2, 2], Rf = [0, 2]
4. Df = R \ { 35 }, Rf = R \ { 51 }
5. Df = [3, 3] \ {1,
2},

Rf = , 6 3 [0, )

6. Df = 21 , 12 , Rf = [1, )
76

1. (g f )(x) =
x3 + 8x + 16
1
, (f g)(x) = 3
3
x
x + x2 + 1/2
2. (g f )(x) = x, (f g)(x) = x

3x 3
2 3x
1
2. f (x) = 4 x2
1. f 1 (x) =
3. f 1 (x) =
2x 1
1x
4. f is not injective (one-to-one)

on R, since, for example,
f 21 = f 19
2 , as can be easily verified. Therefore, f is not
invertible on R. However, the

restriction of f to [ 92 , ) is
a bijection from [ 29 , ) onto
1
:
[ 61
4 , ) whose inverse f
61
9
[ 4 , ) [ 2 , ) is given
q
by f 1 (x) = 92 + x + 61
4
for all x [ 61
4 , ).
3
x+1
5. f 1 (x) =
4

1. even
4. odd
2. odd
5. odd
3. even
6. odd
7. neither
8. neither

1. D:(5, ), R:(, )
2. D:(, ), R:[4, )
1.4.10 Logarithms
3. D:(5, ), R:(, )

1. 6
2.
3
5
3. 6
77
7. 2 ln 2 + 6 ln 3
4. 3
5. 2
6. log8
y 1/3 (y+4)2/3
y1
8. 4 ln 6 2 ln 5

1. 6 22i
3. 4 + i
2. 10
4. 1 i
5.
62
949

1. (x 2)2 3, vertex V = (2, 3)
2. 3(x 1)2 + 9, vertex V = (1, 9)
3. 2(x + 5)2 47, vertex V = (5, 47)

1. x1 = 32 , x2 = 32
2. x1 = x2 = 5
3. x1 = 2, x2 = 3
4. x1 = 3/2, x2 = 1
5. t1 = 2/5, t2 = 1/5
6. x1 = 0, x2 = 5/3, x3 = 3/4
7. p1 = p2 = 0, p3 = 2, p4 = 1
8. x1 = x2 = 2i 2, x3 = x4 = 2i 2
9. x1 = x2 = 3/2
10. x = 2, 2
297
949
78

1. x1 = 1, x2 = 2
2. x1 = 6, x2 = 7
3. x1 = 3, x2 = 3
4. x1 = x2 = 3
5. x1 = 1 12 3, x2 = 1 + 12 3
6. x1 = 12 , x2 = 3
7. x1 = 13 32 7, x2 = 13 + 32 7
8. x1 = 1 5, x2 = 1 + 5
9. x1 = 1 + i, x2 = 1 i
10. x1 = 1 + 2i, x2 = 1 2i
11. x = 1/4
12. x1 = 11
5 , x2 = 1
13. w1 = 3, w2 = 2i, w3 = 2i, w4 = 3
1.4.15 Inequalities
1. x > 2
2. 2 2 x 2 + 2
5. S := (1, 2) (6, )
3. 23 < x < 0, and x > 3
6. S := (, 0) (0, 1) (3, )
4. 3 < x < 1, and x > 3

1. 1, 7
3. 5/9, 9
2. 7/3, 3

79
1. 1 < x < 3
79
3. (, 65
8 ) ( 8 , )
2. 0 x 3
4. [ 23 , )

1. 4
3. 0, 4
5. 9
2. 8
4. 2, 10
6. 5

1. x1 = 5, x2 = 2
2. x =
1
3
4 log2 3
6. x =
e+1+1
7. x = 1
2
e1
3. x1 = ln(5), x2 = i
8. x =
4. x = ln(7)
9. x = 2
5. x = e2 2
10. x =
2
25 5+ 73
4

3. y = 1/6x + 11/12
1. y = 3/4x + 1/4
4. y = 4x 3
2. y = 15/8x + 5/2
5. y = 2x + 10

1. d= 10, m= (5, 4)
1.4.22 Conics
289, m= (0, 5/2)

p
3. d= 37/9, m= (3, 7/6)
2. d=

1. y = 21 (x 3)2 ; parabola, opened downwardly with vertex at (3, 0)
2. x

1 2
2
+ y+

3 2
4
= 1; circle of radius r = 1 and center at
3
1
2, 4

.
80
3. (x 1)2 + y 2 = 32; circle of radius 4 2 and center at (1, 0).

4.
(x+ 43 )2
(y1)2
= 1; hyperbola with asymptotes y = 1 32 x
7

foci F1 = 34 31 91, 1 , F2 = 34 + 13 91, 1 , vertices

34 32 7, 1), V2 = 34 + 32 7, 1) and center 34 , 1 .
28
9

1. 8
5. The six roots of 64 are
2. -8
3. -i
4. Let = arg(16+12i), then the
two square roots of 16 + 12i are
given by

z0 = 2 5e 2 i

z1 = 2 5e 2 i+i
z0 = 2
z1 = 1 + i 3
z2 = 1 + i 3
z3 = 2
z4 = 1 i 3
z5 = 1 i 3.
+ 43 ),
V1 =
1.5. SOLUTIONS TO SELECTED EXERCISES
81
1.5 Solutions to Selected Exercises

1.5.1 Fractions
1. We apply the rules for adding, subtraction, multiplying and dividing fractions and obtain step by step that
2
1
51
2
4
2
5
2 2 7 = 2 7 = 2 7
=
2
2
2
1 7 = 1
14
2 = 7
7
2
27
12
3. Here, we observe that the integers n is identified with the fraction n1 .

Therefore, multiplying or dividing mixed terms can be easily reduced to
working with fractions:
12
1
4
= 12
= 48
4
1
12
1
4
1
124
11
48
1

4. Here, we apply the laws of exponent and obtain step by step
125
27
1
9. We expand the fraction by
=
=
10:
1
125 3
27
1
27 3
=
125
27 3
125 3
= 53
5
5
5 10
5
10
= 1 = =
10
10
10
10
10
5 10
=
= 12 10
10
10. We expand the fraction by 102/3 :
5
5
102/3
5 102/3
= 1/3 2/3 = 1/3

3
10
10
10 102/3
10
2/3
5 10
5 102/3
3
= 21 100.
= 1/3+2/3 =
10
10
82
11. We expand the fraction by

a2 b 2 :

5 6 and use the identity (a+ b)(a b) =

3 5 6
3

=
5+ 6
5+ 6
5 6

3 5 6
= 2
2
5
6

3 5 6
=
56

3 5 6
=
1

=3 6 5

1. Since 5 < 0, we have | 5| = (5) = 5. Moreover, since 5 > 5,

it follows that 51 < 15 , since the function x 7 x1 is order-reversing.

Hence 51 15 < 0 and thus 15 15 = 15 15 = 51 + 15 .
Therefore,

1

1 = 1 + 1 5
5
5
5
5
1
= 5 51 = 51 5 5 15 .
5
1.5.4 Factorials

5. (i) Domain of f : The domain of f is the largest subset of R for which
9 x2
9 x2
=
f (x) = 2
x 3x + 2
(x 2)(x 1)
2
9x
=
2
x 32 41
83
is well-defined. Therefore, we have to eliminate those x R for which

0 = x2 3x + 2 = (x 1)(x 2), i.e. x = 1 and x = 2, and confine
ourselves to those x R for which 0 9 x2 = (3 x)(3 + x), i.e.
x [3, 3]. Thus
Df = [3, 3] \ {1, 2}.
(ii) Range of f : To determine the range of f , we will first compute the
range of its restrictions to each of the subdomains given by the intervals
[3, 1), (1, 2) and (2, 3]. Note that the only zeroes of f are the boundary points 3, and 3 and also note that f is continuous on its domain.
We can therefore apply the Intermediate-value Theorem to each closed
subinterval of its domain:
We begin with the subinterval [3, 1). Since f (3) = 0, f (x) 0
for all x [3, 1) and limx1 f (x) = , as can be easily verified,
we conclude using the Intermediate-value Theorem that the range of the
restriction of f to the interval [3, 1) is [0, ).
We will now consider the behavior of f on the subinterval (1, 2). Clearly,
limx1+ = limx2 = and f (x) < 0 for all x (1, 2). It can be
easily verified that f attains its global maximum on the subinterval (1, 2)
2
where the denominator of f which is given by the parabola x 23 14
has its smallest value which is precisely at 32 where the parabola has its
vertex. The corresponding function value of f is

3
q
9
41

3 2
2
= 6 3.
Hence, again by the Intermediate-value Theorem, the range

of the restriction of f to the interval (1, 2) is given by the interval [6 3, ).
Finally, consider the interval (2, 3]. Clearly, f (x) 0 for all x (2, 3],
f (3) = 0 and limx2+ = , as can be easily verified. Hence, again by
the Intermediate-value Theorem, the range of the restriction of f to the
interval (2, 3] is [0, ).
The range of f on its total domain Df = [3, 1) (1, 2) (2, 3] is

therefore the union of the ranges of the restrictions of f . Hence
range(f ) = [0, ) [6 3, ) [0, )
= [6 3, ) [0, ).

84

4. Clearly, the function f : R R defined by
f (x) = x2 + 9x + 5 = x +

9 2
2
61
4
(note that its graph is a parabola!) is not injective (one-to-one), since, for
example,
f
1
2
=
=
=

9 2
61
2
4
61
5 4 = (5)2 61
4

19
9 2
61
2 +2 4 =f
1
2
2

19
2 .
Therefore, f is not invertible on R. However, we can, for example, restrict it to the subinterval [ 92 , ). This restriction, which we will also
denote by f , constitutes a bijection f : [ 29 , ) [ 61
4 , ) as can
be easily verified. We will determine its inverse: To this end, first set
2
y = x + 92 61
4 . Next interchange x and y, which leads to the
9 2
equation x = y + 2 61
4 . Then solve for y: Taking the square root
of
2
y + 92 = x + 61
4
yields
and
q

y + 9 = x +
2
y+
9
2
q
x+
61
4
61
4

since y [ 29 , ), implies y + 29 = y + 92 . Thus
y = 92 +
Hence, the inverse function
q
x+
61
4 .
9
f 1 : [ 61
4 , ) [ 2 , )
is given by
f 1 (x) = 29 +
for x [ 61
4 , ).
q
x+
61
4
85
We conclude by showing that f 1 is indeed inverse to f on [ 29 , ):

Let x [ 29 , ) then

2

f 1 f (x) = f 1 x + 92 61
4
q

2
61
= 29 +
x + 92 61
4 + 4

= 9 + x + 9
2
= 29 + x +
= x.
2
9
2
Conversely, let x [ 61
4 , ) then
q

f f 1 (x) = f 29 + x + 61
4
q

2
9
= 29 + x + 61
4 + 2
=x+
= x.
61
4
61
4
61
4

2. We compute f (x) and check whether it equals f (x) or f (x) or neither:
p
f (x) = (x) 1 (x)2

p
= x 1 x2
= f (x)
Since, f (x) = f (x) for all x R, f is odd on R.

3(x)3 7(x)
(x)4 2(x)2 7
3x3 + 7
= 4
x 2x2 7
3x3 7
= 4
x 2x2 7
= f (x).
f (x) =
Since f (x) = f (x) for all x R, f is odd on R.
86

f (x) = (x)3 5 = x3 5
which is clearly not equal to either f (x) or f (x) for all x R: Choose
for example x = 1. Then, f (1) = 6 while f (1) = 4. Hence, f is
neither odd nor even on R.

f (x) = 1 + (x)2 cos 2(x) + (x)
= 1 + x2 cos(2x) x
Again, we see that f (x) is not equal to either f (x)

or f (x) for all
x R: Choose, for instance, x = 4 , then f 4 = 1 4 , while
f 4 = 1 + 4 . Hence f is neither odd nor even on R.

1.5.10 Logarithms
3. Recall that the base-2 exponential function exp2 is the inverse function of log2 . Applying exp2 on both sides of the equation, we see that
3
log2 43 = y 2y = 43 = 22 = 26 . Since exp2 is one-to-one, it
follows that y = 6.
6. Using the logarithmic rules, we obtain
1
3

log8 y + 2 log8 (y + 4) log8 (y 1)

= 13 log8 y + log8 (y + 4)2 log8 (y 1)

= 13 log8 y(y + 4)2 log8 (y 1)

1/3
= log8 y(y + 4)2
log8 (y 1)
1/3

2/3
y (y + 4)
= log8
.
y1
87
7. We apply the well-known logarithmic rules step by step and obtain

4 ln 6 3 ln 2 + 2 ln 3 ln 8 =
= 4 ln(2 3) 3 ln 2 + 2 ln 3 ln 23

= 4 ln 2 + ln 3 3 ln 2 + 2 ln 3 3 ln 2
= 4 ln 2 + 4 ln 3 3 ln 2 + 2 ln 3 3 ln 2
= (4 3 3) ln 2 + (4 + 2) ln 3
= 2 ln 2 + 6 ln 3.
8. We apply the logarithmic rules and obtain

5 ln 6 ln 30 + ln 15 =
= 5 ln 6 ln(5 6) ln 5

= 5 ln 6 ln 5 + ln 6 ln 5
= 5 ln 6 ln 5 ln 6 ln 5
= 4 ln 6 2 ln 5.

3. We expand the fraction by the conjugate of the doniminator 1 2i:
6 7i 1 + 2i
6 7i
=
1 2i
1 2i 1 + 2i
6 1 + (7i)(2i) + 6 2i + (7i)1
=
1 (2i)2
6 + 14 + i(12 7)
=
1+4
20 + 5i
= 4 + i.
=
5
4. We first simplify the fraction and then expand by the conjugate of the
denominator:
(3 + i)
3+i
3 i
=
=
1 2i
(1 + 2i)
1 + 2i
3 + i 1 2i
=
1 + 2i 1 2i
3 + 2 + i(6 + 1)
=
12 (2i)2
5 5i
=
= 1 i.
5
88
5. We first add the two fractions and then transform the sum into standard
form by expanding by the conjugate of its denominator:
i
2i
i(3 + 8i) + 2i(3 2i)
+
=
3 2i 3 + 8i
(3 2i)(3 + 8i)
3i 8 + 6i + 4
=
9 + 16 + i(24 6)
4 + 9i
=
25 + 18i
4 + 9i 25 18i
=
25 + 18i 25 18i
100 + 162 + i(72 + 225)
=
625 + 324
62 + 297i
=
949
297
62
+
i
=
949 949

2.
y = 3x2 6x + 12 = 3(x2 2x) + 12

= 3 (x 1)2 (1)2 + 12
= 3(x 1)2 3 + 12
= 3(x 1)2 + 9.
The vertex of a parabola is its local extremum, which is clearly attained

when the term (x 1)2 has its minimum, hence V = (1, 9).
3.
y = 2x2 + 20x + 3 = 2(x2 + 10x) + 3

= 2 (x + 5)2 25 + 3
= 2(x + 5)2 47,
hence the vertex is V = (5, 47).

1. We us the formula a2 b2 = (a b)(a + b) to factor the polynomial:
0 = 9x2 4 = (3x)2 22
= (3x 2)(3x + 2).

Hence, 3x 2 = 0 or 3x + 2 = 0 and thus x =
89
2
3
or x = 23 .
8. We use the formulae a2 +2ab+b2 = (a+b)2 and a2 b2 = (ab)(a+b)

to factor the polynomial:
0 = 4x4 + 4x2 + 1
2
= 2x2 + 2(2x2 ) 1 + 12
2
2
= 2x2 + 1 = 2(x2 + 21 )
= 4(x2 + 21 )2
2
2
= 4 x + 2i 2 x 2i 2 .
Hence, x = 2i 2 or x =
mial.
i
2
2 are double roots of the given polyno-

1. We use the formula x2 + (a + b)x + ab = (x + a)(x + b) to factor the
polynomial:
0 = x2 x 2 = (x 2)(x + 1),
hence, x = 2 or x = 1.
4. Using the Binomial formula, we can easily factor the given polynomial
0 = x2 6x + 9 = (x 3)2 ,
which implies that x1 = x2 = 3.
6. We use the formula 1 2 x2 + (1 2 + 2 1 )x + 1 2 = (1 x +
1 )(2 x + 2 ) to factor the polynomial:
0 = 2x2 5x 3 = (2x + 1)(x 3),
hence, 2x + 1 = 0 or x 3 = 0 and thus x = 21 or x = 3.
9. We use the quadratic formula to solve the quadratic equations, since it
does not have a rational zero:
p
(2) (2)2 4 1 2
x=
21
2 2i
2 4
=
= 1 i.
=
2
2
90
1.5.15 Inequalities
5. We consider the left side of the inequality as a rational function and set
1
4
5x 10
+
=
x1 x6
(x 1)(x 6)
5(x 2)
=
(x 1)(x 6)
r(x) =
Clearly, the domain of f is Dr := R \ {1, 6}. As a rational function r

is continuous on its domain Dr and by the Intermediate-value Theorem
of Calculus can only change its sign (change from positive values to
negative or vice versa) at its only zero x0 = 2 or at its singularities
x1 = 1 and x2 = 6.
In order to determine the set S of all such points x Dr for which
r(x) > 0, it suffices to determine the sign of r at one test point of each
of the subintervals (, 1), (1, 2), (2, 6) and (6, ) of Dr obtained by
removing the zeroes of the numberator and denominator of r from R.
We choose the points 0, 23 , 3, 7 as testpoints on those intervals and find
(please verify!) that r(0) < 0, r 32 > 0, r(3) < 0 and r(7) > 0.
Hence, we conclude that
< 0, x (, 1)
> 0, x (1, 2)
r(x)
< 0, x (2, 6)
> 0, x (6, ).
Thus, the solution set of the given inequality is S := (1, 2) (6, ).

6. The rational function
r(x) :=
(x 1)(x 3)
x2 4x + 3
=
x2
x2
is continuous on R \ {0}. Hence, considering that r(x) = 0 x =

1 or x = 3 and applying the Intermediate-value Theorem, we find that
r can only change sign at 0, 1, 3. In order to determine the sign of r
on the intervals (, 0), (0, 1), (1, 3) and (3, ), we pick test points
in each of these intervals, say, 1, 21 , 2 and 4 and check the sign of r at
those points. We find that r(1) > 0, r( 21 ) > 0, r(2) < 0 and r(4) > 0.
Hence, we conclude by the Intermediate-value Theorem that
> 0 x (, 0)
> 0 x (0, 1)
r(x)
< 0 x (1, 3)
> 0 x (3, )
91
Hence, the solution set of the given inequality is

S := (, 0) (0, 1) (3, ).


3. We are asked to find all x R that satisfy the inequality 7 < |8x 72|.
First note that
(
8x 72,
8x 72 0
|8x 72| =
(8x 72), 8x 72 < 0
(
8x 72,
x9
=
8x + 72, x < 9.
We will therefore solve the inequality on the subdomains D1 := [9, )
and D2 := (, 9), where |8x 72| can be expressed without | |,
separately:
(i) First, let x D1 = [9, ), then |8x 72| = 8x 72 and
7 < |8x 72|
is equivalent to the following inequalities
7 < 8x 72
79 < 8x
79
8
< x,
which implies that the solution set of the given inequality on D1 is S1 :=

( 79
8 , ).
(ii) Next, let x D2 = (, 9), then |8x 72| = 8x+ 72 and similar
as in the preceeding case
7 < |8x 72|
is equivalent to the inequalities
7 < 8x + 72
8x < 65
x<
65
8 ,
92
from which follows that the solution set of the given inequality on D2 is
S2 := (, 65
8 ).
The solution set of the inequality 7 < |8x 72| on R is therefore the
union of the solution sets on the subdomains, i.e.
65
S := S1 S2 = ( 79
8 , ) (, 8 ).
4. We are to determine all x R satisfying the inequality |x3||x+1|

x. To this end, we first observe that
(
x 3,
x30
|x 3| =
(x 3), x 3 < 0
(
x 3,
x3
=
x + 3, x < 3
and
|x + 1| =
x + 1,
x+10
(x + 1), x + 1 < 0
x + 1,
x 1
x 1, x < 1
Therefore, we will subdivide the domain R into the subregions D1 ; =

[3, ), D2 := [1, 3) and D3 := (, 1) on which the terms |x
3| and |x + 1| can be simultaneously replaced by absolute value free
expressions. On these subdomains, the given inequality can be rewritten
without absolute value expressions:
(i) Let x D1 = [3, ), then |x 3| = x 3 and |x + 1| = x + 1 and
|x 3| |x + 1| x
in turn is equivalent to
x 3 (x + 1) x
x3x1 x
and thus to
4 x,
which implies that the solution set of the given inequality on D1 is S1 :=
D1 = [3, ).
93
(ii) Next, let x D2 = [1, 3), then |x3| = x+3 and |x+1| = x+1
and
|x 3| |x + 1| x
is equivalent to the following inequalities
x + 3 (x + 1) x
2x + 2 x
x 3x
2
3
x,
S2 := [ 32 , 3).
(iii) Finally, let x D3 = (, 1), then |x 3| = x + 3 and
|x + 1| = x 1. Then
|x 3| |x + 1| x
is again equivalent to the following inequalities
x + 3 (x 1) x
x + 3 + x + 1 x
4 x,
empty, i.e. S3 := .
The solution set of |x 3| |x + 1| x on R is therefore, the union

S = S1 S2 S3
= [3, ) [ 32 , 3)
= [ 23 , )


1. Since the (base-2) exponential function is one-to-one, the identity 2x
1024 = 210 implies
10 = x2 + 3x
+3x
94
and therefore
0 = x2 + 3x 10 = (x + 5)(x 2),
hence x = 5 or x = 2.
2. Clearly, the exponential equation

6 23x1 7 = 9
is equivalent to
23x1 =
16
23
=
23
3
and thus to
1
.
3
Applying the logarithmic function log2 to this equations first yields
23x4 =
3x 4 = log2 3
and then
x=
3. The exponential equation
1
3

4 log2 3 .
0 = e2x 4ex 5
can be reduced to a quadratic equation by the substitution y := ex :
0 = y 2 4y 5 = (y 5)(y + 1).
The solutions of the quadratic equation are y = 5 and y = 1. We have
to resubstitute the permissible values of y back into the equation y = ex .
The first solution y = 5, produces the equation 5 = ex which implies
that x = ln 5, while the second solution y = 1 yields the equation
1 = ex which has the complex solution x = i.
8. First, we observe that the given equation has domain (0, ). Thus, if
x (0, ), we can conclude using the logarithmic rules that
1
ln x4
2
= 2 ln(x + 2) 2 ln x

= 2 ln(x + 2) ln x

x+2
.
= 2 ln
x
1 = 2 ln(x + 2)
95
Dividing the equation by 2, yields

1
= ln
2
x+2
x
Applying the natural exponential function exp (which is the inverse function of ln) on both sides of the equation yields

1
x+2
x+2
=
e 2 = exp ln
x
x
from which by multiplying the equation by x first follows that
x e=x+2
and then
x
hence,
e 1 = 2,
2
.
x=
e1


1.5.22 Conics
1. We transform the equation
x2 6x + 2y + 9 = 0
into normal form by completing the square
(x 3)2 9 + 2y + 9 = 0
(x 3)2 + 2y = 0,
hence, y = 12 (x 3)2 , which is the equation of a parabola opened

downwardly with vertex at (3, 0).
96

16x2 + 16y 2 16x + 24y 3 = 0
16(x2 x) + 16(y 2 + 32 y) = 3

9
16 (x 21 )2 14 + 16 (y + 43 )2 16
=3

1 2
3 2
16 x 2 + 16 y + 4 = 16.
Division by 16 yields

1 2
2
+ y+

3 2
4
= 1,
which is the equation of a circle of radius 1 and center
1
3
2, 4

.
x2 + y 2 2x 31 = 0
(x2 2x) + y 2 31 = 0
(x 1)2 1 + y 2 31 = 0
(x 1)2 + y 2 = 32,
which is the equation of a circle of radius 4 2 and center (1, 0).

4. We first transform the equation
9x2 24x + 4y 2 8y + 16 = 0
9(x2 + 38 x) + 4(y 2 2y) = 16

2
9 (x + 34 )2 16
9 + 4 (y 1) 1) = 16
2
9 x + 34 + 16 + 4(y 1)2 4 = 16
2
9 x + 43 + 4(y 1)2 = 28
2
x + 34
(y 1)2
= 1.
28
7
9
Clearly,
x+
28
9

4 2
3
(y 1)2
= 1.
7
(1.14)
97
is the equation of a hyperbola obtained from the hyperbola

x2
28
9
y2
= 1,
7
(1.15)

which is in standard position, by a shift by the vector 34 , 1 .
We will first determine the asymptotes, vertices, center and foci of the
hyperbola (1.15). Recall that the asymptotes of (1.15) can be easily determined from the modified equation
x2
28
9
y2
=0
7
9 2
2
by solving for y. Clearly, y 2 = 79
28 x = 4 x . Therefore, the asymptotes
of the hyperbola (1.15) are given by the equations
y = 23 x.
Moreover, the foci (c, 0) can be determinedqfrom the equation c2 =
28
1
2
a2 +b2 , where a2 = 28
9 and b = 7. Since c =
9 + 7 = 3 28 + 63 =
1
3 91, the foci of (1.15) are given by

F1 = 31 91, 0 ,
F2 =

V1 = 23 7, 0 ,
V2 =
The vertices (a, 0) are obtained from a =
1
3

91, 0 .
28
9
2
3
2
3
7 and are

7, 0 .
Clearly the center C of the hyperbola (1.15) is at (0, 0) and constitutes

the midpoint of the transverse axis determined by the foci F1 and F2 .
In order to find the asymptotes, foci, vertices and center of the hyperbola (1.14), we only have to shift the corresponding equations or points,
respectively.
Thus the asymptotes of (1.14) are
y1=
the foci
4
3
x+ ,
2
3

F1 = 13 91 34 , 0 + 1

= 43 31 91, 1

F2 = 13 91 43 , 0 + 1

= 43 + 31 91, 1
98
the vertices

V1 = 32 7 43 , 0 + 1

= 43 32 7, 1

V2 = 23 7 43 , 0 + 1

= 43 + 32 7, 1
and the center

C = 0 34 , 0 + 1 = 43 , 1 .
2. We will first transform 1 3 i intopolar form. Since the point represented by the complex number 1 3 i is located in the 4th quadrant,
we can compute its argument by
arg(1 3 i) = arctan
!
3
1
= arctan 3 =
3.
Its modulus or absolute value is

|1
Therefore, 1
3 i| =
q
2
(1)2 + 3 = 2.
3 i has the polar representation

1
3 i = 2e 3 i
and by dMoivres Theorem

1
3 i 3
3 i = 2e 3
= 23 e3 3 i
= 8ei = 8 cos + i sin

= 8 (1) + 0i = 8.
3. Recall that if n = 4k + r with 0 r < 4 then
k
in = i4k+r = i4k ir = i4 ir = 1k ir
= ir ,
99
and thus
i
in =
n0
n1
n2
n3
(mod
(mod
(mod
(mod
4)
4)
4)
4).
In particular, since 39 = 4 9 + 3, we have

i39 = i3 = i.
4. We first transform 16 + 12i into polar form. Since the point corresponding to the complex number 16 + 12i is located in the 1st quadrant, its
argument is given by
= arg(16 + 12i) = arctan

= arctan 34 .
12
16 )
Its modulus or absolute value is
|16 + 12i| = 4|4 + 3i| = 4
= 4 25 = 20.
p
42 + 32
Thus
16 + 12i = 20ei .
By dMoivres Theorem, the two square roots of 16 + 12i are given by

z0 = 20e 2 i = 2 5e 2 i
and
z0 =
20e 2 i+
2
2

= 2 5e 2 i+ .
5. Since 64 = 26 is a real number, its argument arg(64) = 0. Thus its polar

representation is
64 = 26 e0i .
By dMoivres Theorem, the six roots of 64 are given by the equations

2ki
0i
k
zk = 2e 6 + 6 = 2 cos k
3 + i sin 3
for k = 0, 1, . . . , 5
100
Explicitely
z0 = 2

z1 = 2 cos 3 + i sin 3

= 2 12 + 2i 3 = 1 + i 3

2
z3 = 2 cos 2
3 + i sin 3

= 2 12 + 2i 3 = 1 + i 3
z3 = 2
z4 = 1 i 3
z5 = 1 i 3.
Note that the six roots of 64 are equally spaced around the circle of radius
2 starting with the angle 0 with counterclockwise increments of /3.
2
T RIGONOMETRY

Remark 2.1
The Canadarm2 robotic manipulator on the International Space Station is operated by controlling the angles of its joints. Calculating the final position of
the astronaut at the end of the arm requires repeated use of the trigonometric
functions of those angles.
2.1.1 Plane Angles

Definition 2.1 (Plane Angle)
A plane angle is generated by rotating a ray about its endpoint, called the
vertex. The starting position of the ray is called the initial side of the angle,
the final position the terminal side of the angle. An angle is said to be positive
if it is generated by a counterclockwise rotation, and negative if the rotation
is clockwise.
101
Figure 2.1:
ulator
Canadarm2 Robotic Manip-
CHAPTER 2. TRIGONOMETRY
102
Definition 2.2 (Magnitude or Measure)

The magnitude or measure of the angle is the amount of rotation generating the angle. To measure an angle , consider an arbitrary circular arc
centered at the vertex of the angle from the initial side to the terminal side of
the angle. The measure of the angle is defined as
=
Figure 2.2:
Measuring Angles
sk
,
r
where s is the length of the arc, r the radius of the circle and k a scaling constant depending on the angle units used. Note that a full angle has magnitude
2k. The most common units for measuring angles are radian and degree.
1. Degree: The degree which is denoted by is 1/360 of a full circle
which has measure 360 . Note that in this case the scaling constant
k = 360.
2. Radian: The radian, denoted by rad is the angle subtended by an
arc of a circle with the same length as its radius. Note that a full angle
has measure 2, hence the scaling constant k = 1.
Lemma 2.1 (Conversion: Radian, Degree)
If r and d denote the measure of an angle in radian and degree, respectively,
then
r
d
=
360
2
Example 2.1
Convert 1 radian into degrees!
S OLUTION :
Since
d =
r 360
,
2
we have
1 rad =
1 360
2
57.30
2.1.2 Geometric Definition of Trigonometric Functions

Remark 2.2
Recall that in similar triangles, the ratios of corresponding sides are equal. For
the definition of trigonometric functions, we will confine ourselves to right
103
triangles. If we denote one base angle by the other has magnitude 90 .

Consider the quotients
o
o
= ,
h
h
a
a
=
h
h
Clearly, these ratios only depend on the angle and constitute invariants of
the class of all similar right triangles with base angle and are called sin(),
cos() etc.
Hence the trigonometric functions for acute angles , i.e. 0 < < 90 can
be defined by
Figure 2.3: Geometric Definition of the
Trigonometric Functions
Definition 2.3 (Trigonometric Functions)

opposite
hypotenuse
adjacent
cos() =
hypotenuse
opposite
tan() =
adjacent
adjacent
opposite
hypotenuse
sec() =
adjacent
hypotenuse
csc() =
opposite
sin() =
cot() =
Example 2.2 (Important Special Values of Trigonometic Functions)

The following special values of the trigonometric functions can be easily computed using a unit equilateral triangle and unit square, respectively. They
should be committed to memory.
0
30
45
60
90
Note!
1
2 0
1
2 1
1
2 2
1
2 3
1
2 4
sin
0
1
2
cos
1
1
2 2
1
2 3
1
2 3
1
2 2
1
2
tan
cot
1
3
1
3
3
0
2.1.3 Circular Functions

The trigonometric functions can be defined for all real numbers using the unit
circle:
104
Definition 2.4 (Trigonometric Functions)

For any R, and (x, y) denoting the intersection of the terminal side of
the angle with the unit circle, we define
sin() = y
cos() = x
sin()
,
cos()
cos()
cot() =
,
sin()
1
sec() =
,
cos()
1
csc() =
,
sin()
tan() =
Figure 2.4:
sin and cos
The Circular Functions
for 6= (2n + 1) 2
for 6= n
for 6= (2n + 1) 2
for 6= n
for all n Z.
Definition 2.5 (Periodic)
A function f defined on a set I R is said to be periodic if there exists a
positive number p R such that
f (x + p) = f (x)
for all x I. Any such p is called a period of f . The smallest period (if it
exists) is called the fundamental period or just the period of f .
Definition 2.6 (Even, Odd Functions)
Suppose f is defined on the symmetric set I R, (i.e. x I x I).
Then f is said to be
1. even if f (x) = f (x) for all x I,
2. odd if f (x) = f (x) for all x I.
Theorem 2.1 (Periodicity and Parity of the Trigonometric Functions)
1. sin and cos have period 2 .
2. tan and cot have period .

3. sec and csc have period 2 .
4. sin is odd and cos is even
5. tan and cot are odd
6. sec is even, csc is odd
105
Theorem 2.2 (Zeros)

Let x R, then
1. sin(x) = 0 x = n , n Z
2. cos(x) = 0 x = (2n + 1)/2, n Z
3. tan(x) = 0 x = n , n Z
4. cot(x) = 0 x = (2n + 1)/2, n Z
Figure 2.6:
tan
Figure 2.7:
cot
Figure 2.5:
sin and cos
Figure 2.8:
sec
Figure 2.9:
csc
Example 2.3 (Special Angles of Trigonometric Functions)
Figure 2.10:
Special Values of sin and cos
106
2.1.4 Trigonometric Identities

Theorem 2.3 (Pythagorean Identities)
For all x R:
1. cos2 x + sin2 x = 1
2. 1 + tan2 x = sec2 x
3. 1 + cot2 x = csc2 x
provided the expressions are defined.
Theorem 2.4 (Addition Formulae)
For all x, y R
1. sin(x + y) = sin x cos y + sin y cos x

2. cos(x + y) = cos x cos y sin x sin y
3. tan(x + y) =
tan x + tan y
1 tan x tan y
4. cot(x + y) =
cot x cot y 1
cot x + cot y

Theorem 2.5 (Double-Angle Identities)
For all x R
1. sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x

2. cos 2x = cos2 x sin2 x
3. tan 2x =
4. cot 2x =
2 tan x
1 tan2 x
cot2 x 1
2 cot x

Theorem 2.6 (Power Identities)
For all x R

1. sin2 x = 12 1 cos 2x

2. cos2 x = 12 1 + cos 2x
107
Theorem 2.7 (Product Identities)

For all x, y R
1. sin x sin y =
1
2
cos(x y)
1
2
cos(x + y)
2. sin x cos y =
1
2
sin(x y) +
1
2
sin(x + y)
3. cos x cos y =
1
2
cos(x y) +
1
2
cos(x + y)
Theorem 2.8 (Half-Angle Identities)

For all x R
r
1 cos x
x
1. sin 2 =
2
r
1 + cos x
2. cos x2 =
2
3. tan x2 =
sin x
1 cos x
=
1 + cos x
sin x
Theorem 2.9 (Phase Shift)

For all x R

1. sin 2 x = cos x

2. cos 2 x = sin x

3. tan 2 x = cot x
Theorem 2.10 (Euler Formula)
For all x R
eix = cos x + i sin x
Corollary 2.1
For all x R
1. cos x =
1
2
2. sin x =
1
2i
eix + eix
e
ix
ix
Figure 2.11:
(17071783)
Leonhard Euler
108
Theorem 2.11 (Derivatives)
For all x R
1. sin (x) = cos(x)

2. cos (x) = sin(x)
3. tan (x) = sec2 (x) = 1 + tan2 (x)
4. cot (x) = csc2 (x) = 1 cot2 (x)
5. sec (x) = sec(x) tan(x)
6. csc (x) = csc(x) cot(x)
Theorem 2.12 (Derivatives of the Inverse Trigonometric Functions)

For all x R
1
1. (sin1 ) (x) =
,
1 x2
|x| < 1
1
,
2. (cos1 ) (x) =
1 x2
|x| < 1
3. (tan1 ) (x) =
1
1 + x2
4. (cot1 ) (x) =
1
1 + x2
5. (sec1 ) (x) =
,
|x| x2 1
|x| > 1
6. (csc1 ) (x) =
,
|x| x2 1
|x| > 1
109
2.1.5 Taylor Series Expansions of Trigonometric Functions

Theorem 2.13 (Taylor Series Expansions of sin and cos)
For all x R
1. sin(x) =
(1)n
n=0
2. cos(x) =
(1)n
n=0
3. tan(x) =
x2n+1
(2n + 1)!
x2n
(2n)!
n1 2
2n
(1)
n=0

22n 1 B2n x2n1
,
(2n)!
22n B2n x2n1

4. cot(x) =
(1)n
,
(2n)!
n=0
5. sec(x) =
(1)n
n=0
6. csc(x) =
n+1 2
(1)
n=0
E2n x2n
,
(2n)!
|x| <
|x| <
0 < |x| <
Figure 2.12:
(16541705)
Jakob Bernoulli
Figure 2.13:
(17071783)
Leonhard Euler

22n1 1 B2n x2n1
,
(2n)!
0 < |x| <
Remark 2.3
Note that Bn and En denote the n-th Bernoulli and Euler number, respectively.
The Bernoulli numbers, named after Jakob Bernoulli, can be defined by the
generating function
X
tn
t
=
Bn
t
e 1 n=0
n!
The B n are all rational numbers, B2n+1 = 0 for n 1 and the (nonzero) Bernoulli numbers alternate in sign. The Bernoulli numbers can also be
computed using the recursion
B0 = 1,
n1
X
k=0

n
Bk
k
for n = 2, 3, . . .
1
Thus B0 = 1, B1 = 12 , B2 = 16 , B3 = 0, B4 = 31 , B5 = 0, B6 = 42
,
1
5
B7 = 0, B8 = 3 , B9 = 0, B10 = 66 , . . .
The Euler numbers or secant numbers, named after Leonhard Euler, can be
defined by the generating function
n
X
X
En tn
En t
2et/2
=
=
et + 1 n=0 2n n!
n! 2
n=0
110
Some value of the Euler numbers are: E0 = 1, E1 = 0, E2 = 1, E3 = 0,

E4 = 5, E5 = 0, E6 = 61, E7 = 0, E8 = 1385, E9 = 0, E10 = 50521,
...
2.1.6 The Laws of Sines and Cosines

Theorem 2.14 (Law of Sines)
In any triangle ABC , the length of the sides are proportional to the sines
of the opposite angles; i.e.
b
c
a
=
=
sin()
sin()
sin()
where the sides and angles are labeled as usual (see the figure in the margin).
Figure 2.14:
Theorem 2.15 (Law of Cosines)

In any triangle ABC , we have
a2 = b2 + c2 2bc cos
b2 = a2 + c2 2ac cos
c2 = a2 + b2 2ab cos
Example 2.4 (Area of a Triangle I)

Given a triangle ABC, where the sides and angles are denoted as in the figure
above. Then its area F expressed in terms of the lengths of two sides and the
enclosed angle is
F =
1
2
bc sin() =
1
2
ab sin() =
1
2
ac sin()
Example 2.5 (Area of a Triangle II)

Using the Law of Cosine, we can express the area of a triangle in terms of
the length of its three sides as
q
2
1
4b2 c2 b2 + c2 a2
F =
4
1p
=
(a + b c)(a b + c)(a + b + c)(a + b + c)
4
Example 2.6 (Area of a Triangle III, Herons Formula)
Let s := 12 (a + b + c) denote the semi-perimeter of the triangle ABC, then
the previous formula can be simplified to
F =
p
s(s a)(s b)(s c)
111
2.1.7 Inverse Trigonometric Functions

The trigonometric functions are multivalued and therefore not invertible. However, by restricting them to their principal branch, they can be made one-toone or injective and therefore invertible:
Theorem 2.16 (Inverse Trigonometric Functions)
1. Arcsine: The inverse of the restriction of sin to its principal domain
[ 2 , 2 ] is the function arcsin : [1, 1] [ 2 , pi
2 ] which is implicitly defined by
arcsin(x) = y
sin(y) = x
2. Arccosine: The inverse of the restriction of cos to its principal domain [0, ] is the function arccos : [1, 1] [0, ] which is implicitly
defined by
arccos(x) = y cos(y) = x
3. Arctangent: The inverse of the restriction of tan to its principal domain ( 2 , 2 ) is the function arctan : R ( 2 , 2 ) which is implicitly defined by
arctan(x) = y
tan(y) = x
4. Arccotangent: The inverse of the restriction of cot to its principal

domain (0, ) is the function arccot : R (0, ) which is implicitly
defined by
arccot(x) = y cot(y) = x
5. Arcsecant: The inverse of the restriction of sec to its principal domain [0, ] \ { 2 } is the function arcsec : R \ (1, 1) [0, ] \ { 2 }
which is implicitly defined by
arcsec(x) = y
sec(y) = x
6. Arccosecant: The inverse of the restriction of csc to its principal domain [ 2 , 2 ] \ {0} is the function arccsc : R \ (1, 1) [ 2 , 2 ] \ {0}
which is implicitly defined by
arccsc(x) = y
csc(y) = x
Remark 2.4
The inverse trigonometric functions are often denoted by sin1 , cos1 , etc.
However this notation where the exponent 1 refers to composition easily creates a conflict with the common semantics for expressions like sin2 (x)
where the exponents refer to ordinary multiplication.
Figure 2.15:
The Restriction of Sine to
Its Principal Domain
sin = arcsin =
112
2.1.8 Hyperbolic Functions

Remark 2.5
The hyperbolic functions were introduced in the 18th century by the Swiss
mathematician Johann Heinrich Lambert. They are analogs to the trigonometric or circular functions. As the points
C := {(cos , sin ) | R}
form the unit circle x2 + y 2 = 1, so the points
H := {(cosh , sinh ) | R}
Figure 2.16:
Geometric Definition of
sinh and cosh
The ray through the origin intercepts the
hyperbola x2 y 2 = 1 in the point
(cosh , sinh ), where equals twice the
area between the ray, the right branch of the
hyperbola and the x-axis.
form the right branch of the unit hyperbola x2 + y 2 = 1.

Hyperbolic functions occur naturally in the solutions of some important
linear differential equations.
Definition 2.7 (Hyperbolic Functions)

For all x R, we define
sinh x =
cosh x =
1
2
1
2
ex ex
ex + ex

e2x 1
sinh x
= 2x
cosh x
e +1
cosh x
e2x + 1
coth x =
= 2x
, x 6= 0
sinh x
e 1
2
1
= x
sech x =
cosh x
e + ex
1
2
csch x =
, x 6= 0
= x
sinh x
e ex
tanh x =
Theorem 2.17 (Parity of the Hyperbolic Functions)

1. sinh is odd and cosh is even.
Figure 2.17:
2. tanh and coth are odd.

3. sech is even and csch is odd.
Figure 2.18:
sinh and cosh
113
Figure 2.19:
tanh and coth
2.1.9 Hyperbolic Identities

Theorem 2.18 (Pythagorean Identities)
For all x R
1. cosh2 x sinh2 = 1
2. tanh2 x + sech2 x = 1
Theorem 2.19 (Addition Formulae)
For all x, y R
1. sinh(x + y) = sinh x cosh y + sinh y cosh x

2. cosh(x + y) = cosh x cosh y + sinh x sinh y
3. tanh(x + y) =
tanh x + tanh y
1 + tanh x tanh y
Theorem 2.20 (Double-Angle Identities)

For all x R
1. sinh 2x = 2 sinh x cosh x

2. cosh 2x = cosh2 x + sinh2 x = 2 cosh2 x 1 = 2 sinh2 x + 1
3. tanh 2x =
2 tanh x
1 + tanh2 x
Figure 2.20:
sech and csch
114
Theorem 2.21 (Power Identities)
For all x R

1. sinh2 x = 12 cosh 2x 1

2. cosh2 x = 12 cosh 2x + 1
Theorem 2.22 (Half-Angle Identities)
For all x R
r
cosh x 1
x
1. sinh 2 = sgn(x)
2
r
cosh x + 1
2. cosh x2 =
2
3. tanh x2 =
sinh x
cosh x 1
=
,
cosh x + 1
sinh x
x 6= 0
Theorem 2.23 (Euler Type Formula)

For all x R
1. ex = cosh x + sinh x
2. ex = cosh x sinh x
2.1.10 Derivatives of Hyperbolic Functions

Theorem 2.24 (Derivatives)
For all x R
1. sinh (x) = cosh(x)

2. cosh (x) = sinh(x)
3. tanh (x) = sech2 (x) = 1 tanh2 (x)
4. coth (x) = cosh2 (x) = 1 coth2 (x),
5. sech (x) = sech(x) tanh(x)
6. csch (x) = csch(x) coth(x),
x 6= 0
x 6= 0
115
Theorem 2.25 (Derivatives of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions)

For all x R
1
1. (sinh1 ) (x) =
2
x +1
1
2. (cosh1 ) (x) =
2
x 1
3. (tanh1 ) (x) =
4. (coth1 ) (x) =
1
1 x2
1
1 x2
|x| > 1
|x| =
6 1
|x| =
6 1
1
5. (sech1 ) (x) =
,
x 1 x2
6. (csch1 ) (x) =
|x| < 1
|x| 1 + x2
2.1.11 Integrals of Hyperbolic Functions
Theorem 2.26 (Integrals)

For all x R
Z
1.
sinh x dx = cosh x + C
2.
3.
4.
Z
Z
Z
cosh x dx = sinh x + C
tanh x dx = ln(cosh x) + C
coth x dx = ln | sinh x| + C,
x 6= 0
116
Theorem 2.27 (Integrals of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions)

For all x R
Z
dx
1.
= sinh1 (x) + C
x2 + 1
Z
dx
2.
= cosh1 (x) + C, |x| 1
x2 1
Z
dx
3.
= tanh1 (x) + C, |x| < 1
1 x2
Z
dx
= coth1 (x) + C, |x| > 1
4.
1 x2
Z
dx
5.
= csch1 (x) + C
2
x 1+x
Z
dx
= sech1 (x) + C, |x| < 1

6.
x 1 x2
2.1.12 Taylor/Laurent Series Expansions of

Hyperbolic Functions
Theorem 2.28 (Taylor/Laurent Series Expansions)
For all x R
1. sinh(x) =
2. cosh(x) =
X
x2n+1
(2n + 1)!
n=0
X
x2n
(2n)!
n=0
X
22n 22n 1 B2n x2n1
,
3. tanh(x) =
(2n)!
n=1
4. coth(x) =
5. sech(x) =
1 X 22n B2n x2n1

+
,
x n=1
(2n)!
X
E2n x2n
,
(2n)!
n=0
|x| <
|x| <
0 < |x| <
1 X 2 1 22n1 B2n x2n1

,
6. csch(x) = +
x n=1
(2n)!
0 < |x| <
117
Remark 2.6
Note that Bn and En denote the n-th Bernoulli and Euler numbers, respectively. See Remark 2.3 on page 109.
2.1.13 Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

The inverse hyperbolic functions can be expressed as logarithms:
Theorem 2.29 (Inverse Hyperbolic Functions as Logarithms)
For all x R

1. sinh1 (x) = ln x + x2 + 1

2. cosh1 (x) = ln x + x2 1 , x 1

1+x
3. tanh1 (x) = 12 ln
, |x| < 1
1x

x+1
1
1
, |x| > 1
4. coth (x) = 2 ln
x1
!
2
1
x
1
+
, 0<x1
5. sech1 (x) = ln
x
1
6. csch
(x) = ln
1
+
x
1 + x2
|x|
118
2.2 Exercises
2.2.1 Simplifying Trigonometric Expressions
1. sin x cos x + cos2 x
has
2. 2 sin x cos3 x 2 sin3 x cos x
has
3.
sec4 x tan4 x
sec2 x + tan2 x
has
4.
2 sin2 x cos x 2
cos3 x
2 sin x
has
5.
3 sin x cos2 x + cos x sin x
cos2 x
sin2 x cos2 x
has
6.
2 tan
1 + tan2
has
7.
tan x sin x
2 tan x
has
8. sin( + ) sin( )
9.
10.
cot x
csc x
2
1
csc2 x
cos + sin
cos
1 + tan2 x
11. cos2 x
1 cos2 x
has
has
has
has

1. Give a formula for sin(x+y) in terms of cos x, sin x, sin y and cos y.
has
2. Give a formula for cos(x+y) in terms of cos x, sin x, sin y and cos y.
has
3. Give a formula for sin(xy) in terms of cos x, sin x, sin y and cos y.
has
4. Give a formula for cos(xy) in terms of cos x, sin x, sin y and cos y.
has
2.2. EXERCISES
119
2.2.3 Pythagorean Identities

1. Recall the Three Pythagorean Identities
has
2. Derive the First Pythagorean identity
has
3. Derive the Second Pythagorean identity.
has
2.2.4 Double and Half Angle Formulas

1. Express sin 2x in terms of sin x and cos x
has
2. Express cos 2x in terms of sin x and cos x
has
3. Express tan 2x in terms of tan x
has
4. Give a formula for cos2 x in terms of cos 2x
has
5. Give a formula for sin2 x in terms of cos 2x
has
6. Give a formula for sin x2 in terms of cos x
has
7. Give a formula for cos x2 in terms of cos x
has
8. Give a formula for tan x2 in terms of cos x
has

BB
b
1. c = 5, b = 3 and = 32 .
B
B
Ba
B
B
B
c
has
2. a = 15, c = 7, = 62 .
has
3. a = 3.6, b = 6.2, c = 4.1
has
4. = 36.5, a = 24, b = 34
has
5. = 14 , = 31 , a = 4
has
120
2.2.6 Special Values of Trigonometric Functions

1. sin
2. cos 3
3. tan
4. sin
3
4
6. tan

11
5
4
5. csc
7. sin9
cos(4)

Involving Inverse Trigonometric Functions

1. sin1 sin( 7
4 )

2. sin cos1 ( 12 )

3. cos sec1 (2)

4. cos tan1 (x)

5. csc cot1 ( x2 )

6. sin cos1 (x)

7. sec sin1 (x)
2.2.8 Graphing Trigonometric Functions

1. y = tan x
as
2. y = cot x
as
3. y = sin x
as
4. y = cos x
as
5. y = sec x
as
6. y = csc x
as
7. y = 2 sin
1
2x
8. y = cos x
as
as
2.2. EXERCISES
121
9. y = sin(x ) 2
10. y =
1
2
cos 2x +
as
as
2.2.9 Trigonometric Equations

1. sin 2x = 1
1
2
2. sin x =
3. tan
4.
has
1
2x
has
=1
has
sin2 x = 1
has
5. sin 2x = 21 3
6. cos x =
1
2
has
ha
7. cos2 x + 6 cos x + 4 = 0
has
8. sin 2x cos x + sin x = 0
has
9. sec2 x + 2 tan x = 6
has
2.2.10 Converting Cartesian into Polar Coordinates

1. (0, 1)
2. (3, 0)
3. (2, 2)
4.

x, x

5. 3, 3 3
6.
3, 1
a
a
a
2.2.11 Converting Polar into Cartesian Coordinates

1. (1, 31 )
5. (3, 21 )
2. (3, 43 )
6. (2, 3)
3. (2, 0)
7. (1, 41 )
4. (3, 31 )
8. ( 13 , 32 )
122

1. sinh x
2. cosh x
3. tanh x
4. coth x
5. sech x
6. csch x
2.2.13 Hyperbolic Identies

1. cosh2 x sinh2 x
2. sinh x cosh y + sinh y cosh x
3. cosh x cosh y + sinh x sinh y
4. sinh x cosh x
5. cosh2 x + sinh2 x
cosh2 x sinh2 x
tanh2 x
6.
123

1. Use the Double-Angle Identity
sin(2x) = 2 sin x cos x
and the Power Identity
cos2 x =
1
2

1 + cos 2x
2. Factor out 2 sin x cos x and use the Double-Angle Identities.

3. Factor the numerator using a2 b2 = (a b)(a + b) and apply the
Pythagorean Identity 1 + tan2 x = sec2 x.
4. Simplify the term.
5. Reduce the fraction! First factor out sin x cos x in the numerator.
6. Apply the Pythagorean Identity 1 + tan2 = sec2 , rewrite the fraction
in terms of sin and cos and reduce it!
7. Separate terms and rewrite in terms of sin and cos.
8. First use the Addition formulae for sin and expand the expression. Then
apply the Power Identities and expand again.
9. Combine the fractions and apply the third Pythagorean Identity.
10. Separate the fraction.
11. Apply the suitable Pythagorean identities to the fraction.

1. See Summary Sheet!

2. Look at the definition of sin and cos using the unit circle
3. Express tan and sec in terms of sin and cos and apply the First Pythagorean
identity!
124


1. To compute a use the law of cosine, can be computed with the law of
sine.
2. The side b can be computed using the law of cosine, the angle with the
law of sine.
3. Use the Law of Cosines to compute two angles!
4. First compute using the Law of Sines, then , then apply the Law of
Cosines to compute c.
5. First compute , then use the Law of Sines to compute c and b!

1. Consult the definition of sin using the unit circle!
2. Consult the definition of sin using the unit circle
3. Visulize the definition of tan using the unit circle

4. Square both sides of the equation. Recall that
125
A2 = |A|.
5. Consult the definition of sin using the unit circle.

6. Consult the definition of cos using the unit circle.
7. Use the substitution x = cos x to reduce the trigonometric equation to a
quadratic equation.
8. Rewrite the equation using the Double-Angle Identity sin 2x = sin x cos x
and then factor it.
9. Use the Pythagorean Identity 1 + tan2 x = sec2 x and the substitution
y = tan x.

126

1.
1
2
2.
1
2

1 + cos(2x) + sin(2x)
sin(4x)
3. 1
4.
1
2
5.
3 tan(x)
sin x cos x
sec (x)
6. sin (2)
7.
1
2
8.
1
2

1 cos x
cos (2)
1
2
cos (2)]
9. 1
10. 1 + tan
11. csc2 x

3. sin(x y) = sin x cos y sin y cos x
4. cos(x y) = cos x cos y + sin x sin y

1. The three Pythagorean identities:
cos2 x + sin2 = 1
1 + tan2 x = sec2 x
1 + cot2 x = csc2 x
2. Follows directly from the definition of sin and cos using the unit circle!
3. See solution!
127

1. sin 2x = 2 cos x sin x
2. cos 2x = cos2 x sin2 x = 2 cos2 x 1 = 1 2 sin2 x
3. tan 2x =
2 tan x
1 tan2 x
4. cos2 x =
1
2
5. sin2 x =
1
2
6. sin
x
2
7. cos
x
2

1 cos 2x
8. tan x2 =

1 + cos 2x
1 cos x
2
1 + cos x
2
1 cos x
sin x
=
1 + cos x
sin x

3
1. a = 7, = arcsin 14
3 0.3803,
= 31 0.6669.
2. b 13.2443, 89.8180, 28.1820
3. 33.7133, 107.0796, 39.2072
4. 57.4227, = 180 86.0773,
c 40.2536
5. =
5
12 ,
b 5.4641, c = 2 6 4.8990

1. 0
2.
1
2
3. 1
4.
2
2
5.
6.
7.
3
3
1
512
128

1. /4
2.
3/2
3.
1
2
4.
1
1+x2
5.
4+x2
2
6.
1 x2
7.
1
1x2

1. See Summary!
2. See Summary!
Figure 2.21:
3. See Summary!
4. See Summary!
5. See Summary!
6. See Summary!

7. Note y = 2 sin 21 x oscillates with half the frequency of sin(x) but
twice the amplitude!

8. Note that the graph of y = cos x 2 is obtained from the graph of
y = cos(x) by reflection on the x-axes and a phase-shift of 2 (to the
right).
Figure 2.22:
9. Note that y = sin(x ) 2 is obtained from y = sin(x) by a phase

shift of (to the right) and a vertical shift of 2 downwards.
Figure 2.23:
129
Figure 2.24:

10. Note y = 21 cos 2x + 2 has amplitude 12 , phase shift
frequency 2.
(to the left) and

1. x = /4(1 + 4n) for all n Z
2. x = /6(1 + 12n) or x = /6(5 + 12m) for all n, m Z
3. x = /2(4n + 1) or x = /2(4m + 3) for all m, n Z
4. x = /2(1 + 4n) or x = /2(1 4m) for all m, n Z.
5. x = 35 + 2n or x = 34 + 2m for all m, n Z
+ 2n or x = 4 + 2m for all m, n Z
7. Let := arccos(3 + 5) [0, ]. Then x = + 2n or x =

2 + 2m for all m, n Z.
6. x =
8. x = n for all n Z
9. x = arctan(1 + 6) + n or
x = arctan(1 6) + m for all m, n Z

1. (1, 2 )
2. (3, )
3. (2 2, 7
4 )
4. ( 2x, 4 )
5. ( 6, 5
3 )
6. (2, 11
6 )
130
3
2 )
( 3 2 2 , 3 2 2 )
1. ( 21 ,
5. (0, 3)
2.
6. (2, 0)
3 3
4. ( 3
2 , 2 )
8. ( 1
6 ,

1.
1
2
ex ex
2.
1
2
ex + ex
3.
e2x 1
e2x + 1
4.
e2x + 1
e2x 1
5.
6.

2ex
+1
e2x
2ex
e2x 1

1. 1
2. sinh(x + y)
3. cosh(x + y)
4.
sinh(2x)
2
5. cosh(2x)
6. coth2 (x)
7. ( 2 2 , 2 2 )
3. (2, 0)
3
6 )
131

1. We will use the Double-Angle Identity
sin(2x) = 2 sin x cos x
and the Power Identity
cos2 x =
and obtain
1
2

1 + cos 2x
sin x cos x + cos2 x =

=
=
1
2
1
2
sin(2x) +
1
2
1
2
cos(2x)

1 + cos(2x) + sin(2x) .
2. We will factor out 2 sin x cos x and apply the Double Angle Identities
several times:
2 sin x cos3 x 2 sin3 x cos x =

= 2 sin x cos x cos2 x sin2 x
= sin(2x) cos(2x) =
1
2
sin(4x).
3. We will first factor the numerator using a2 b2 = (a b)(a + b) and

then apply the Pythagorean Identity 1 + tan2 x = sec2 x:
sec4 x tan4 x
=
sec2 x + tan2 x
(sec2 x tan2 x)(sec2 x + tan2 x)
=
sec2 x + tan2 x
2
= sec x tan2 x = 1.
4. Simplifying the expression, we obtain
2 sin2 x cos x 2
2 sin2 x cos2
=
3
cos x
2 sin x
cos3 x 4 sin2 x
1
= 21 sec x
=
2 cos x
5. We can reduce the fraction by first factoring out sin x cos x in the numer-
132
ator:
3 sin x cos2 x + cos x sin x
=
cos2 x
sin2 x cos2 x
3(sin x cos2 x + sin2 x cos x)
=
cos2 x(sin2 x cos2 x)
3 sin x cos x(cos x + sin x)
=
cos2 x(sin x cos x)(sin x + cos x)
3 sin x
=
cos x(sin x cos x)
3 tan(x)
.
=
sin x cos x
6. We first compactify the denominator by applying the Pythagorean Identity 1 + tan2 = sec2 . Then we reduce the fraction after rewriting it
in terms of sin and cos:
2 tan
2 tan
2 sin cos2
=
=
2
2
sec
cos
1 + tan
= 2 sin cos = sin(2).
7. We separate the fraction and then rewrite tan in terms of sin and cos:
tan x
sin x
tan x sin x
=
2 tan x
2 tan x 2 tan x
1 sin x cos x
=
2
2 sin x
= 12 21 cos x = 21 (1 cos x).
8. With the Addition formula for sin, follows
sin( + ) sin( ) =

= sin cos + sin cos

sin cos sin cos
= sin2 cos2 sin2 cos2

= 12 1 cos 2 12 1 + cos 2

21 1 cos 2 12 1 + cos 2
133
from which follows using the abbreviations A := cos 2 and B :=

cos 2

= 14 (1 A)(1 + B) (1 B)(1 + A)

= 14 1 A + B AB (1 + A B AB)

= 41 1 A + B AB 1 A + B + AB
= 41 (2A + 2B) = 12 A + 21 B
= 12 cos 2 +
1
2
cos 2.
9. We combine the fractions and reduce after applying the third Pythagorean
Identity:

2
cot x
1
+
=
csc x
csc2 x
1
cot2 x
+
=
cscx
csc2 x
cot2 x + 1
=
csc2 x
csc2 x
= 1.
=
csc2 x
10. We separate the fraction and obtain
cos
sin
cos + sin
=
+
cos
cos cos
= 1 + tan .
11. Applying the Pythagorean identities 1+tan2 x = sec2 x and 1 = cos2 x+
sin2 x, we obtain
1 + tan2 x
cos2 x
=
1 cos2 x
cos2 x sec2 x
=
sin2 x
cos2 x
=
2
sin x cos2 x
1
=
= csc2 s.
sin2 x

134
3. sin(x y) = sin x cos y sin y cos x

4. cos(x y) = cos x cos y + sin x sin y

1. The three Pythagorean identities:
cos2 x + sin2 = 1
1 + tan2 x = sec2 x
1 + cot2 x = csc2 x
2. Follows directly from the definition of sin and cos using the unit circle!
3. Using the First Pythagorean identity, we derive
1 + tan2 (x) = 1 +
=
sin2 (x)
cos2 (x)
sin2 (x)
cos2 (x)
+
cos2 (x) cos2 (x)
cos2 (x) + sin2 (x)

cos2 (x)
1
=1
=
cos2 (x)
=

1. sin 2x = 2 cos x sin x
2. cos 2x = cos2 x sin2 x = 2 cos2 x 1 = 1 2 sin2 x
3. tan 2x =
2 tan x
1 tan2 x

1 + cos 2x

5. sin2 x = 21 1 cos 2x
r
1 cos x
x
6. sin 2 =
2
r
1 + cos x
7. cos x2 =
2
4. cos2 x =
8. tan x2 =
1
2
1 cos x
sin x
=
1 + cos x
sin x
135

1. We need to compute a, and . Clearly, = = 32 =
1
3 = . a can be computed using the law of consine:
a2 = b2 + c2 2bc cos
2
3

sin2 3
= 9 + 25 2 3 5 cos
= 34 30 cos2
= 34 30
1
4
hence
a=
3

3
4 =
49
49 = 7.
To compute , we will use the law of sine:

sin
3
= ,
sin
7
hence
sin =
3
7
sin =
3
7
1
2
3=
3
14
and therefore
= arcsin
3
14

3 .
2. We need to compute b, and . Clearly, = 180 62 = 118 .

b can be computed using the law of cosine:
b2 = a2 + c2 2ac cos
= 225 + 49 2 15 7 cos 62
= 274 210 cos 62
hence
b=
274 210 cos 62 13.2443.
Since, by the law of sine,

a
sin
=
sin
b
it follows that
sin =
15
sin 62 ,
b
136
hence
= arcsin
15
sin 62
b
89.8180
and thus
= (180 62 ) 28.1820.
3. We use the Law of Cosines to first compute . Since c2 = a2 + b2
2ab cos , we obtain
2

a + b 2 c2
= arccos
39.2072.
2ab
Similarly, we obtain
= arccos
b 2 + c2 a 2
2bc
Hence, = 180 107.0796.
33.7133.
4. can be easily computed using the Law of Sines, indeed

sin =
b
sin
a
which implies
= arcsin

b
sin 57.4227
a
and therefore, = 180 86.0773. With the Law Cosines, we

can now compute c and obtain
p
c = b2 + a2 2ba cos() 40.2536.
5. Clearly, = = ( 41 31 ) =
using the Law of Sines:
sin
c
=
a
sin
5
12 .
c and b can becomputed
and therefore
c=
a sin
= 2 6 4.8990
sin
similarly
b
sin
=
a
sin
and thus
b=
a sin
5.4641.
sin
137

1. See Summary!
2. See Summary!
3. See Summary!
4. See Summary!
5. See Summary!
6. See Summary!
7. See corresponding answer!
8. See corresponding answer!
9. See the corresponding answer!
10. See the corresponding answer!
Figure 2.25:
1. Consulting the unit circle definition of sin, we find that sin(2x) = 1

2x = 2 + 2n for all n Z. Hence, x = 4 (1 + 4) for all n Z.
2. Consulting the figure below, we find that sin(x) = 12 x = 6 + 2n
or x= 6 + 2m for all m, n Z. Simplifying these expressions, we
obtain that x = 6 (1 + 12n) or x = 6 (5 + 12m) for all m, n Z.
3. Consulting the figure below, we find that tan(x/2) = 1 21 x = 4 +n
or 21 x = 4 + m for all m, n Z. Simplifying these expression,
we obtain x = /2(4n + 1) or x = /2(4m + 3).
4. Squaring the equation, we obtain | sin(x)| = 1 which is equivalent to
sin(x) = 1. Consulting the definition of sin using the unit circle,
we find that x = 2 + 2n or x = 2 + 2m, which simplifies to
x = /2(1 + 4n) or x = /2(1 4m) for all m, n Z.
5. Consulting the figure below, we find that sin 2x = 21 3 is equivalent

to x = 32 6 + 2n or x = 32 + 6 + 2m for all m, n Z, which
simplifies to x = 43 + 2n or x = 35 + 2m for m, n Z.
Figure 2.26:
138
7. The substitution y = cos x reduces the given equation to the quadratic

equation y 2 + 6y + 4 = 0 which using the quadratic formula yields
the solutions
6 2 5
6 36 16
=
y=
2
2
= 3 5.
Figure 2.27:
We now
solve the remaining equations cos x = y. Clearly, only y =
3+
5 leads to an equation that can be solved in R. Let := arccos(3+
5). Note that [0, ]. Consulting the figure below (or remembering that cos is an
even function!), we see that also = 2 solves
cos x = 3 + 5. Hence, x = + 2n or x = 2 + 2m for all
m, n Z.
8. Using the Double-Angle Identity sin 2x = sin x cos x, we see that sin 2x cos x+
sin x = 0 is equivalent to
2 sin x cos2 x + sin x = 0
sin x(2 cos2 x + 1) = 0
which splits into the equations sin x = 0 and cos2 x = 21 . Clearly,
the last equation does not have a solution in R. Hence, x = n for all
n Z.
Figure 2.28:
9. The identity sec2 x = 1 + tan2 x reduces the given equation to tan2 x +

2 tan x 5 = 0 which reduces further to the quadratic equation y 2 +
2y 5 = 0 by applying the substitution y = tan x. With the quadratic
formula, we obtain
2 4 + 20
= 1 6
y=
2
The remaining equations tan x = 1 6 clearly have the solutions
x = arctan(1 + 6) + n
x = arctan(1 6) + m
for all m, n Z.

139
140
3
D IFFERENTIAL
C ALCULUS

3.1.1 Limits of Functions
The notion of limit in its different forms is the central notion of calculus. We
will first consider the notion of the limit of a function.
Definition 3.1 (Two-sided Limit)
Suppose the function f is defined in a neighborhood of c R. We say that
f has limit L as x approaches c and write
lim f (x) = L
xc
if and only if for all > 0 there exists a > 0 such that for all x Df
0 < |x c| < |f (x) L| <
(Df denotes the domain of f ).
Remark 3.1 (Uniqueness of Limit)

If f has a limit at c, this limit is unique. The same is true for half-sided limits.
141
142
CHAPTER 3. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
Definition 3.2 (Left-sided Limit)

Suppose the function f is defined in a half-neighborhood of the form (a, c)
of c R. We say that f has limit L as x approaches c from the left and write
lim f (x) = L
xc
0 < c x < |f (x) L| <
Definition 3.3 (Right-sided Limit)

Suppose the function f is defined in a half-neighborhood of the form (c, b)
of c R. We say that f has limit L as x approaches c from the right and
write
lim f (x) = L
xc+
0 < x c < |f (x) L| <
Definition 3.4 (Limits at Infinity)

1. Suppose the function f is defined on an interval of the form (a, ).
We say that f has limit L as x approaches and write
lim f (x) = L
if and only if for all > 0 there exists a B > 0 such that for all
x (a, )
x > B |f (x) L| < .
The line y = L is called a horizontal asymptote of f .
2. Suppose the function f is defined on an interval of the form (, b).
We say that f has limit L as x approaches and write
lim f (x) = L
if and only if for all > 0 there exists a B > 0 such that for all
x (, b)
x < B |f (x) L| < .
The line y = L is called a horizontal asymptote of f .
143
Definition 3.5 (Infinite Limits)

1. Suppose the function f is defined in a neighborhood of c R. We say
that f approaches as x approaches c and write
lim f (x) =
xc
if and only if for all B > 0 there exists a > 0 such that for all
x Df
0 < |x c| < f (x) > B.
The line x = c is called a vertical asymptote.
2. Suppose the function f is defined in a neighborhood of c R. We say
that f approaches as x approaches c and write
lim f (x) =
xc
if and only if for all B > 0 there exists a > 0 such that for all
x Df
0 < |x c| < f (x) < B.
The line x = c is called a vertical asymptote.
Theorem 3.1 (Half- and Two-sided Limits)

1. If lim f (x) = lim+ f (x) = L, then lim f (x) = L.
xc
xc
xc
2. If lim f (x) = L, then lim f (x) = lim+ f (x) = L.

xc
xc
xc
3. If lim f (x) or lim+ f (x) fail to exist, then lim f (x) fails to exist.
xc
xc
xc
4. If lim f (x) 6= lim+ f (x), then lim f (x) fails to exist.

xc
xc
xc
Theorem 3.2 (Limits of Elementary Functions I)

1. lim k = k .
xc
2. lim x = c
xc
3. If p is a polynomial, i.e. a function of the form p(x) = a0 + a1 x +

a2 x2 + + an xn , then lim p(x) = p(c).
xc
4. If r is a rational function (quotient of polynomials), and c Dr (i.e.

not a zero of the denominator of r) then lim r(x) = r(c).
xc
144
Theorem 3.3
(Limits
of Elementary Functions II)
1. lim n x = n c, (x 0 if n is even).
xc
2. lim sin x = sin c.

xc
3. lim cos x = cos c

xc
4. lim ex = ec .
xc
5. lim ln x = ln c,
xc
6. lim
x0
x > 0.
sin x
= 1.
x
cos x 1
=0
x0
x
7. lim
8.
lim
9. lim+
x0
1
=0
x
1
1
= , lim
= .
x
x
x0
10. lim ex = , lim ex = 0.

x
11. lim ln x = , lim+ ln x = .

x
x0
,
2
1
lim tan x = .
x
2
12. lim tan1 x =

x
145
3.1.2 Techniques for Computing Limits

Theorem 3.4 (Limit Theorem)
Suppose the functions f and g have limits at c and suppose k R, then

1. lim f (x) + g(x) = lim f (x) + lim g(x).
xc
xc
xc

2. lim kf (x) = k lim f (x).
xc
xc

3. lim f (x)g(x) = lim f (x) lim g(x).
xc
xc
xc
lim f (x)
f (x)
, provided that lim g(x) 6= 0.
= xc
xc g(x)
xc
lim g(x)
4. lim
xc
f (x)
does not exist.
xc g(x)
5. If lim f (x) 6= 0 and lim g(x) = 0, then lim

xc
xc
Example 3.1 (Limits of Polynomials)

Let
p(x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + + an xn =
be a polynomial and c R. Find lim p(x).
n
X
ak xk
k=0
xc
S OLUTION : By first applying the Summation and Scalar-Multiple Rule for

Limits (Theorem 3.4:1 and 2), the limit reduces to
!
n
n
X
X
ak lim xk
ak xk =
lim p(x) = lim
xc
xc
n=0
k=0
xc
which with the Product Rule (Theorem 3.4:3) and Theorem 3.2:2 yields
=
n
X
k=0
n

k X
k
ak (c) = p(c)
ak lim x =
xc
k=0
Thus, the limit of the polynomial p at c is the function value p(c). In other
words, polynomials are continuous on R.
Example 3.2 (Limits of Rational Functions)

Let
p(x)
r(x) =
q(x)
be a rational function, where p and q are polynomials. Let c be an element of
the domain of r, i.e. c Dr := {x R | q(x) 6= 0}. Find lim r(x).
xc
146
S OLUTION :
Since by the previous example, polynomials are continuous,
limxc p(x) = p(c) and limxc q(x) = q(c) 6= 0. Hence, by the Quotient
Rule for Limits (Theorem 3.4:4), we have
lim p(x)
p(c)
p(x)
= xc
=
= r(c).
xc q(x)
lim q(x)
q(c)
lim
xc
Thus, the limit of the rational function r at an element c of its domain is the
function value r(c). In other words, rational functions are continuous on their
domain.
Theorem 3.5 (Substitution Rule)

If lim f (x) = y0 and lim g(y) = g(y0 ), then
xx0
yy0

lim g f (x) = g lim f (x) = g(y0 )
xx0
xx0
Example 3.3
Evaluate the limit
3x 6
lim
3
x2
x1
S OLUTION :
We first reduce the argument of the limit by cancellation
3(x 2)
3x 6
= lim
= lim 3(x 2)2/3
lim
3
x1
x 2 x1 (x 2)2/3
x1
then apply the Scalar-Multiple and the Substitution Rule for limits (Theorem 3.4:2 and Theorem 3.5) which yields

2/3
= 3 lim (x 2)2/3 = 3 lim (x 2)
x1
x1
and, since the argument of the remaining limit is a polynomial, its value equals
1 2 = 1. Hence, we obtain
= 3(1 2)2/3 = 3
Corollary 3.1
Suppose the function f has a limit at c and n N, then
h
in
1. lim [f (x)]n = lim f (x)
xc
xc
q
p
2. lim n f (x) = n lim f (x),
xc
xc
provided f (x) 0 in a neigborhood of c, if n is even.
147
Theorem 3.6 (Inequalities)

Iff and g have limits at x0 and if f (x) g(x) for all x in an open interval
containing x0 then
lim f (x) lim g(x).
xx0
xx0
Theorem 3.7 (Squeezing Theorem)

If lim f (x) = lim g(x) = L and if f (x) h(x) g(x) for all x in an
xc
xc
open interval containing c, then lim h(x) = L.

xc
Example 3.4
Suppose limxc f (x) = 0 and suppose that |g(x)| B for all x in an open
interval containing c. Show that
lim f (x)g(x) = 0
xc
S OLUTION : By assumption, |g(x)| B for all x in some open interval I

containing c. Since |f (x)| 0 for all x, we can multiply the inequality by
|f (x)| and obtain by Theorem 1.2:4(e)ii
|f (x)g(x)| = |f (x)||g(x)| |f (x)|A
for all x I,
which, by Lemma 1.6:1, is equivalent to

|f (x)|A f (x)g(x) |f (x)|A
for all x I.
Applying the Scalar Multiple Rule for limits (Theorem 3.4:2) and the assumption limxc f (x) = 0, which is equivalent to limxc |f (x)| = 0 to the outside
terms of the double-inequality, we obtain

lim |f (x)|A = (A) lim |f (x)| = 0 = A lim |f (x)| = lim A|f (x)|
xc
xc
xc
xc
Therefore, we can conclude with the Squeeze Play (Theorem 3.7) that
lim f (x)g(x) = 0
xc
148
Theorem 3.8 (LHopitals Rules)

1. 00 : If f and g are differentiable in a neighborhood of the point
c R {}, limc f (x) = limc g(x) = 0 and if
lim f (x)
xc
lim g (x)
xc
exists then
lim f (x)
lim f (x)
xc
lim g(x)
xc
Figure 3.1: Guillaume de lHopital

(16611704)
xc
lim g (x)
xc
2.
: If f and g are differentiable in a neighborhood of the point
c R {}, limc f (x) = limc g(x) = and if
lim f (x)
xc
lim g (x)
xc
exists then
lim f (x)
lim f (x)
xc
lim g(x)
xc
xc
lim g (x)
xc
Example 3.5
tan x
Evaluate the limit lim x
x0 e 1
S OLUTION : Since limx0 tan x = limx0 (ex 1) = 0 and the numerator and denominator functions are differentiable, we can apply LHopitals
Rule (Theorem 3.8) to the given limit and differentiate the numberator and the
denominator functions separately. Clearly, the resulting limit can now be evaluated with the Limit Theorem (Theorem 3.4) in conjuction with Theorem 3.3:
sec x
tan x
=
= lim
x0
x0 ex 1
ex
lim

2
lim sec x
x0
lim e
x0
12
=
1
149
3.1.3 Extrema
Definition 3.6 (Absolute or Global Extrema)
Let the function f be defined on the set Df and let c Df . We say that the
function f has a
1. (global or absolute) maximum at c if f (x) f (c) for all x Df ;
f (c) is then called the maximum value of f .
2. (global or absolute) minimum at c if f (x) f (c) for all x Df ; f (c)
is then called the minimum value of f .
3. (global) extremum at c if f has a (global) maximum or minimum at c.
Definition 3.7 (Relative or Local Extrema)
Let the function f be defined on the set Df and let c Df . We say that the
function f has a
1. local or relative maximum at c if there is an interval (a, b) containing
c such that f (x) f (c) for all x (a, b)
2. local or relative minimum at c if there is an interval (a, b) containing c
such that f (x) f (c) for all x (a, b).
3. local or relative extremum at c if f has local or relative maximum or
minimum at c.
150
3.1.4 Continuity
Definition 3.8 (Continuity)
A function f is continuous at c if and only if for any > 0 there is a > 0
such that for all x Df (Df denotes the domain of f )
|x c| < |f (x) f (c)| <
If S Df is a subset of the domain Df of f , then we say that f is continuous
on S if and only if f is continuous at every point c S.
Theorem 3.9 (Limit Description of Continuity)
If f is an interior point of Df then
f is continuous at c lim f (x) = f (c)
xc
Theorem 3.10 (Continuity and Algebraic Operations)

If f and g are continuous at c, then
1. f + g is continuous at c
2. f g is continuous at c
3. f is continuous at c for any R
4. f /g is continuous at c provided g(c) 6= 0
5. If f is continuous at c and g is continuous at f (c) then the composition
g f is continuous at c.
Theorem 3.11 (Continuity of Elementary Functions)
The following classes of functions are continuous on their domain:
1. Polynomials,
2. Rational Functions,
3. Root Functions,
4. Trigonometric Functions,
5. Inverse Trigonometric Functions,
6. Exponential Functions,
7. Inverse Trigonometric Functions.
151
Definition 3.9 (Discontinuities)

Suppose the function f is defined on the set D and c is an adherent point
of D. We say that f is discontinuous at c if f is not continuous at c. More
specifically: The point c is called
1. a removable discontinuity of f , if limxc f (x) exists (and is different
from f (c) or f (c) is not defined).
2. a jump discontinuity of f , if limxc f (x) and limxc+ f (x) exist
(and are distinct),
3. an infinite discontinuity of f , if (at least) one of the half-sided limits is
infinite.
Theorem 3.12 (Extreme Value Theorem)
If the function f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b], then there exist
numbers c1 and c2 in [a, b] such that f has a maximum at c1 and a minimum
at c2 .
Theorem 3.13 (Intermediate Value Theorem)
If the function f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b] and d is any value
between the minimum and maximum value of f then there exists a number
c [a, b] such that f (c) = d.
Corollary 3.2 (Existence of Zeros)
If f is continuous on [a, b] and f (a) f (b) < 0, i.e. f (a) and f (b) have
different sign, then there exists c (a, b) such that f (c) = 0, i.e. f has a
zero between a and b.
152
3.1.5 Differentiability
Definition 3.10 (Differentiable, Derivative)
Suppose the function f is defined in an open interval containing the point c.
We say that f is differentiable at c if the limit
lim
xc
f (x) f (c)
xc
exists. If the limit exists, it is called the derivative of f at c and denoted by

f (c).
If f is differentiable at all c S Df , then we say, f is differentiable on the
set S. If f is differentiable on its domain, we simply say f is differentiable.
Theorem 3.14 (Differentiablility and Continuity)
If the function f is differentiable at c then it is continuous at c.
Definition 3.11
Given a differentiable function y = f (x), the differential of x is denoted by
dx, the differential of y is defined by
df = dy := f (x)dx.
153
Theorem 3.15 (Differentiation Rules)

1. Summation Rule: Suppose f and g are differentiable at x then f + g
is differentiable at x and
(f + g) (x) = f (x) + g (x)
2. Scalar Multiple Rule: Suppose f is differentiable at x and R,

then f is differentiable at x and
(f ) (x) = f (x)
3. Product Rule: Suppose f and g are differentiable at x then f g is

differentiable at x and
(f g) (x) = f (x)g(x) + f (x)g (x)
4. Quotient Rule: Suppose f and g are differentiable at x and g(x) 6= 0,

then f /g is differentiable at x and

f
g
(x) =
f (x)g(x) f (x)g (x)

2
g(x)
5. The Chain Rule: If the function f is differentiable at x and the function g is differentiable at f (x), then the compositon g f is differentiable at x and

(g f ) (x) = g f (x) f (x)
6. The Inverse Function Rule: If f is differentiable with inverse function
f 1 then f 1 is differentiable at x if f f 1 (x) 6= 0 and

f 1 (x) =
f 1 (x)
154
Theorem 3.16 (Derivatives of Elementary Functions)
1. xr
= rxr1 , (r R)
2. sin x = cos x,
cos x = sin x
8. tanh x = sech2 x,
coth x = csch2 x
9. sech x = sech x tanh x,
csch x = csch x coth x
3. tan x = sec2 x,
cot x = csc2 x
4. sec x = sec x tan x,
csc x = csc x cot x

5. ex = ex ,

ax = ax ln a
1
,
x
1
loga x =
x ln a
6. ln x =
1
10. arcsin x =
,
1 x2
1
arccos x =
1 x2
1
,
1 + x2
1
arccot x =
1 + x2
11. arctan x =
,
|x| x2 1
1
arccsc x =
|x| x2 1
12. arcsec x =
7. sinh x = cosh x,
cosh = sinh x
Theorem 3.17 (Rolles Theorem)

If the function f is continuous on the interval [a, b], differentiable in the
interval (a, b) and f (a) = f (b), then there exists at least one point c (a, b)
such that f (c) = 0.
Theorem 3.18 (Mean Value Theorem)

If the function f is continuous on the interval [a, b] and differentiable on the
interval (a, b), then there exist at least one point c (a, b) such that
f (c) =
Figure 3.2:
Michel Rolle (1655?)
f (b) f (a)
ba
or equivalently
f (b) f (a) = f (c)(b a).
155
3.1.6 Applications of Differential Calculus

Theorem 3.19 (Characterization of Constancy)
1. Suppose f is differentiable on (a, b). If f (x) = 0 for all x (a, b)
then f is constant on (a, b).
2. Suppose f and g are differentiable on (a, b). If f (x) = g (x) for all
x (a, b) then f (x) = g(x) + C for all x (a, b) and some constant
C R.
Definition 3.12 (Monotonic, Increasing, Decreasing)

The function f defined on the interval (a, b) is said to be
1. increasing in (a, b) if for all x1 , x2 (a, b):
x1 < x2 f (x1 ) < f (x2 ) .
2. non-decreasing in (a, b) if for all x1 , x2 (a, b):
x1 < x2 f (x1 ) f (x2 )
3. decreasing in (a, b) if for all x1 , x2 (a, b):
x1 < x2 f (x1 ) > f (x2 )
4. non-increasing in (a, b) if for all x1 , x2 (a, b):
x1 < x2 f (x1 ) f (x2 )
5. monotonic in (a, b) if f is either increasing or non-decreasing or decreasing or non-increasing in (a, b).
Theorem 3.20 (Characterization of Monotonicity)

If f is differentiable on the interval (a, b), then
1. If f (x) > 0 for all x (a, b), then f is increasing on (a, b);
2. If f (x) < 0 for all x (a, b), then f is decreasing on (a, b);
3. If f (x) = 0 for all x (a, b), then f is constant on (a, b);
Definition 3.13 (Concavity, Concave up/down)

If the function f is differentiable on the interval (a, b), then we say that f is
1. concave upward on (a, b) if f is increasing on (a, b).
2. concave downward on (a, b) if f is decreasing on (a, b).
156
Theorem 3.21 (Characterization of Concavity)

Suppose the function f is twice differentiable on the interval (a, b). Then
1. If f (x) > 0 for all x (a, b), then f is concave upward on (a, b).
2. If f (x) < 0 for all x (a, b), then f is concave downward on (a, b).
Theorem 3.22 (Fermats Theorem)
If f has a local extremum at c then f (c) = 0 or f (c) does not exist.
Definition 3.14 (Critical Numbers)
Given a function f with domain Df . The point c Df is called a critical
number of f if either f (c) = 0 or f (c) does not exist.
Figure 3.3: Pierre de Fermat

(16011665)
Theorem 3.23 (First Derivative Test)

Suppose c is a critical point of f and f is continuous at c. If there exists a
> 0 such that:
1. f (x) > 0 for all x (c , c) and f (x) < 0 for all x (c, c + ),
then f (c) is a relative maximum.
2. f (x) < 0 for all x (c , c) and f (x) > 0 for all x (c, c + ),
then f (c) is a relative minimum
3. If f keeps constant sign on (c , c) (c, c + ) then f (c) is not an
extreme value.
Theorem 3.24 (First Derivative Test for Absolute Extrema)
Suppose c is a critical point of f defined on an interval, and suppose f is
continuous at c. If
1. f (x) > 0 for all x < c and f (x) < 0 for all x > c, then f (c) is an
absolute maximum of f .
2. f (x) < 0 for all x < c and f (x) > 0 for all x > c, then f (c) is an
absolute minimum of f .
Theorem 3.25 (Second Derivative Test)
Suppose that f (c) = 0 and that f (c) exists. Then
1. If f (c) > 0 then f (c) is a local minimum.

2. If f (c) < 0 then f (c) is a local maximum.
3.2. EXERCISES
157
3.2 Exercises
3.2.1 Two-Sided Limits
Find the following limits if they exist:
1. lim
x3
2. lim
x3
2x 6
x3
x3
x2 6x 9
3. lim
x1 x2
x1
5x + 4
1
x0 1 +
4. lim
1
x
1
x
1
2
1
x
x2
x2
x2/3 1
x1 x 1
7. lim
has
has
has
has
sin x
x
has
9. lim
10. lim
x0
sin 2x
sin 3x
tan( 4x)
x/4
x /4
lim
12. lim |x| cos x

x0
13.
has
tan2 x
x0
x
8. lim
11.
has
has
3x 3
5. lim
x1
x1
6. lim
has
sin(x + 41 ) 1
x/4
x 14
lim
3.2.2 One-Sided Limits

has
has
has
158
1. lim+
x8
|8 x|
8x
sin x
2. lim
x
x0+
3. lim+
1
x4
4. lim
1
x4
x4
has
x4
5. lim+ x sin
x0
6. lim x sin
x0
1
x
1
x
3.2.3 Limits at Infinity

1. lim
x+1
x3
x2 + 1
x 2x2 + 4
2. lim
has
1 x3
x x3 + 4x + 3
x+1
x2 3
3. lim
4. lim
` 5
5x3 + 4 x + 2x + tanh x
x
4x3 + 2x + 4
5. lim
6. lim
7. lim
8. lim
9.
lim
p

x2 + 4x x
p

x2 + 4x x
1
1 + ex
a
a
a
1
1 + ex
3.2.4 Squeeze Play

Find the following limits if they exist.
1. lim
sin x
x
2. lim x sin
x0
1
x
en
n n!
3. lim
has
4. lim (x + 3)2 sin

x3
5. lim (x ) cos2
x
1
x+3
1
x
3.2. EXERCISES
159
6. lim |x 1| sin x
x1
3.2.5 LHopitals Rule

3x
x ln x

a x
2. lim 1 +
x
x
tan x
3. lim x
x0 e 1
1. lim
4. lim
x0+
has
has
ln x
cot x
6x
tan 4x

1
1
6. lim
x0 sin x
x
p

7. lim
x2 + 2x x
5. lim
x0
8. lim
1
cos
x
9. lim x3 + 1
x
10. lim | sin x|x
x
1/ ln x
a
a
x0

ln sin x
11. lim
x/2 x 2

Z
1 x
1
12. lim
dt
sin
x x 0
1+t
13. lim
x2
arctan(4x 8)
arcsin(7x 14)

1. Sketch the graph of the function
x
f (x) =
x0
0<x<1
1x<2
2x
160
and classify the discontinuities (if any) as being a removable discontinuity, a jump discontinuity, or an infinite discontinuity.
has
2. Sketch the graph of the function
x+7
|x 2|
f (x) =
x2 2x
2x 3
x < 3
3 < x < 1
1 < x < 3
3x
and classify the discontinuities (if any) as being a removable discontinuhas

ity, a jump discontinuity, or an infinite discontinuity.
3. Find where the function
f (x) =
x+1
x2 + 5x + 4
is continuous.
has
4. Find where the function

f (x) =
x+3
x3
is continuous and classify any points of discontinuity.
has
5. Let
f (x) =
x2
,
x2 4
x R \ {2, 2}.
Can f be defined at x = 2 such that f is continuous at x = 2?
has
6. Let
f (x) =
x2
,
x2 + 3x 10
x R \ {5, 2}.
Can f be defined at 2 such that f is continuous at 2?
ha
7. Let
f (x) =
x2
x3
,
+ 8x + 12
x R \ {2, 6}
.Can f be defined at 6 such that f is continuous at 6?
ha
3.2. EXERCISES
161
3.2.7 Intermediate Value Theorem

Recall and interpret the Intermediate Value Theorem. The real valued, continuous function f is defined on the closed and bounded interval [a, b]. Which of
the following must be true?
1. If either f (a) or f (b) is larger than c, then there exists x [a, b] such
a
that f (x) = c.
2. The function has either a maximum or minimum value but we cannot
a
say which.
3. If either f (a) or f (b) is smaller than c, then there exits x [a, b] such
that f (x) = c.
a
4. If f (a) is smaller than c and f (b) is larger than c, then there exists x
a
(a, b) such that f (x) = c.
5. If f (a) and f (b) are both larger than c, then there exists x [a, b] such
a
that f (x) = c.
6. The function has a derivative on the open interval (a, b).
7. If there exists x [a, b] such that f (x) = c, then either f (a) < c < f (b)
or f (b) < c < f (a).
a
8. None or the above.
3.2.8 Mean Value Theorem

Select the correct formulation for the Mean Value Theorem:
1. Let f be continuous on [a, b] and suppose f is continuous on (a, b).

Then there exists c [a, b] such f (c) f (b) f (a) = b a.
a
2. If f is continuous on [a, b] and f exists on (a, b), then there exists a

a
point c (a, b) such that f (c)(b a) = f (b) f (a).
3. If f is continuous on [a, b], then f is differentiable on (a, b) and f (c)(b
a
a) = f (b) f (a).
4. If f is differentiable on (a, b), then f is continuous on [a, b] and f (c)(b
a
a) = f (b) f (a).
5. If f (x) = 0 for all x (a, b), then f equals a constant.
162
6. Let f be differentiable on (a, b). Then f (c)(b a) = f (b) f (a) for

a
all c (a, b).
7. Let f be differentiable on (a, b) and continuous on [a, b]. Then for all
a
c (a, b), we have f (c)(b a) = f (b) f (a).
8. If for some c (a, b) we have f (c)(ba) = f (b)f (a), then it follows
f is differentiable on (a, b) and continuous on [a, b].
a
9. For some c (a, b) it follows f (c)(b a) = f (a) f (b) provided f is
a
continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b).
10. None of the above.
3.2.9 Extreme Value Theorem

The real valued, continuous function f is defined on the closed and bounded
interval [a, b]. Which of the following must be true?
1. If f (a) and f (b) are both larger than c, then there exists x [a, b] such
a
that f (x) = c.
2. The function has a derivative on the open interval (a, b).
3. There exists x [a, b] such that f (x) f (y) for all y [a, b].
4. If either f (a) or f (b) is larger than c, then there exists x [a, b] such
that f (x) = c.
a
5. The function has either a maximum or minimum value but we cannot
say which.
a
6. There exists x [a, b] such that f (x) = f (y) for all y [a, b].
7. If either f (a) or f (b) is smaller than c, then there exists x [a, b] such
that f (x) = c.
a
8. If there exists x [a, b] such that f (x) = c, then either f (a) < c < f (b)
a
or f (b) < c < f (a).
9. None of the above.
3.2. EXERCISES
163
3.2.10 Equations of Tangents and Normals

Find the equation for the tangent and normal to the given curve at the given
point:
1. f (x) = sin x,
( 6 , 12 )
has
x + 1,
(3, 2)
has
3. f (x) = 1 ex ,
(0, 0)
has
4. f (x) = 1 + ln x,
(3, 1 + ln 3)
has
2. f (x) =
3.2.11 The Derivative

1. Recall the Definition of a Derivative
2. Use the Definition to compute the Derivative of the following Functions

at x0 :
x
, x0 = 2
x+1
1
(b) f (x) = , x0 = 4
x
(a) f (x) :=
(c) f (x) = sin x, x0 = 0

(

x2 sin x1 + x(1 x) x 6= 0
(d) f (x) =
,
0
else.
ha
ha
a
x0 = 0.
3. Determine whether each of the following function is () differentiable

() continuous at x0 :
(
x2
x<1
(a) f (x) =
,
2x 1 x 1
at x0 = 1.
(
x2 + 1
x1
(b) f (x) =
,
2
x + 2x + 1 x > 1
at x0 = 1.
x<2
1 x
(c) f (x) = 3
x=2,
2
x 8x + 9 x > 2
at x0 = 2.
ha
164
3.2.12 Applying the Differentation Rules

Rational Functions
1. f (x) = (x 2x2 )2
ha
1
2. f (x) =
x 3 + 2x2
ha
x2 1
x3 + 1

4
3
4. f (x) = x1 + 2x2 + 3x3
3. f (x) =
5. g(x) =
x2 + x + 1
x2 x + 1
6. g(t) =
t2 + 5t + 4
t2 + t 20
x3 1 2
(x + 1)
x4 + 1

1
1
8. f (x) = 1
2
x
x

5
1
9. f (x) = x2 3
x +1

3
4x + 3
10. f (x) =
5x 2
7. f (x) =
11. f (x) = sin x cos x
12. f (x) = x2 cos x
sec x
tan2 x + 1
q

14. f (x) = 3 sec2 tan(x)
13. f (x) =

15. f (x) = tan sec(x + 1)
16. f (x) = 2x2 tan x sec x
ha
ha
a
a
3.2. EXERCISES
165
17. f (x) = cos(sin x)
a
1
18. f (x) = (1 + sin x) 3
1
19. f (x) = sec(tan x) 4

20. f (x) = cot2 2 3x + 1
21. f (x) = x2 sec x3
22. f (x) = cos3 (2x) tan(4x)
Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

23. f (x) = 25x 3ln x

24. f (x) = ln ln(2x + 1)
25. f (x) = (x + 1)x

26. f (x) = xx
ha
Miscellaneous
27. f (x) = cos(2x + 2x )
28. f (x) = (tan x)ln(x
29. f (x) = (sin x)cos x
30. f (x) = ln | sec x + tan x|
31. f (x) = tan e3x
32. f (x) = sec etan(4x

33. f (x) = e4 ln x
a
2
34. f (x) = esin(2x) ln cos e2x

35. f (x) = sin arcsec(ln x)
a
a
a
a
166
36. f (x) =
1
3
arcsin 3x 4x2

37. f (x) = cos arcsec(ln x)
38. f (x) = earccot x

39. f (x) = arctan
x
1 + x2
a
a
a
3.2.13 Implicit Differentiation

1. Find dy/dx in terms of x and y:
(a) tan x + y = 2x
(b) |x| + |y| = 1
(c) x2/3 + y 2/3 = 1
(d) tan(xy) = x
(e) x2 3xy + 4y 2 x2 = 18x2
2. Find Equations for the Tangent and Normal Lines at the indicated Point,
respectively:
(a) 9x2 + 4y 2 = 72, (2, 3)
(b) y 2 + 2xy + x2 = 9,
(2, 1)
(c) x = cos y, ( 21 , 3 )
3.2.14 Extreme Values

Find the critical numbers and classify them as relative and absolute:
1. f (x) = x2 4x + 1, x [0, 3]
has
2. f (x) = x4 x2 + 4
has
3. f (x) = x3 (4 x)2
has
4. f (x) =
x2
, x [2, 6]
1 + x2
5. f (x) = 6 + 216x2 + x2 ,
6. f (x) =
x (0, )
x
, x [3, 1]
4 + x2
ha
ha
ha
3.2. EXERCISES
167
7. f (x) = x 4 x2
8. f (x) = 2 cos3 x + 3 sin x, x [0, ]
3 x < 0
|x + 1|
2
9. f (x) = x 4x + 2 0 x < 3
2x 7
3x<4
has
has
has
3.2.15 Concavity, Inflection Points

Decribe the concavity of the graph of f and find the points of inflections:
1. f (x) = x3 3x + 2
2. f (x) =
6x
x2 + 1
ha
ha
3. f (x) = 2x3 + 3x2
ha
4. f (x) = x 4 x2
ha
5. f (x) = x + sin x
(
x3
x<1
6. f (x) =
3x 2 x 1
has
has
3.2.16 Monotonicity
Find the intervals on which f increases/decreases:
1. f (x) = x +
1
x
2. f (x) = 3x3 + 7x2 + 7

3. f (x) =
x2 + 1
x2 1
4. f (x) = x + sin x
ha
ha
ha
ha
3.2.17 Graph Sketching

Sketch the graph of the function f :
1. f (x) = x3 2x2 + x + 1
ha
x4
x2
ha
2. f (x) =
168
3. f (x) =
2x2
x+1
ha
4. f (x) = 3 |x2 1|
1
5. f (x) = x(x 1) 5
ha
ha
3.2.18 Maximum/Minimum Problems

1. Find the dimensions of the isosceles triangle of largest area with perimea
ter 12.
2. Find the point on the parabola y = x2 which is closest to the point
a
(0, 3).
3. A rectangular garden 12 square feet in area is to be fenced off against
rabbits. Find the least possible length of fencing if one side of the garden
is already protected by a barn.
a
4. A rectangular playground is to be enclosed by a fence and divided in 4
pieces by 3 fences parallel to one side of the playground. 1060 feet of
fencing is used. Find the dimension of the playground which will have
the largest total area.
a
5. What is the maximum possible area for a triangle inscribed in a circle of
radius r.
a
6. Conical paper cups are usually made so that the depth is 2 times the
radius of the rim. Show that this design requires the least amount of
paper per unit volume.
has
7. What is the maximum volume for a rectangular box (square base, no top)
made from 12 square feet of cardboard?
a
169

1. First reduce the argument of the limit operator.
2. First check whether the denominator polynomial is 0 for x = 3. If not,
apply Theorem 3.2:4.
3. First reduce the argument of the limit operator. Then check, whether
Theorem 3.2:4 can be applied.
4. Expand the fraction by x.
5. Reduce the quotient!
6. Reduce the fraction using
x2=

x 2
x+ 2 .
7. Factor the numerator and denominator of the fraction and reduce it.
8. Write tan in terms of sin and cos and use Theorem 3.3:2, 3 and 6.
9. Use the substitution y = x , the addition formula for sin (Theorem 2.4:1) and Theorem 3.3:6.
10. Expand the argument of the limit operator by 2x and use Theorem 3.3:6.
11. Use LHopitals Rule (Theorem 3.8) or Theorem 3.3:6.
12. Use the inequality 1 cos x 1 for x R in conjunction with the
Squeezing Theorem (Theorem 3.7).

2. Expand the argument of the limit by
x and apply Theorem 3.3:6,1.

2. Factor out x2 in the numerator and denominator of the argument of the
limit operator and reduce. Then apply Theorem 3.4 and Theorem 3.3:8.
170
3.3.4 Squeeze Play

3. Establish the inequality
0
e3 1
en
n!
2 n
for all n N with n 4 and apply the Squeezing Theorem (Theorem 3.7).

1. Apply LHopitals Rule and simplify the limit.
2. Rewrite

1+
a
a x
= ex ln(1+ x )
x
and use the Substitution Rule (Theorem 3.5) and LHopitals Rule (Theorem 3.8).

1. Check half-sided limits at 0, 1 and 2!
2. Check the half-sided limits at 3, 1 and 3!
3. Determine the domain of f . Also check for common factors in the numerator and denominator of the rational term defining f .
4. Determine the domain. Check the half-sided limits at the zeroes of the
denominator!
5. Look for common divisiors!

171



point:
1. Compute the slope m of the graph of f at the point ( 6 , 21 ). Use the
point-slope form of the line equation. The slope m of the normal line
is 1/m.
2. Compute the slope m of the graph of f at the point (3, 2). Use the pointslope form of the line equation. The slope m of the normal line is
1/m
3. Compute the slope m of the graph of f at the point (0, 0). Use the pointslope form of the line equation. The slope m of the normal line is
1/m
4. Compute the slope m of the graph of f at the point (3, ln 3)). Use the
point-slope form of the line equation. The slope m of the normal line
is 1/m

at x0 :
(a) Try to factor out x 2 in the numerator of the argument of the
differential quotient!
(b) Try to factor out x 4
(a) investigate the left- and right-sided limits at x0 = 1

Rational Functions
1. Apply the Chain Rule!
2. Try the Quotient Rule!
172
13. Can you simplify the term before you differentiate?
14. Simplify the term before you differentiate!
25. You can use logarithmic differentiation or rewrite the expression using
the identity ab = eb ln a
Miscellaneous

respectively:

1. Determine the zeroes of f and apply Fermats Theorem.
2. Determine the zeroes of f and apply Fermats Theorem. Apply the First
Derivative Test. Does the Extreme Value Theorem apply?
3. Determine the zeroes of f , apply Fermats Theorem and the First Derivative Test. Does the Extreme Value Theorem apply?
4. Find the zeroes of f , apply Fermats Theorem and the First Derivative
Test.
5. Find the zeroes of f on the interval (0, ) and apply the First Derivative
Test.
6. Determine the zeroes of f , apply Fermats Theorem and the First Derivative Test. Does the Extreme Value Theorem apply?
7. What is the domain Df of f ? Determine f . Is f defined for all x Df ?
Apply Fermats Theorem.
8. Determine f and find its zeroes on (0, ). Are there any points in (0, )
where f is not differentiable?
9. Where is f differentiable on [3, 4)? For which x (3, 4) is f (x) =
0?
173

1. Consider the second derivative of f and check where f is positive and
where it is negative!
2. Consider the second derivative of f and check where f is positive and
negative!
3. Determine f and find the intervals where f is positive and where it is
negative.
negative.
negative.
negative.
3.3.16 Monotonicity
1. Determine the intervals on which f is positive and where it is negative.
4.

1. Determine (i) Domain, (ii) Symmetry, (iii) x-Intercepts, (iv) y-Intercepts,
(v) Monotonicty, (vi) Extrema, (vii) Concavity, (viii) Inflection Points,
(ix) Asymptotes
(ix) Asymptotes
(ix) Asymptotes
174

(ix) Asymptotes
(ix) Asymptotes

6. Show that
the surface area of the conical cup has its absolute minimum
if h = 2r!
175

6.
1
8
2. 0
7.
2
3
3. 31
8. 0
4. 1
9. 1
1. 2
5. 0
10.
2
3
11. 4
12. 0
13. 0

1. -1
3.
5. 0
2. 0
4. -
6. 0

1. 1
2.
1
2
3. -1
4. 0
7. 2
5
4
8. 1
5.
6.
9. 0
3.4.4 Squeeze Play

1. 0
3. 0
5. 0
2. 0
4. 0
6. 0

1.
3.
5. - 23
2. ea
4. 0
6. 0
176
7. 1
10. 1
8. 1
11. 0
9. e3
12. 0
13. - 47

1. f has jump discontinuities at x = 0 and x = 2.
2. f has a jump discontinuity at x = 3 and a removable discontinuity at
x = 1. f is continuous at x = 1.
3. f is continuous on R \ {1, 4}, but has a removable discontinuity at
x = 1.
4. f is continuous on Df := R \ {3} and has an infinite discontinuity at
x = 3.
5. Yes, define f (2) := 1/4.
Figure 3.4:
6. Yes, define f (2) := 1/7.

7. No, f has an infinite discontinuity at x = 6.

Figure 3.5:
1. true
4. true
2. false
5. false
3. true
6. false
7. false
8. false

1. false
5. true
9. true
2. true
6. false
10. false
3. false
7. false
4. false
8. false

177
1. false
4. true
7. true
2. false
5. false
8. false
3. true
6. false
9. false

point:

3
1. Tangent line: T (x) = 21 3 x + 12 12

Normal line: N (x) = 32 3 x + 12 + 9 3 .
2. Tangent line: T (x) = 41 x + 54

Normal line: N (x) = 4x + 14.
3. Tangent line: T (x) = x
Normal line: N (x) = x.
4. Tangent line: T (x) = 13 x + ln 3

Normal line: N (x) = 3x + (10 + ln 3).

1. We say that f is differentiable at c if the limit
lim
xc
f (x) f (c)
xc
exists. If the limit exists, it is called the derivative of f at c and denoted

by f (c).
at x0 :
(a)
1
9
(c) 1
(b)
1
16
(d) 1

(a) () differentiable () continuous
(b) () not differentiable () continuous
(c) () differentiable () continuous
178

Rational Functions
1. 16x3 12x2 + 2x
2.
3.
3+4x2
x2 3+2x2
x(x2)
3/2
2
x2 x+1
3

384 2x3 + 3x2 + 6x + 4 x3 + 2x2 + 5x + 4
x25

2 x2 1
5.
2
x2 x + 1

4 t2 + 12t + 26
6.
2
t2 + t 20

x x7 + 5x3 x5 + 3x + 2x4 + 4x2 2
7.
2
x4 + 1
4.
8.
3x 2
x3
9.
5x x5 + x2 1
2
69 4x + 3
10.
4
5x 2
4
2x6 + 4x3 + 3x + 2
6
x3 + 1
11. cos2 (x) sin2 (x) = cos(2x)
12. 2x cos(x) x2 sin(x)
13. sin x

2/3

14. 23 sec tan(x)
tan tan(x) sec2 (x)

15. sec2 sec(x + 1) sec(x + 1) tan(x + 1)
16. 4x tan(x) sec(x) + 2x2 sec3 (x) + 2x2 tan2 (x) sec(x)

17. sin sin(x) cos(x)

18.
cos(x)
3(1 + sin(x))2/3
19.
1
4
179

1/4

sec tan(x)
tan tan(x) sec2 (x)

6 cot 2 3x + 1 csc2 2 3x + 1
3x + 1

2x3 sec x3 3 sec x3 tan x3
21.
x2
20.
22. 6 cos2 (2x) sin(2x) tan(4x) + 4 cos3 (2x) sec2 (4x)

23.
(5x ln 2)25x 3ln x + (ln 3)25x 3ln x ln x

x
2
(2x + 1) ln(2x + 1)
h
25. (x + 1)x ln(x + 1) +
24.
x i
x+1

xx +x1
26. x
x ln x(ln x + 1) + 1
Miscellaneous

27. ( ln 2) 2x 2x ] sin 2x + 2x
28.
`
ln xx
sec2 x
tan x
ln x ln(tan x) + ln(tan x) + x ln
tan x
cos x
29. (sin x)
cos2 x
sin x ln(sin x) +
sin x
sec(x) tan(x) + sec2 x

| sec(x) + tan(x)|
3
3
31. 23 e 2 x sec2 e 2 x
30.
32. 8xetan(4x ) sec2 (4x2 ) sec etan(4x
tan etan(4x
4e4 ln(x)
x

34. 2esin 2x cos 2x ln cos(e2x ) e2x tan(e2x )
33.
180
35.
36.
abs. max.
1
b
K1
1
p
x ln x ln2 x 1
2
3 8x
2
3 1 9x + 24x3 16x4
37.
1
x ln2 x
38.
earccot(x)
x2 + 1
39.
1 x2
x2 + (x2 + 1)2
rel. max.
K2

K3
(a) 4 x + y cos2 ( x + y) 1
abs. min.
Figure 3.6:
(b) 1
3 y
(c)
3
x
cos2 (xy) y
x
34x 8xy + 3y
(e)
8yx2 3x
(d)
rel. max.
y
b
abs. min.
b
b
abs. min.
3
respectively:
1.5
1.0
0.5
Figure 3.7:
0.5
1.0
1.5
(a) T (x) = 32 x + 6; N (x) = 32 x +
5
3
(b) T (x) = x + 3; N (x) = x 1
(c) T (x) = 23 3 x + 3 + 33
N (x) = 21 3 x 41 3 + 3

1. Critical numbers: 0, 2, 3; f has an absolute maximum at (0, 1), and
absolute minimum at (2, 3) and a relative maximum at (3, 2).
2. Critical numbers: 21 2, 0; f has a relative maximum at (0, 4) and

absolute minima at 12 2, 15
4 .
rel. min.
b
181
3. Critical numbers: 0, 12
5 , 4; f has an inflection point at (0, 0), a rela110 592
tive maximum at ( 12
,
5
3 125 ) and a relative minimum at (4, 0). Note
that f does not have any absolute extrema, compare the Extreme Value
Theorem!
4. Critical numbers: 2, 0, 6; f has a relative maximum at (2, 54 ), an
absolute minimum at (0, 0) and an absolute maximum at (6, 36
37 ).

5. Critical numbers: 16 ; f has an absolute minimum at 16 , 24 , but no absolute maximum. Note hat f does not satisfy the assumptions of the
Extreme Value Theorem!

3
6. Critical numbers: 3, 2, 1; f has
a relative maximum at 3, 13
,

an absolute minimum at 2, 41 and an absolute maximum at 1, 15 .

7. critical numbers: 2, 2, 2, 2; f has a relative maximum at (2,
0),
an absolute minimum at ( 2, 2), an absolute maximum at ( 2, 2)
and a relative minimum at (2, 0).
abs. max.
b
0.9
rel. max.
b
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
abs. min.
Figure 3.9:
8. critical points: 0, /4, /2, ; f has a relative minimum at (0, 2), its
absolute maximum at (/2,
3), its absolute minimum at (, 2) and an
inflection point at (/4, 2 2).
40
9. Critical numbers: 3, 1, 0, 2, 3, note that the domain of f is the halfopen interval [0, 4); f has a relative maximum at (3, 2), a relative minimum at (1, 0), a relative maximum at (0, 2) and an absolute minimum
at (2, 2), however no absolute maximum. Note that f does not satisfy
the assumption of the Extreme Value Theorem!
30
f
b
abs. min.
y
20
10
abs. max.
2
b
b
abs. max.
infl. point
2
0
0
rel. min.
K2
0.4
Figure 3.10:
rel. min.
K1
K1
K2
K2
abs. min.
Figure 3.12:
0.3
K1
0.2
rel. max.
b
0.1
abs. min.
abs. max.
b
0.2
Figure 3.13:
0.1
K
f
0.1
0.2
b
b
rel. max.
abs. min.
Figure 3.11:
182
1. f is concave down on (, 0), concave up on (0, ) and has an inflection point at (0, 2).

2. f is concave down on , 3 0, 3 , concave up on 3, 0

3, and has an inflection points at 3, 23 3 , (0, 0) and 3, 23 3 .

1
1
,
and has an
,
concave
up
on
3. f is concave down on ,
2
2

inflection point at 12 , 21 .
10
4. f is concave up on (2, 0), concave down on (0, 2), and has an inflection
point at (0, 0).
Inflection Point.
f
Conc. Up
Conc. Down
K3
K2
K1
10
b
Inflection Point.
Inflection Point.
b
Conc. Up
Conc. Down
3
bc
K5
Inflection Point.
b
K10
K3
rel. max.
2
rel. max.
Figure 3.16:
K2
K1
rel. min.
K2
K1
f
bc
K3
Convcave Up
Concave Down
K5
K2
bc
K10
b
abs. min.
Figure 3.15:
b
Figure 3.14:
I.P.
C.U.
I.P.
C.D.
10
I.P.
K6
K4
K2
C.U.
I.P.
C.D.
K2
f
y
f
Conc. Down
Inflection Point.
K4
Inflection Point.
I.P.
K2
K6
b
K1
Conc. Up
Conc. Down
K1
K4
Figure 3.17:
Figure 3.18:
3
y
5. f is concave up on the set
f
1
I.P.
K2
K1
f
C.D.
K1
K2
K3
K4
Figure 3.20:
C.U.
1
x
[
nZ
(2n 1), 2n
1
x
Conc. Up
K10
4
K2
K5
Figure 3.19:
K2
183
concave down on

[
2n, (2n + 1)
nZ
and has inflection points at (n, n) for n Z.

6. f is concave down on (, 0), concave up on (0, 1), linear on (1, )
and has an inflection point at (0, 0)
3.4.16 Monotonicity
rel. min.
f incr.
1. f is increasing on (, 1) (1, ), decreasing on (1, 0) (0, 1),

has a relative maximum at (1, 2) and a relative minimum at (1, 2).
K4
K3
K2
f decr.
+
K1
2. f is increasing on , 9 (0, ), decreasing on ( 14

9 , 0), has a
3073
relative maximum at 14
,
and
a
relative
minimum
at
(0, 7).
9
243
3. Note hat f is only defined on Df := R \ {1}. f is increasing on

(, 1) (1, 0), decreasing on (0, 1) (1, ) and has a relative
maximum at (0, 1).
f incr.
+
K3
K4
Figure 3.21:
15
10
f incr.
rel. max.
f
10
5
y
f decr.
+
K2
K1
f
K2
10
K3
K1
rel. max.

14
rel. min.
1
K10
K5
K5
10
K5
f incr.
Figure 3.24:
4. f is increasing on R. Note that f has inflection points at 2(n1), 2n

1) with horizontal tangent for n Z.

1. (i) Domain:
Df := R, (ii) Symmetry:
none, (iii) x-Intercepts:
no rational zeroe, only one real zeroe x 0.4656, (iv) y-Intercept:
f decr.
f incr.
K3
K2
K10
K10
Figure 3.23:
K1
K5
Figure 3.22:
10
f
5
K2
K1
b
b
f incr.
184
rel. min.
rel. max.
infl. point
f decr.
+
f incr.
f concave down
f concave up
+
K5
Figure 3.25:
y
0.1
infl. point
abs. max.
0.2
20
10
f decr.
20
f incr.
+
0.1
f conc. down
10

y = 1, (v) Monotonicity:
f is increasing on , 31 (1, ) and

decreasing
on 13 , 1 , (vi) Extrema:
f has a relative maximum at

1 31
,
and
a
relative
minimum
at
(1,
1),
but no absolute
extremum,
3 27

2
(vii) Concavity:
f is concave down on , 3 and concave up

2 29
on 32 , , (viii) Inflection Points:
3 , 27 , (ix) Asymptotes: none,
limx f (x) = , limx f (x) = .
2. (i) Domain: Df := R \ {0}, (ii) Symmetry: none, (iii) x-Intercepts:
x = 4, (iv) y-Intercept: none, (v) Monotonicity: f is decreasing on
(, 0) (8, ) and decreasing
on (0, 8), (vi) Extrema: f has an

1
, (vii) Concavity: f is concave down on
absolute maximum at 8, 16
(, 0)
(0, 12) and concave up on (12, ), (viii) Inflection Point:
1
, (ix) Asymptotes: y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote, x = 0 is a
12, 18
vertical asymptote of f .
3. (i) Domain: Df := R\{1}, (ii) Symmetry: none, (iii) x-Intercepts:
x = 0, (iv) y-Intercepts: y = 0, (v) Monotonicity: f is increasing on
(, 2)(0, ) and decreasing on (2, 1)(1, 0), (vi) Extrema:
f has a relative maximum at (2, 8) and a relative minimum at (0, 0),
(vii) Concavity: f is concave down on (, 1) and concave up on
(1, ), (viii) Inflection Points: none, (ix) Asymptotes: Since
f decr.
+
f conc. down
0.2
f conc. up
+
Figure 3.26:
f (x) =
2
2x2
= 2x 2 +
x+1
x+1
f has the (slanted) asymptote
15
f
10
f conc. down
y = 2x 2.
f conc. up
+
y
f in.
f de. f de.
5
K4
K2
f
y=
2x
f in.
In addition, f has the vertical asymptote x = 1.
in.0
.m
r el
4. (i) Domain: Df := R, (ii) Symmetry: even (iii) x-Intercepts: x =

2, (iv) y-Intercept: y = 2, (v) Monotonicity: f is increasing on
(, 1) (0, 1) and decreasing on (1, 0) (1, ), (vi) Extrema:
f has absolute maxima at (1, 3) and (1, 3) and a relative minimum
at (0, 2), (vii) Concavity: f is concave down on (, 1) (1, )
and concave up on (1, 1), (viii) Inflection Points: (1, 3), (1, 3), (ix)
Asymptotes: none.
K5
2
b
ax
.m
r el
K10
K15
Figure 3.27:
5. (i) Domain: Df := R, (ii) Symmetry: none, (iii) x-Intercepts: x =

0, 1, (iv) y-Intercept:
y = 0, (v) Monotonicity: f is decreasing on

, 56 and increasing on 56 , ), (vi) Extrema: f has an abso
5 4/5
6
, (vii) Concavity:
f is concave up on
lute minimum at 65 , 36

(, 1) 35 , and concave down on 1, 35 , (viii) Inflection Points:

(1, 0), and 53 , 59 21/5 34/5 , (ix) Asymptotes: none.
abs. max., IP
rel. min
abs. max., IP
10
K4
K3
K2
K1
f in.
f de.
+
f conc. down
K5
f in.
+
f de.
f conc. down
+
K10
f conc. up
+
Figure 3.28:
185

1. The triangle has to be equilateral, with each side equaling 4 units!
q

5 5
2.
2, 2
3. 4 6 ft.
4. Width: 265 ft (occurs 2 times), depth: 106 ft (occurs 5 times!).
5. 34 3 r2 units2
6. Suppose the conical cup has radius r and height h and volume V . We
would like to minimize its (surface)
area A and will show that A attains
its absolute minimum at h = 2r.

Recall that
V =
2
1
3 r h
and thus
h=
3V
.
r2
Moreover,

9V 2
2
+
= r + 2 4
A = r
r

2 6
2
r + 9V
.
=
r2
p
r2
h2
Note that A gives the surface area of the conical cup of radius r > 0
with fixed volume V . In order to find its minimum, we first compute its
derivative
6 2 r7 2r( 2 r6 + 9V 2 )
4
r r
A (r) =
2 6
r + 9V 2
2
r2
2 7
2 2 r6 9V 2
4 r 18rV 2
r
= r
=
2 r6 + 9V 2
2 r6 + 9V 2
2r4
r3
2
r
r2
It can be easily seen that A (r) = 0 if and only if r3 = 3V2 and that A
has an absolute minimum at this point. Hence, since 3V = hr2 ,
hr2
3V
hr2
=
r3 =
=
2
2,
2
which is equivalent to r 2 = h, as claimed.

7. 4 ft2
4
3
y
2
b
IP
K4
K3
K2
K1
f de.
f conc. up
Figure 3.29:
K1
K2
IP
abs. min.
f in.
K3
++
K4
f in.
f c.d.
+
f conc. up
186

1. We first reduce the argument of the limit operator and obtain the expression
lim
xc
2(x 3)
2x 6
= lim
= lim 2
xc
xc
x3
x3
whose limit clearly equals

=2
by Theorem 3.2:1.
2. Let q(x) := x2 6x 9. As can be easily verified, q(3) = 18 6= 0,
hence 3 Dr , where r(x) = (x 3)/(x2 6x 9). Hence, we can
evaluate the limit of r(x) at the point c = 3 using Theorem 3.2:4 and
obtain
lim
x3
33
x3
= 2
= 0.
x2 6x 9
3 639
3. Since the polynomial q(x) = x2 5x + 4 is zero at c = 1, as can

be easily verified, we cannot apply Theorem 3.2:4 to compute the given
limit. Therefore, we try to reduce the fraction:
lim
x1
x1
x1
1
= lim
= lim
x2 5x + 4 x1 (x 1)(x 4) x1 x 4
The denominator of the reduced fraction is different from zero at c = 1.

Hence, we can apply Theorem 3.2:4 and obtain
=
1
= 31
14
4. Expanding the fraction by x yields

1
lim
x0 1 +
1
x
1
x

x 1 x1
x1
= lim
= lim
x0 x 1 + 1
x0 x + 1
x
which satisfies the assumptions of Theorem 3.2:4. Hence the limit can
be determined by evaluating the argument function at c = 0
=
01
= 1
0+1
187
5. Factoring the numerator and reducing the quotient, we obtain

3(x 1)
3x 3
= lim
lim
x 1 x1 (x 1)1/2
x1
= 3 lim (x 1)1/2 = 3 0 = 0
x1
by the Substitution Rule for limits and the continuity of the root functions.
6. We combine the fractions in
the denominator
the denominator
and
factor

using the identity x 2 =
x 2
x + 2 , then follows
lim
x2
1
2
1
x
x2
x 2
2x

= lim
x2
x 2
x+ 2
x 2

= lim
x2
2x x 2
x+ 2
1

= lim
x2
2x x + 2
The limit of the denominator can be computed using the product rule
and summation rule for limits (Theorem 3.4:3 and 1) in conjunction with
Theorem 3.3:1 and Theorem 3.2:3

lim 2x x + 2 = lim 2x lim x + lim 2

x2
x2
x2
x2
q
q

lim x + 2
= lim 2x
x2
x2

= 2 2 2 + 2 = 4 2 6= 0.
Hence, by the quotient rule (Theorem 3.4:4)
lim 1
1
1
x2

= = 18 2.
=
lim
x2
2x x + 2
4 2
lim 2x x + 2
x2
Hence,
lim
x2
1
2
1
x
x2
1
8
2.
7. We first factor and reduce the argument of the limit operator:

x1/3 1 x1/3 + 1
x2/3 1

lim
= lim 1/3
x1 x 1
x1 x
1 x2/3 + x1/3 + 1
x1/3 + 1
x1 x2/3 + x1/3 + 1
= lim
188
Since by Theorem 3.4:3, Theorem 3.3:1 and Theorem 3.2:3

2/3
1/3

lim x2/3 + x1/3 + 1 = lim x
+ lim x
+ lim 1
x1
x1
x1
x1
= 1 + 1 + 1 = 3 6= 0,
we can use the quotient rule (Theorem 3.4:4) to finish evaluating the
limit above. Therefore, by another application of Theorem 3.3:1 and
Theorem 3.2:3, we obtain

lim x1/3 + 1
x1/3 + 1
x1
=
lim

x1 x2/3 + x1/3 + 1
lim x2/3 + x1/3 + 1
x1
1/3
lim x
+1
x1
2
.
3
Hence,
x2/3 1
= 32 .
x1 x 1
lim
8. Clearly,
tan2 x
= lim
x0
x0
x
lim
sin x sin x
x
cos2 x
and by the product rule (Theorem 3.4:3)

= lim
x0
sin x
sin x
lim
x0 cos2 x
x
Note that both limits exist by Theorem 3.3:6,2,3. Moreover, by Theorem 3.4:4 and 3, we have
lim sin x
0
sin x
x0
=

2 = = 0.
x0 cos2 x
1
lim cos x
lim
x0
Therefore,
lim
x0
sin x
sin x
sin x
sin x
lim
= lim
lim
= 1 0 = 0,
x0 cos2 x
x0 x
x0 cos2 x
x
hence
tan2 x
= 0.
x0
x
lim
189
9. Rewriting the limit using the substitution y = x , we see that

lim
sin(y + )
sin x
= lim
x y0
y
which, by the addition formula for sin, equals

= lim
y0
sin y cos + sin cos y

y
and, since sin = 0, cos = 1,

= lim
y0
sin y
y
and
= lim
y0
sin y
= 1
y
by Theorem 3.4:2 and Theorem 3.3:6.
10. Clearly,

sin 2x 2x
sin 2x
= lim
lim
x0 2x sin 3x
x0 sin 3x
sin 2x
2
sin 2x 3x 3
= lim
= lim 2x 23
sin 3x
x0 2x sin 3x
x0
3x
which by Theorem 3.4:4,2 equals
sin 2x
lim
2 x0
2x
=
sin 3x
3
lim
x0 3x
and by Theorem 3.3:6
=
2
3
1
=
1
2
3
11. We compute this limit using LHopitals Rule (Theorem 3.8). Note that
numerator and denominator function are differentiable at 4 and the limit
is of type 00 :
4 sec2 ( 4x)
tan( 4x)
= lim
= 4.
x /4
1
x/4
x/4
lim
190
12. We will use the Squeeze Theorem (Theorem 3.7): Since

1 cos x 1,
for all x R
it follows by multiplying the double-inequality by |x| 0 that

|x| |x| cos x |x|
for all x R.
Since by Theorem 3.3:1 and Theorem 3.4:3

r
2
2
lim x = 0 = 0,
lim |x| = lim x
x0
x0
x0
by Theorem 3.7, the limit of the expression in the middle of the doubleinequality above has to be zero,too, i.e.
lim |x| cos x = 0.
x0

2. Clearly,
sin x
sin x
=
x
x
x
for all x R, x 0. Hence by Theorem 3.4:3

sin x
sin x
sin x
x = lim+
lim+ x
lim+ = lim+
x
x
x x0
x0
x0
x0
which by Theorem 3.3:6 and 1 equals
=1
lim x
x0+
=10=0
by Theorem 3.2:2.

2. Clearly,
x2 1 +
x+1
= lim 2
lim
x x 2 +
x x 3
1
x2
4
x2
1+
x 2 +
= lim
1
x2
4
x2
191
which in turn by Theorem 3.4:4, 1 and 3 equals

lim 1 +
lim 2 +

1 2
x
x
2
lim x1
x
lim
and by Theorem 3.2:1 and Theorem 3.3:8 finally

=
1 + 02
= 12 .
2 + 02
3.5.4 Squeeze Play

3. Clearly, e/n 1 for all n N with n 3. Hence
en
1eee
e e
e3 e e
e 1
=
n!
e234
n1n
2 34
n1n
e3
1
e3 1
1 11 =
2
n
2 n
for all n N with n 4. Therefore, we have established that
0
en
e3 1
n!
2 n
for all n N with n 4. Since
e3
e3
1
e3 1
=
lim
=
0 = 0
n 2 n
2 n n
2
lim
by Theorem 3.4:2 and Theorem 3.3:8, we can apply the Squeezing

Theorem (Theorem 3.7) and obtain that the middle expression in the
double-inequality above also has to be zero, i.e.
en
= 0.
n n!
lim

1. Since f (x) := 3x and g(x) := ln x are differentiable in a neigborhood of
c = and limx]inf ty 3x = limx ex ln x = by Theorem 3.3:10
and limx ln x = by Theorem 3.3:11, we can apply LHopitals
Rule (Theorem 3.8) and conclude

3x
3x ln 3
= lim
= lim x3x ln 3 = .
1
x ln x
x
x
x
lim
192
2. We first rewrite the argument of the limit operator in terms of the natural
exponential function:

a x
a
1+
= ex ln(1+ x ) .
x
We now apply the Substitution Rule (Theorem 3.5) to this expression

and first compute the limit of the interior function f (x) := x ln(1 + xa ):
lim x ln(1 +
ln(1 + xa )
a
) = lim
1
x
x
x
which satisfies the assumptions of LHopitals Rule (Theorem 3.8) as can

be easily verified and therefore equals
= lim
= lim
x
a
x+a ( x2 )
x12
ax
x+a
= lim
a
xa
= lim
x(1 + xa ) x 1 +
a
x
a
=a
1+0
by Theorem 3.4:4, Theorem 3.3:8. By Theorem 3.3:4,

lim ey = ea ,
ya
hence by the Substitution Rule (Theorem 3.5)

a
lim ex ln(1+ x ) = ea .
Therefore,
lim
1+
a x
= ea .
x

1. f is continuous on R \ {0, 1, 2}. We will check the half-sided limits at
0, 1 and 2:
lim f (x) = lim 1 = 1
x0
x0
lim f (x) = lim x2 = 0,
x0+
x0+
hence f has a jump discontinuity at x = 0. Moreover

lim f (x) = lim x2 = 1
x1
x1
lim f (x) = lim 1 = 1,
x1+
x1+
193
hence f has a removable discontinuity at x = 1. Finally

lim f (x) = lim 1 = 1
x2
x2
lim+ f (x) = lim+ x = 2,
x2
x2
hence f has a jump discontinuity at x = 2.

2. f is clearly continuous on R \ {3, 1, 3}. We will check the half-sided
limits at 3, 1 and 1:
lim f (x) =
x3
lim f (x) =
x3+
lim (x + 7) = 4
x3
lim |x 2| = 5,
x3+
hence f has a jump discontinuity at x = 3. Moreover

lim f (x) =
x1
lim f (x) =
x1+
lim |x 2| = 3
x1
Figure 3.30:
lim (x 2x) = 3
x1+
hence f has a removable discontinuity at x = 1. Note that f is not

defined at x = 1. Finally
lim f (x) = lim (x2 2x) = 3
x3
x3
lim f (x) = lim+ (2x 3) = 3 = f (3)
x3+
x3
hence f is continuous at x = 3.
3. The domain of f is Df := R \ {1, 4}. Hence, als a rational function,
f is continuous on Df . However, since
x+1
x+1
=
x2 + 5x + 4
(x + 1)(x + 4)
1
=
,
x+4
we see that f has a removable discontinuity at x = 1.
f (x) =
4. As a rational function, f is continuous on its domain Df := R \ {3}. We

check the half-sided limits at x = 3:
x+3
=
lim f (x) = lim
x3
x3 x 3
Note that x 3 implies that x 3 < 0 and x + 3 > 0. Hence the

quotient is negative as x 3 with the numerator being bounded and
the denominator approaching zero. Similarly, we find that
lim+ f (x) = lim+
x3
x3
x+3
= +
x3
Again, note that x 3+ implies that x 3 > 0 and x + 3 > 0 etc.
Figure 3.31:
194
5. Since
f (x) =
x2
x2
1
=
=
,
2
x 4
(x 2)(x + 2)
x+2
f has a removable discontinuity at x = 2. Thus, if we define

f (x) := lim
x2
1
= 41 ,
x+2
(the extension of) f is continuous at x = 2.




point:
1. Clearly, the derivative of f is given by
f (x) = cos x
for x R. The slope of f at ( 6 , 21 ), which by definition is the slope of

the tangent at ( 6 , 21 ), is therefore m = f 6 = cos 6 = 12 3. With
the point-slope form of the line equation, which is given by
y y0 = m(x x0 ),
we can now easily compute he tangent line at the point ( 6 , 12 ):
y 12 = 21 3 x 6 = 12 3x 12
3.
Hence the tangent line is given by

T (x) =
1
2

3 x+
1
2
12

3
195
for all x R.
The normal line of f at ( 6 , 21 ), can be computed the same way. Recall

that the slope of the normal at ( 6 , 21 ) is given by
1
1
=
m
f 6
2
1
= 1 = = 32 3.
3
2 3
m =
We can now compute the normal line of f at the point ( 6 , 21 ):

y
and obtain
for all x R.
1
2

= 32 3 x 6 = 23 3x + 9 3

N (x) = 32 3 x +
1
2

3
2. Since the derivative of f is

1
f (x) =
2 x+1
the slope of f at (3, 2) is
1
= 14 .
m = f (3) =
2 3+1
Moreover, the slope of the normal line at (3, 2) is given by
m =
1
1
= 1 = 4.
m
4
With the point-slope form y y0 = m(x x0 ) of the line equation, we

obtain y 2 = 14 (x 3) = 41 x 34 and y 2 = 4(x 3) = 4x + 12.
Thus, the tangent line of f at (3, 2) is given by
T (x) = 41 x +
5
4
while the normal line of f at (3, 2) is

N (x) = 4x + 14
for x R.
196
3. The derivative of f is f (x) = ex , hence the slope of the tangent of f

at the point (0, 0) is
m = f (0) = e0 = 1
while the slope of the normal of f at (0, 0) is
1
1
= = 1.
m
1
We can therefore compute the equations of the tangent and normal line
with point-slope form of the line equation and obtain y0 = 1(x0) =
x and y 0 = 1 (x 0) = x, respectively. Hence, the tangent line
and normal line of f at (0, 0) are given by
m =
T (x) = x
and
N (x) = x,
respectively.
4. The derivative of f is f (x) = x1 , hence the slope of the tangent and
normal of f at the point (3, 1 + ln 3) is
m = f (3) =
1
3
and
m =
1
1
= 1 = 3,
m
3
respectively. With the point-slope form of the line equation, we again

obtain y (1 + ln 3) = 31 (x 3) = 13 x 1 and y (1 + ln 3) =
3(x 3) = 3x + 9. Hence
T (x) = 31 x + ln 3
is the equation of the tangent line of f at the (3, 1 + ln 3), while the
eation of the normal line of f at the same point is given by
N (x) = 3x + (10 + ln 3)
for x R

at x0 :
197

Rational Functions
Miscellaneous

respectively:
+ + + + +
Figure 3.32:

1. (i) Find the critical numbers of f on (0, 3): f (x) = 2x 4 = 2(x
2) = 0 which is equivalent to x = 2; note 2 (0, 3). Hence, the critical
numbers of f on [0, 3] are {0, 2, 3}.
abs. max.
1
(ii) Determine the type of the critical numbers: We will apply the First
Derivative Test. Pick a sample point in each subinterval determined by
the critical numbers. We choose 1 and 5/2.
K1
Then evaluate f at those sample points. Actually, we only need to determine the sign (postive/negative). We find that f (1) < 0 and f (5/2) >
0. By the Intermediate-Value Theorem, f keeps its sign on the whole
subinterval. Thus, by the First Derivative Test, f has a relative maximum
at 0, a relative minimum at 2 and a relative maximum at 3.
(iii) Evaluate f at each extremum and compare the values: f (0) = 1,
f (2) = 4 8 + 1 = 3, f (3) = 9 12 + 1 = 2. Hence (0, 1)
is the absolute maximum, (2, 3) the absolute minimum and (3, 2) a
relative maximum of f on [0, 3].
rel. max.
K2
K3
abs. min.
Figure 3.33:
2. (i) Find the critical numbers of f on Df = R:

f (x) = 4x3 2x = 4x x2

.
q
1
2
Clearly, f (x) = 0 is equivalent to x = 0 or x = 12 = 21 2. Since

f is defined on Df =
R and Rdoes not have any boundary, the critical
numbers of f are { 21 2, 0, 12 2}.
(ii) Determine the type of the critical numbers: We will apply the First
Derivative Test. Pick sample points in each subinterval determined by
the critical numbers. We choose 1, 21 , 12 , 1.
0
b
+
1
b
+++ +++++++
Figure 3.34:
198
rel. max.
y
b
b
b
abs. min.
abs. min.
3
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.5
1.0
1.5
Figure 3.35:
+
0b
1
2 b 3
4b
5
6
++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
+
1
Figure 3.36:
30
10
infl. pt
K1
rel. min.
K10
K20
Figure 3.37:
f (x) = 3x2 (4 x)2 2x3 (4 x)

= x2 (4 x) 3(4 x) 2x

= 5x2 (x 4) x 12
5
Clearly, f (x) = 0 is equivalent to x = 0 or x = 4 or x 12

5 . Since f is
12
defined for all x R, the critical numbers of f are: {0, 5 , 4}.
(ii) Determine the type of the critical numbers: We will use the First
Derivative Test. Pick sample points in each of the subintervals determined by the critical numbers. We choose 1, 1, 3 and 5.
rel. max.
20
Evaluating f at these sample

points (we

only need the sign), we find
that f (1) < 0, f 21 > 0, f 21 < 0 and f (1) > 0. By the
Intermediate-Value Theorem, f keeps its sign on the subintervals.
Thus,
by The First Derivative Test, f has relative minimum at 12 2, a relative
maximum at 0 and a relative minimum at 12 2 (Note that f is even).

(iii) Evaluate f at each extremum and compare the values: f 21 2 =

15
15
1
4 and f (0) = 4. Hence, (0, 4) is a relative maximum and 2 2, 4
relative minima off . In fact, these minima are absolute minima
of f .
Note that f is even and f is decreasing on the interval 0, 21 2 and

increasing on 21 2, , i.e. f (x) f 12 2 = 15
4 for all x (0, ).
3. (i) Find the critical numbers of f on Df = R:
f
2
Evaluating f at those sample points (we only need the sign!), we find
that f (1) > 0, f (1) > 0, f (3) < 0 and f (5) > 0. By the
Intermediate-Value Theorem, f keeps its sign on the subintervals. Thus,
by the First Derivative Test, f has an inflection point at 0, a relative maximum at 12
5 and a relative minimum at 4.

(iii) Evaluate f at each extremum and compare the values: f 12
5 =
110 592
12 110 592
and
3 125 , f (4) = 0. Hence f has a relative maximum at 5 , 3 125
a relative minimum at (4, 0), but does not have any absolute extrema!
Note that f does not satisfy the assumptions of the Extreme Value Theorem, since its domain is not a closed and bounded interval!
7. (i) Find the critical numbers of f on its domain: The domain of f is

Df := [2, 2]. We first compute the derivative of f :
p
x2
4 x2
4 x2
2
2(x 2)
.
=
4 x2
f (x) =
Note that f is not defined at 2,

2 Df , i.e. Df = (2, 2)! Clearly,
f (x) = 0 if and only ifx = 2. Hence, the critical points of f on its
domain Df are {2, 2, 2, 2}.
199
(ii) Determine the type of each critical number: We will use the First
Derivative Test and pick a sample point in each of the subintervals of
(2, 2) determined by the critical numbers. We choose 1.7, 0 and
1.7. Evaluating f at these points (we only need the sign), we find that
f (1.7) < 0 and f (0) > 0. By the Intermediate-Value Theorem, f
keeps its sign on the whole subintervals.
f
2
+
1
b
Figure 3.38:
abs. max.
2
K1
By the Intermediate-Value Theorem, f keeps its sign on the whole subintervals. Thus, by the First Derivative Test, f has a relative minimum at 0,
an inflection point at 8 , a relative maximum at 2 and a relative minimum
at .
rel. min.
8. (i) Find the critical numbers of f on its domain [0, ]: Differentiating

f we obtain
(0, ) determined by the critical numbers. We choose 18 , 38 and 43 .
Evaluating f at these points (we only need the sign), we find that f ( 18 ) >
0, f ( 38 ) > 0 and f ( 43 ) < 0.
rel. max.
b
which is defined on [0, ]. Clearly f (x) = 0 is equivalent to cos x = 0

or sin 2x = 1, i.e. x = 2 or x = 4 . Hence, the critical numbers of f on
[0, ] are {0, 4 , 2 , }.
K2
f (x) = 2 cos3 x + 3 sin x

= 6 cos x sin x cos x + 21

= 6 cos x 12 sin 2x 12

= 3 cos x sin 2x 1 ,
++++++++++++++
Thus, by the First Derivative

maximum at 2,
Test, f has a relative
a relative minimum at 2, a relative maximum at 2 and a relative
minimum at 2.
(iii) Evaluate
f at each critical number and compare the values: f (2) =
0, f 2 = 2, note that f is odd!. Hence, f has a relative maximum
at (2,
0), an absolute minimum at ( 2, 2), an absolute maximum
at ( 2, 2) and a relative minimum at (2, 0).
K1
K2
b
abs. min.
Figure 3.39:
1
b
+ + + + + + + +
Figure 3.40:
b
b
abs. max.
infl. point
2
f
b
rel. min.
(iii) Evaluate f at each critical number (representing an extremum) and

compare the values: f (0) = 2, f ( 2 ) = 3 and f () = 2. Hence f
has relative minimum at (0, 2), an absolute maximum at ( 2 , 3) and an
absolute minimum at (, 2).
K1
9. (i) Find the critical numbers of f on its domain Df = [3, 4): We can
K2
Figure 3.41:
abs. min.
b
200
rewrite f as
f
+
1
+
2
b
+
3
b
+++++++++++++++
Figure 3.42:
Since
bc
x0
1 = lim f (x) 6= lim f (x) = 2,

x3
rel. max.
2
b
bc
K3
K2
2
x
K2
b
abs. min.
Figure 3.43:
x3+
1
rel. min.
x0+
and
3 x < 1
1 x < 0
0x<3
3 x < 4.
1 = lim f (x) 6= lim f (x) = 2
rel. max.
(x + 1)
x + 1
f (x) =
x2 4x + 2
2x 7
3
bc
f is not continuous at 0 and 3 and therefore also not differentiable at 0

and 3. Moreover, since left- and right-sided derivative of f at 1 are
distinct, f is also not differentiable at 1. Its derivative is
1
f (x) =
2x 4
3 x < 1
1 < x < 0
0<x<3
3 < x < 4.
with Df = [3, 1) (1, 0) (0, 3) (3, 4) as its domain. Clearly

f (x) = 0 is equivalant to x = 2. Thus, the critical numbers of f on
[3, 4) are {3, 1, 0, 2, 3}.
[3, 4) determined by the critical numbers. We choose 2, 21 , 1, 52
and 27 . Evaluating f at those points (we only need the sign), we find
that f (2) < 0, f ( 21 ) > 0, f (1) < 0, f ( 52 ) > 0 and f ( 27 ) > 0.
By the Intermediate-Value Theorem, f keeps its sign on the whole subintervals. Thus, by the First Derivative Test, f has a relative maximum at
3, a relative minimum at 1, a relative maximum at 0 and a relative
minimum at 2. Hence,
(iii) Evaluate f at the critical numbers (representing extremma): f (3) =
2, f (1) = 0, f (0) = 2, f (2) = 2. Hence, f has a relative maximum
at (3, 2), a relative minimum at (1, 0), a relative maximum at (0, 2)
and an absolute minimum at (2, 2), however no absolute maximum.
Note that f does not satisfy the assumption of the Extreme Value Theorem!
201

f
5. (i) Find the critical numbers of f : Clearly, f (x) = cos(x), f (x) =
sin(x). f is defined on R. f (x) = 0 is equivalent to sin(x) = 0,
which in turn is equivalent to x = n for all n Z.
By the Intermediate Value Theorem, we can conclude that f keeps its

sign on each of those subinterval. Hence,

f (x) > 0 x (2n 1), 2n , n Z

f (x) < 0 x 2n, (2n + 1) , n Z,
and thus f is concave up on
[
nZ

(2n 1), 2n ,
+
2
4
b
7
b
+ ++++++++++++++++++
Figure 3.44:
(ii) Determine the sign of f on each subinterval determined by the crit2n+1

ical numbers of f : We pick the
sample points 2 for n Z. By
m
4, and
inspection,
we find that f 2 < 0 if and only if m 1 mod
m
f m
>
0
if
and
only
if
m
3
mod
4,
in
other
words,
f
2
2 <
>
0
if
m has
0 if m has remainder 1 by division by 4 and f m
2
remainder 3 by division by 4.
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
I.P.
C.U.
I.P.
C.D.
I.P.
K6
K4
K2
C.U.
I.P.
C.D.
K2
K4
I.P.
K6
b
Figure 3.45:
and concave down on

[
nZ

2n, (2n + 1) .
Each of the points (n, n), for n Z is an inflection point of f .
6. (i) Find the critical numbers of f : Clearly,

(
3x2 , x < 1
f (x) =
3,
x1
Note that f is differentiable at x = 1. However f does not exist at

x = 1:
(
6x, x < 1
f (x) =
0,
x > 1.
f (x) = 0 is equivalent to x = 0 or x > 1. Thus, the critical numbers
of f are x = 0 and x = 1, since f (1) does not exist. We do not have
to consider the non-discrete zeroes.
(ii) Determine the sign of f on each subinterval determined by the
critical numbers of f : Since f is linear, we immediately see that
f (x) < 0 for x (, 0), f (x) > 0 for x (0, 1) and f (x) = 0
for x (1, ). Hence, f is concave down on (, 0), concave up on
(0, 1), linear on (1, ) and has an inflection point at (0, 0).
4
3
y
f
1
I.P.
K2
K1
f
C.D.
K1
K2
K3
K4
Figure 3.46:
C.U.
1
x
202
3.5.16 Monotonicity


6. Suppose the conical cup has radius r and height h and volume V . We
would like to minimize its (surface)
area A and will show that A attains
its absolute minimum at h = 2r.

Recall that
V = 31 r2 h
and thus
h=
3V
.
r2
Moreover,

p
9V 2
A = r r2 + h2 = r2 + 2 4
r
2 6

2
r + 9V
=
.
r2
Note that A gives the surface area of the conical cup of radius r > 0
with fixed volume V . In order to find its minimum, we first compute its
derivative
6 2 r7 2r( 2 r6 + 9V 2 )
4
r r
A (r) =
2 6
r + 9V 2
2
r2
4 2 r7 18rV 2
r
=
2 r6 + 9V 2
4
2r
r2
2 6
2 r 9V 2
= r
2 r6 + 9V 2
r3
r2
203
It can be easily seen that A (r) = 0 if and only if r3 = 3V2 and that A
has an absolute minimum at this point. Hence, since 3V = hr2 ,
3V
hr2
hr2
r3 =
=
=
2
2,
2
which is equivalent to r 2 = h, as claimed.
204
4
I NTEGRAL
C ALCULUS

The Riemann integral that is reviewed in this chapter depends explicitly on the
order structure of the real numbers. We therefore begin integration of realvalued functions that are defined on an interval.
4.1.1 Definition of the Riemann Integral

Definition 4.1 (Supremum, Infimum)
If A R is a subset of the set of real numbers R, then we define sup(A)
to be the least upper bound of A if A is bounded above and if it is not
bounded above. Similarly, we define inf(A) to be the greatest lower bound
of A if A is bounded below and if it is not bounded below.
Definition 4.2 (Partition)
Let [a, b] be a closed interval. A subset P := {x0 , x1 , . . . , xn } of [a, b] is
called a partition of [a, b] if
a = x0 < x1 < < xn = b.
205
CHAPTER 4. INTEGRAL CALCULUS
206
Definition 4.3 (Upper Sums, Lower Sums)

Suppose the function f is bounded on the (closed and bounded) interval [a, b]
and P := {x0 , x1 , . . . , xn } is a partition of [a, b]. Then we set
Mi (f ) := sup{f (x) | x [xi1 , xi ]}
mi (f ) := inf{f (x) | x [xi1 , xi ]},
and xi := xi xi1 , and call the sums
U (f, P ) :=
L(f, P ) :=
n
X
i=1
n
X
Mi (f )xi
mi (f )xi
i=1
upper sum and lower sum of f with respect to P , respectively.
Lemma 4.1
Suppose P and Q are partitions of [a, b]. Then
1. L(f, P ) U (f, Q).

2. If P Q then U (f, Q) U (f, P ) and L(f, Q) L(f, P ).
Definition 4.4 (Upper and Lower Integral)

Suppose the function f is bounded on the interval [a, b]. Then
Z
b
a
b
a

f (x) dx := inf U (f, Q) | Q partition of [a, b]

f (x) dx := sup L(f, Q) | Q partition of [a, b] ,
are called the upper and lower Riemann integral, respectively.
Remark 4.1
From Lemma 4.1 follows immediately that
Z
b
a
f (x) dx
f (x) dx
a
207
Definition 4.5 (Riemann Integral)

Suppose the function f is bounded on [a, b]. We say that f is Riemann inR b
R b
f (x) dx = a f (x) dx. In this case we
tegrable or simply integrable if
a
define
Z b
Z b
Z b
f (x) dx,
f (x) dx =
f (x) dx :=
a
which is called the definite (Riemann) integral or simply the integral of f

from a to b. Moreover, we define
Z a
f (x) dx := 0
a
f (x) dx :=
f (x) dx.
Figure 4.1:
Bernhard Riemann
(18261866)
Theorem 4.1 (Integrability Criterion)

A bounded function f on [a, b] is Riemann integrable if and only if for all
> 0 there exists a partition P of [a, b] such that
U (f, P ) L(f, P ) < .
Theorem 4.2 (Sufficient Conditions for Integrability)

1. If f is (piecewise) monotonic (either increasing or decreasing) on [a, b]
then f is Riemann integrable.
2. If f is (piecewise) continuous on [a, b] then f is Riemann integrable.
208
Theorem 4.3 (Approximation by Riemann Sums)

Suppose f is (Riemann) integrable on [a, b]. Then for any > 0 there exists
a partition P = {x0 , . . . , xn } of [a, b] such that for any choice of i
[xi1 , xi ]
Z

n
b

X

f (i )xi < .
f (x) dx

a

i=1
P
The sum ni=1 f (i )xi is called a Riemann sum of f with respect to the
partition P .
In particular: If f is (Riemann) integrable on [a, b] then
Z
f (x) dx = lim
where
x =
ba
,
n
n
X
f (xj ) x,
j=1
and xj = a + j x,
for j = 0, . . . , n.
4.1.2 Estimating Definite Integrals
Definition 4.6
Given an Riemann integrable function f defined on [a, b], choose n N and
subdivide [a, b] in n subintervals of equal length
x :=
ba
.
n
Let
xi := a + i x.
for i = 0, 1, . . . , n. The partition P := {x0 , . . . , xn } is called an
209
Theorem 4.4 (Left-Hand and Right-Hand Sums)

For n N, let
LHSf (n) :=
RHSf (n) :=
n1
X
i=0
n
X
f (xi )x
f (xi )x.
i=1
If the function f is differentiable on [a, b] and |f (x)| B for all x [a, b]

and some B R, then
Z

b
B(b a)2

f (x) dx LHSf (n)

a

2n
Z

b
B(b a)2

f (x) dx RHSf (n)
.

a

2n
Theorem 4.5 (Trapezoidal Estimate)
For n N, let
TRAPf (n) :=

1
LHSf (n) + RHSf (n) .
2
If the function f is twice differentiable on [a, b] and |f (x)| B for all

x [a, b] for some b R, then
Z

b
B(b a)3

f (x) dx TRAPf (n)
.

a

12n2
Theorem 4.6 (Midpoint Sum)
For n N, let i := 12 (xi1 + xi ) = a + (i 21 )x denote the midpoint of
the ith subinterval of [a, b]. Moreover, let
MPSf (n) :=
n
X
f (i )x.
i=1
If the function is twice differentiable on [a, b] and |f (x) B for all x

[a, b] for some b R. then
Z

b
B(b a)3

f (x) dx MPSf (n)
.

a

24n2
210
Theorem 4.7 (Simpsons Rule)
For n N, let

1
2 MPSf (n) + TRAPf (n)
3
n
x
X
f (xi1 + 4f (i ) + f (xi )
=
.
6
i=1
SIMPf (2n) : =
Figure 4.2:
Thomas Simpson
(17101761)
If the function f is four times differentiable on [a, b] and |f (4) (x)| B for
all x [a, b] for some B R, then
Z

b
B(b a)5

.
f (x) dx SIMPf (n)

a

180n4
4.1.3 Properties of the Definite Integral
Theorem 4.8 (Linearity)

Suppose f and g are integrable and R, then
1.
f (x) dx =
f (x) dx
2.

f (x) + g(x) dx =
f (x) dx +
a
g(x) dx
Theorem 4.9 (Interval Property)

Suppose f is integrable on the interval I and a, b, c I , then
Z
f (x) dx =
f (x) dx +
f (x) dx.
211
Theorem 4.10 (Order Properties)

1. Positivity: If the function f is integrable on [a, b] and f (x) 0 for
Rb
all x [a, b], then a f (x) dx 0.
In particular: If the functions f and g are integrable on [a, b] and
Rb
Rb
f (x) g(x) for all x [a, b], then a f (x) dx a g(x) dx.
2. Triangle Inequality: If f is integrable on [a, b], then |f | is integrable

on [a, b] and
Z
Z
b

b

f (x) dx
|f (x)| dx.

a

a
3. Estimate: If f is integrable on [a, b] and m the minimum and M the

maximum value of f on [a, b] then
m(b a)
f (x) dx M (b a).
Theorem 4.11 (Symmetry)

Suppose f is integrable on the symmetric interval [a, a]. Then,
1. if f is odd on [a, a], then

Z
f (x) dx = 0;
2. if f is even on [a, a], then

Z
Z a
f (x) dx = 2
f (x) dx.
Definition 4.7 (Average Value of a Function)

If f is integrable on [a, b], then
avf :=
1
ba
f (x) dx
a
is the average value of f on the interval [a, b].

Theorem 4.12 (Mean Value Theorem for Integrals)
If f is continuous on [a, b], then there exists a number [a, b] such that
1
f () =
ba
f (x) dx.
212
Theorem 4.13 (Second Mean Value Theorem for Integrals)

If f and g are continuous on [a, b] and g(x) 0 for all x [a, b], then there
exists a number [a, b] such that
Z
f (x)g(x) dx = f ()
g(x) dx.
4.1.4 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

Definition 4.8 (Anti-Derivative, Primitive)
Let f be defined on the interval I. A function F is called an anti-derivative
or primitive of the function f on I if F (x) = f (x) for all x I.
Definition 4.9 (Indefinite Integral)
Let f be a function defined on some interval I. Then the family of all antiderivatives of f is called the indefinite integral of f and denoted by
Z
f (x) dx
Thus, if F is any anti-derivative of f on I, then
Z
f (x) dx = F (x) + C
for C R.
Theorem 4.14 (Fundamental Theorem of Calculus)
Suppose f is continuous on the interval [a, b]. Then
1. The function
F (x) :=
f (t) dt
is differentiable on [a, b] and

d
F (x) =
dx
Z
f (t) dt
= f (x)
for all x [a, b].

2. If G is any anti-derivative of f on [a, b], then
Z
b

f (x) dx = G(x) = G(b) G(a).
a
213
Corollary 4.1
If f is continuous on [a, b] and 1 and 2 are differentiable on [a, b] then
G(x) :=
2 (x)
f (t) dt
1 (x)
ist differentiable on [a, b] and

d
G (x) =
dx
2 (x)
1 (x)
f (t) dt

= f 2 (x) 2 (x) f 1 (x) 1 (x).
214
4.1.5 Integrals of Elementary Functions

Theorem 4.15 (Integrals I)
1. Power Rule:
r+1
Z
x
+ C,
xr dx = r + 1
ln |x| + C,
r 6= 1
r = 1
2. Generalized Power Rule:
r+1
Z
g(x)
r
+ C, r 6= 1
g(x) g (x) dx =
r+1
ln |g(x)| + C,
r = 1
Z
cos x dx = sin x + C
3.
Z
sin x dx = cos x + C
4.
5.
sec x dx = ln | sec x + tan x| + C
sec2 dx = tan x + C
sec3 x dx =
sec x tan x dx = sec x + C
ex dx = ex + C
7.
8.
9.
cot x dx = ln | sin x| + C
6.
tan x dx = ln | cos x| + C
csc x dx = ln | csc x + cot x| + C .
csc2 x dx = cot x + C
1
2
sec x tan x +
1
2
csc3 x dx = 12 csc x cot x
csc x cot x dx = csc x+C
ax dx =
ax
+C
ln a
ln | sec x + tan x| + C
1
2
ln | csc x + cot x| + C
215
Theorem 4.16 (Integrals II)

Z
1
dx = tan1 x + C
1.
1 + x2
Z
1
dx = sin1 x + C
2.
1 x2
Z
1
dx = sec1 x + C
3.
x x2 1
Z
cosh x dx = sinh x + C
4.
Z
sinh x dx = cosh x + C
5.
sech2 x dx = tanh x + C
sech x tanh x dx = sech x + C
cosn x dx =
6.
7.
8.
csch x coth x dx = csch x + C

cosn1 x sin x +
cosn2 x dx
Z
Z
sinn2 x dx
sinn x dx = n1 sinn1 x cos x + n1
n
Z
tan x dx =
secn x dx =
9.
csch2 x dx = coth x + C
1
n
1
n1
n1
tan
1
cotn x dx = n1
cotn1 x
n1
n
tann1 x dx
cotn1 x dx
secn2 x tan x +
secn2 x dx
Z
Z
1
cscn x dx = n1
cscn2 x cot x + n2
cscn2 x dx
n1
1
n1
n2
n1
216
4.1.6 Integration Rules

Theorem 4.17 (Linearity)
Z
Z
f (x) dx = f (x) dx
1.
2.

f (x) + g(x) dx =
f (x) dx +
g(x) dx.
Theorem 4.18 (Substitution Rule)

Z g(b)
Z b

1.
f (y) dy
f g(x) g (x) dx =
g(a)
2.

f g(x) g (x) dx =
f (y) dy
Remark 4.2 (Some Standard Substitutions)

1. Trigonometric Substitutions:
If the integrand involves a2 x2 , x2 a2 or a2 + x2 , substitute

x = a sin , x = a sec , x = a tan , respectively.
2. Rationalizing Substitutions:
p
If the
integrand involves an expression of the form n f (x) substitute
p
y = n f (x) or equivalently, y n = f (x).
If the integrand is a rational expression in sin x and cos x, substitute
y = tan(x/2), which implies
1 y2
,
1 + y2
2 dy
dx =
1 + y2
sin x =
cos x =
Theorem 4.19 (Integration by Parts)

b Z
Z b

f (x)g(x) dx = f (x)g(x)
1.
a
2.
f (x)g (x) dx
f (x)g(x) dx = f (x)g(x)
2y
1 + y2
f (x)g (x) dx
Remark 4.3 (Integration by Partial Fraction Decomposition)

If the integrand is a proper rational function of the form p(x)/q(x) where p
and q are polynomials (if it is not proper, first use long division) follow this
procedure:
217
(S TEP 1:) Factor q into a product of linear and irreducible (over R) quadratic
factors.
(S TEP 2:) Decompose p(x)/q(x) by replacing each linear factor of q which
has the form (ax + b)k (with multiplicity k 1) by
Ak
A2
A1
+ +
+
ax + b (ax + b)2
(ax + b)k
and each quadratic factor of q which has the form (ax2 + bx + c)k (with multiplicity k 1) by
A1 x + B1
Ak x + Bk
+ +
2
ax + bx + c
(ax2 + bx + c)k
(S TEP 3:) Compute the undetermined coefficients Aj , Bj in the numerators
using comparing coefficients, limit techniques etc.
(S TEP 4:) Solve the resulting integrals which are of the form
Z
Aj
dx,
(ax + b)j )
Aj x + bj
dx
(ax2 + bx + c)j
4.1.7 Improper Integrals

Recall that the Riemann integral (see Defintion 4.5 on page 207) is defined
for bounded functions defined on a closed and bounded interval. We will now
consider some extensions:
Definition 4.10 (Integrals over [a, ))
Let the function f be defined on the interval [a, ) and suppose the definite
integral
Z b
f (x) dx
a
exists for all b [a, ). Then we define

Z
f (x) dx := lim
f (x) dx
provided the limit exist and call it the improper integral of f over [a, ).
Example 4.1 (p-Integrals)
Let p R, then
Z
1
1 ,
1
dx = p a
,
xp
if p > 1
else
218
Definition 4.11 (Integrals over (, b])

Let the function f be defined on the interval (, b] and suppose the definite
integral
Z b
f (x) dx
a
exists for all a (, b]. Then we define

Z
f (x) dx := lim
f (x) dx
provided the limit exist and call it the improper integral of f over (, b].
Definition 4.12 (Integrals over (, ))

Let the function f be defined on R and suppose the improper integrals
Z
f (x) dx
and
f (x) dx
exist for all c R, then we define

Z
Z c
Z
f (x) dx :=
f (x) dx +
f (x) dx
Definition 4.13 (Integrals over Unbounded Functions)

Let f be defined on the interval [a, b) and suppose f is unbounded at b.
Suppose the definite integral
Z c
f (x) dx
a
exists for all c [a, b). Then we define

Z
f (x) dx := lim
cb
f (x) dx
provided the limit exists and call it the improper integral over [a, b].
219
Theorem 4.20 (Comparison Theorem)

Let a R and suppose that f and g are continuous functions on the interval
[a, ) with
0 f (x) g(x) for all x [a, )
Then
R
g(x) dx converges, then a f (x) dx converges.
R
R
2. If a f (x) dx diverges, then a g(x) dx diverges.
1. If
R
a
Remark 4.4
Note that a similar result can be formulated for the other variations of improper
integrals.
Example 4.2
R
2
Determine whether the improper integral 0 ex dx converges.
2
S OLUTION : As the antiderivative of ex is not an elementary function, we

cannot evaluate the integral directly. Consider
Z
x2
dx =
x2
dx +
ex dx
Clearly, the first integral on the right-hand side is an ordinary definite integral.
Therefore, we only have to determine whether the second integral on the righthand side converges. However, since x2 x for all x 1 and exp is order
2
preserving (increasing), it follows that ex ex for all x 1. Note that
Z
dx = lim

ex dx = lim e1 eb = e1
b
Hence, by the Comparison Theorem (Theorem 4.20), also

verges.
R
0
ex dx con
220
4.1.8 Some Applications of Integration

Area between Two Curves
Remark 4.5
If f and g are continuous functions on [a, b] such that g(x) f (x) for all
x [a, b], then the region
dx
R(f, g) = {(x, y) | x [a, b], g(x) y f (x)}

is called the region between f and g over [a, b]. The area differential at x
[a, b] is given by

dA(x) = f (x) g(x) dx
{z
g(x)f (x)
R(f, g)

dA = g(x) f (x) dx
and the total area by
A=
dA =

f (x) g(x) dx.
Example 4.3
Find the area between the curves y = x and y = x2 over the interval [0, 1.5].
Figure 4.3:
S OLUTION :
Note the graphs of the functions f (x) := x and g(x) := x2
intersect at the points (0, 0) and (1, 1), more precisely
f (x) g(x) for x [0, 1]
f (x) g(x) for x [1, 1.5].

Therefore, we have to split the computation of the area between f and g
over [0, 1.5] into two parts:

dA1 = f (x) g(x) dx = (x x2 ) dx
for x [0, 1] and

g (x)
= x2

dA2 = g(x) f (x) dx = (x2 x) dx
f(
x)
=
g(x) f (x)
f (x) g(x)
for x (1, 1.5]. Here dA1 (x) is the area of the xth slice of the shaded region
for x [0, 1], while dA2 (x) is the area of the xth slice for x (1, 1.5]. The
total area of the shaded region is given by the sum of the following two integrals
Z 1
Z 1.5
A=
dA1 +
dA2
0
x
1
1.5
=
Figure 4.4:
1
1
2
(x x2 ) dx +
2
1 3
2x 3x
1
3
9
8
1
+
0
9
8
1.5
(x2 x) dx
1

3
1 2 3/2
3x 2x 1
1
1
1
3 + 2 = 3.
221
Volume by Slicing
Example 4.4
Compute the volume of a cylinder of radius r and height h.
S OLUTION : The following figure suggests that the volume of a cylinder is
the sum of the volumes dV (x) = r2 dx of the cross-sectional slices of
thickness dx perpendicular to its axis:
V =
dV (x) =
a
r2 dx

b
= r2 x a = r2 (b a).
Figure 4.5:
Theorem 4.21 (Cavalieris Principle)

Given a solid with continuous cross-sections A(x) perpendicular to a coordinate axis whose points are labeled by x. Then the volume differential of
at the point x is given by
dV (x) = A(x) dx
and if a < b are points on the axis, then the volume of between a and b is
given by
Z b
Z b
V =
dA =
A(x) dx.
a
Example 4.5
Let a, b R and a, b > 0. The base of a solid is the region bounded by the
ellipse defined by
x2
y2
+ 2 = 1.
2
a
b
Find the volume of the solid provided that each cross-section perpendicular to
the x-axis is a square. See Figure 4.14.
S OLUTION :
We only need to determine the area A(x) of the x-th crosssection of the solid for arbitrary x [a, a]. By assumption, each
such crosssection is a square of base b(x) which is given by b(x) = 2b/a a2 x2 Thus
A(x) = b(x)2 =
4b2 (a2 x2 )
a2
and therefore
dV (x) = A(x) dx =
4b2 (a2 x2 )
dx.
a2
Figure 4.6:
222
The total volume of the solid is the integral

Z a
Z
4b2 a 2
V =
dV = 2
(a x2 ) dx
a a
a

a
4b2 2
1 3
= 2 a x 3x

a
a
16
4b2
b2 a.
= 2 2a3 23 a3 =
a
3
Example 4.6
Two cylinders of radius r intersect at right angles, their axis meeting. Find the
volume of the intersection. See the figures below.
Figure 4.7:
S OLUTION : To assist our intuition, we visualize the constellation of the two

cylinders and their intersection. Note that the cross-section parallel to the plane
determined by the axis of the two cylinders are all squares. show how the base
b(x) of the x-th square can be computed. Clearly,
p
b(x) = 2 r2 x2
and therefore the volume of the xth slice is given by

dV (x) = A(x) dx = 4 r2 x2 dx
for x [r, r]. The total volume of the intersection of the two cylinders is
thus the integral
Z r
Z r

r2 x2 dx
V =
dV (x) = 4
r
r
Z r

r2 x2 dx
=8
0

r

16 3
2
1 3
= 8 r x 3x =
r .

3
0
Figure 4.8:
223
Remark 4.6 (Solids of Revolution)

An important special case of solids with known cross-sections are the so-called
solids of revolution. Consider a region R in the plane and a line l that does
not intersect the interior of R. A solid of revolution is generated if we revolve
the region R through a full revolution in space about the line as axis. See
the figure below depicting a torus being generated by revolving the highlighted
circular region R about the axis .
Example 4.7
Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region R between
y = x2 and y = 2x located in the I-th quadrant about the y-axis.
Figure 4.9:
S OLUTION :
According to Cavalieris Principle, it suffices to compute the area A(y)
of the y-th cross-section of the solid perpendicular to the y-axis constituting
the axis of revolution in this case. Note that we have to choose y as the
independent variable, since the regions R is revolved about the y-axis! In this
case, where the curves bounding the region R are given by equations, we only
have to solve these equations for the variable x. Figure 4.20 shows that each
such cross-section is an annulus of inner radius x = g(y) := 21 y and and outer
radius x = f (y) := y with y [0, 4]. Hence, the solid has cross-sectional
area

2
2
A(y) = y 21 y = y 41 y 2
and cross-sectional volume (volume of the y-th slice of the solid)

dV (x) = A(y) dy = y 14 y 2 dy.
The total volume of the solid is therefore the integral

V =
dV (y) =
Z 4
0

y 14 y 2 dy

4
1 2
1 3
= 2 y 12 y = 83 .

Remark 4.7 (Disk/Washer Method)

Let c R and f and g continuous on [a, b] such that c g(x) f (x) for all
x [a, b]. Moreover, let denote the solid generated by revolving the region
between f and g over [a, b] about the axis y = c. Then the volume differential
of at the point x [a, b] is given by
h
2
2 i
dV (x) = f (x) c g(x) c
dx
Figure 4.10:
224
and the total volume of by
V =
dV
Z bh
f (x) c
2
g(x) c
2 i
dx
Volumes by Shells
Figure 4.11:
Bonaventura Francesco Cavalieri
(15981647)
Remark 4.8 (Shell Method)

Consider a solids of revolution where the axis of revolution is parallel (or equal)
to the ordinate (the axis of the dependent variable) of the functions defining
the bounding curves of the region R. Here we can use a radial version of
Cavalieris Principle, called the Shell Method.
To illustrate the idea see the figure below, where the x-th radial slice or
shell is highlighted. The volume dV (x) of this shell is clearly
dV (x) = 2xh dx.
Just cut the shell vertically and stretch it out. The shell then becomes a thin
rectangular slab (parallelepiped) with base 2x, height h and thickness dx,
which has volume 2xh dx. The total volume of the cylinder therefore is the
integral
Z r
Z r
dV = 2h
x dx
0
0

r

= hx2 = r2 h.
0
Figure 4.12:
More general, let c R, c a < b, and let f and g be continuous on [a, b]

such that g(x) f (x) for all x [a, b]. Let denote the solid generated by
revolving the region between f and g over [a, b] about the axis x = d. Then
the volume differential of at x [a, b] is given by

dV (x) = 2(x d) f (x) g(x) dx,
and the total volume by
V =
dV
= 2

(x d) f (x) g(x) dx,
Example 4.8
Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region R between
y = x2 and y = 2x located in the I-th quadrant about the y-axis.
225
S OLUTION : Using the radial version of Theorem 4.21, it suffices to compute the area A(x) of the x-th radial cross-section of the given solid of revolution for x [0, 2]. As Figure 4.22 shows, each such cross-section constitutes
the surface of a cylinder of radius x and height 2x x2 . Its area is therefore

A(x) = 2x 2x x2 = 2(2x2 x3 ),
while the volume of the x-th radial slice or shell of the solid is
dV (x) = 2(2x2 x3 ) dx.
The total volume of the solid is the integral
Z 2
Z 2

V = 2
dV (x) = 2
2x2 x3 dx
0

2

3
4
= 2 23 x 41 x = 2

16
3

4 = 83 .
Example 4.9
A torus of major radius a and minor radius b is obtained by revovling the region
enclosed by the circle (x a)2 + y 2 = b2 about the y-axis. Find the volume
of the torus using the shell-method.
S OLUTION :
Using the radial version of Cavalieris Principle, we first
compute the area A(x) of the x-th radial cross-section of the given solid for
x [a b, a +pb]. The circumference of this cross-section is 2x while it
height is 2y = 2 b2 (x a)2 , hence
p
A(x) = 4x b2 (x a)2
while the volume dV (x) of the x-th radial slice is

p
dV (x) = 4x b2 (x a)2 dx.
The total volume of the solid is therefore the integral

Z a+b p
V = 4
x b2 (x a)2 dx
ab
which with the substitution z = x a is equal to

Z b
p
= 4
(z + a) b2 z 2 dz
= 4
b
b
z
b
p
b2 z 2 dz
+ 4a
p
b2 z 2 dz
Figure 4.13:
226
which equals
= 4a 21 b2 = 2 2 ab2 ,
since the integrand of the first integral is odd and the integral therefore equals
zero and the second integral represents the area of a semi-circle of radius b.
Arc Length
Definition 4.14 (Arc, Smooth Curve)
If f is continuously differentiable on [a, b] (i.e. f is continuous) then the
curve

C := Cf := { x, f (x) | a x b}
is called an arc or a smooth curve.
Definition 4.15 (Rectifiable)

Let Cf be a curve, defined by the function f on [a, b], and let P :=
{x0 , . . . , sn } be a partition of [a, b]. Moreover, let
q
2
sj : = (xj xj1 )2 + f (xj ) f (xj1 )
for j = 1, . . . , n. Then,
Figure 4.14:
s(P ) :=
n
X
sj
j=1
gives the length of the polygonial arc inscribed in Cf relative to the partition
P.
If the set {s(P ) | P partition of [a, b]} is bounded above, then Cf is called
rectifiable and we define the length s of Cf by
s := sup{s(P ) | P partition of [a, b]}.
Remark 4.9 (Arc Length Differential)
If the function f defining the curve Cf is differentiable, then by the Mean Value
Theorem
q

sj = 1 + f (j
for some j (xj1 , xj ). Its supremum taken over all partitions of [a, b]
q

ds := 1 + f (x) dx
is called the arc length differential of the curve Cf .
227
Theorem 4.22 (Arc Length)

If f is continuously differentiable, then the arc Cf is rectifiable and the total
length of the curve Cf is given by
s=
ds =
q
2
1 + f (x) dx.
Area of a Surface of Revolution

Theorem 4.23
Let c R and let f be continuously differentiable on [a, b] and f (x) c
for all x [a, b]. Moreover, let denote the surface generated by revolving
the curve Cf about the axis y = c. Then the surface area differential of at
x [a, b] is given by

dS = 2 f (x) c ds(x)
2
q
= 2 f (x) c 1 + f (x) dx
and the total surface area by

S=
dS =
2 f (x) c
q
2
1 + f (x) dx.
228
Mass from Density
Definition 4.16 (Mass of a Rod)

Suppose the projection of the material solid onto the real number line is
given by the interval [a, b], and suppose (x) is the density of the solid at
x [a, b] (units: mass per unit length). Then the mass differential of at
x [a, b] is given by
dm(x) = (x) dx,
and the total mass of by
m=
dm =
(x) dx.
Definition 4.17 (The Mass of a Plate)

Suppose the projection of the material solid in the plane is the region
between f and g over the interval [a, b]. Moreover, suppose that the density
of the solid is given by the (1-dimensional) function : [a, b] R (units:
mass per unit area); note: we assume the density is constant along the lines
x = c for c [a, b]. Then the mass differential of at x [a, b] is given by

dm(x) = f (x) g(x) (x) dx,
and the total mass of by

m=
dm =

f (x) g(x) (x) dx.
Definition 4.18 (The Mass of a Wire)

Suppose the axis of the wire W is a smooth curve Cf defined by the function
f continuously differentiable on [a, b]. Moreover, suppose that (x) is the
density of W at x [a, b] (units: mass per unit length). Then the mass
differential of W at x [a, b] is given by
q
2
dm(x) = (x) ds(x) = (x) 1 + f (x) dx,
and the total mass of W by
m=
dm =
a
(x) ds =
a
q
2
(x) 1 + f (x) dx.
229
Definition 4.19 (General 3d-Case)

Suppose is a material solid desribed by the 3-dimensional region B in R3
with density function assigning to each (x, y, z) B its density (x, y, z).
Then the mass differential of at (x, y, z) is given by
dm(x, y, z) = (x, y, z) dV (x, y, z)
and the the total mass of by
Z
Z
(x, y, z) dV.
dm =
m=
B
Center of Mass and Centroid
Definition 4.20 (The Center of Mass of a Rod)

Given a rod with density function : [a, b] R. We consider the moment
of with respect to the point x = 0. The moment differential of at
x [a, b] (the moment of the x-th slice of ) is given by
dM (x) = x dm(x) = x(x) dx
and the total moment of by
M=
dM =
x dm(x) =
x(x) dx.
The center of mass of is the unique point x R such that xm = M where

m denotes the total mass of . Thus
Z b
Z
x(x) dx
dM
a
Z
x=
= Z b
.
dm
(x) dx
a
Definition 4.21 (The Centroid of a Rod)

If the density of the rod is constant, it is called a uniform or homogeneous
rod. Its center of mass x is called the centroid of the rod. Clearly,
x=
1
(a + b).
2
230
Definition 4.22 (The Center of Mass of a Plate)

Suppose the Plate is given by the continuous functions f and g on [a, b]
and the density function on [a, b]. We consider the moment Mx about the
x-axis and the moment My about the y-axis. Then the moment differentials
of at x with respect to the x-axis and y-axis are given by

dMx (x) = y dm(x) = 12 f (x) + g(x) dm(x),
dMy (x) = x
dm(x) = x dm(x),
respectively, where x
and y denote the x- and y-coordinate of the center of
mass of the (uniform rod) mass differential dm(x) at x. The total moments
of with respect to the x- and y-axis are given by
Mx =
dMx =
1
2
dMy =
My =
Z b

a
2
2
f (x) g(x) (x) dx,

x f (x) g(x) (x) dx,
respectively. The center of mass of is the unique point (x, y) R2 such

that xm = My and ym = Mx , where m denotes the total mass of . Thus
Z
Z
Z
Z
dMy
dMx
x
dm
y dm
Z
Z
Z
Z
x=
=
,
y=
=
,
dm
dm
dm
dm
respectively.
Definition 4.23 (The Centroid of a Region)

If the density of the plate is constant, we call its center of mass, the centroid of the region covered by the plate.
231
Definition 4.24 (The Center of Mass of a Wire)

Suppose the axis of the wire W is the smooth curve Cf , f continuously
differentiable on [a, b] with density on [a, b]. The mass differential dm(x)
has center of mass (
x, y) = (x, y). Then the moment differential of W at x
with respect to the x-axis and y-axis is given by
dMx (x) = y dm(x) = y dm(x) = y (x) ds,
dMy (x) = x dm(x) = x dm(x) = x (x) ds,
respectively, and the total moment of W with respect to the x-axis and y-axis
by
Mx =
dMx =
My =
dMy =
a
Z b
y (x) ds(x).
x (x) ds(x),
respectively. The center of mass (x, y) of W is therefore given by

Z
x= Z
Z
y= Z
dMy
dm
dMx
dm
= Z
Z
= Z
x
dm
dm
y dm
dm
x (x) ds
= Za
Z
(x) ds
a
b
y (x) ds
= Za
(x) ds
Definition 4.25 (The Centroid of an Arc)

If the density of a wire is constant, it is called the centroid of the arc covered
by the wire.
232
Definition 4.26 (Center of Mass in Three Dimensions)

Suppose is a material solid desribed by the 3-dimensional region B in R3
with density function assigning to each (x, y, z) B its density (x, y, z).
Let (
x, y, z) R3 denote the center of mass of the mass differential dm at
(x, y, z) B, then the center of mass (x, y, z) of is given by
Z
Z
x
dm
x (x, y, z) dV
x = ZB
= ZB
(x, y, z) dV
dm
B
Z
Z
y dm
y (x, y, z) dV
y = ZB
= ZB
(x, y, z) dV
dm
Z
ZB
z dm
z (x, y, z) dV
z = ZB
= ZB
(x, y, z) dV
dm
B
Definition 4.27 (Center of Mass of a Surface)

Let denote the surface of B and let again (
x, y, z) denote the center of
mass of the mass differential dm = (z, y, z) dS at (x, y, z) . Then the
center of mass (x, y, z) of is given by
Z
Z
x
dm
x
(x, y, z) dS
x = ZS
= ZS
(x, y, z) dS
dm
S
Z
Z
y dm
y (x, y, z) dS
y = ZS
= ZS
(x, y, z) dS
dm
S
Z
Z
z dm
z (x, y, z) dS
z = ZS
= ZS
(x, y, z) dS
dm
S
Definition 4.28 (Symmetry and Centroid)

If the (1-, 2-, 3-dimensional) region has axis of symmetry then the centroid z of lies on .
233
Fluid Pressure
Definition 4.29 (Hydrostatic Pressure, Force)
1. The pressure p exerted by a fluid with weight-density at depth h is
given by
p = h.
2. The force F exerted by a fluid on a (horizontal) surface of area A at
depth h is
F = pA = hA.
Definition 4.30 (Hydrostatic Force on a Vertical Plate)
Suppose a vertical plate is submerged or partially submerged in a liquid of
weight density with the liquid level at x = c. Let the submerged portion of
the plate extend from a to b on the x axis. Let w(x) be the width of the plate
at x for x [a, b] and assume that w is continuous. Then the hydrostatic
force F on the plate due to the liquid is given by
F =
(c x)w(x) dx
Work
Definition 4.31 (Work under a Constant Force)
The work W performed by an object moved a distance d along a straight line
by a constant force F is
W = F d.
Definition 4.32 (Work)
Suppose an object moves from a to b under the influence of a force f , where
f is a continuous function on [a, b]. Then the work W done by the force on
the object is defined by
Z b
f (x) dx
W =
a
Money Stream
Definition 4.33 (Money Stream)
A money stream is a continuous function representing the flow of money as
a function of time (units: dollars per unit time).
234
Definition 4.34 (Future Value)

1. Suppose an amount P is deposited into an account at r percent interest
compounded continuously. Then its value B after T years is
B = P erT ,
called the future value of P after T years at rate r.
2. Now suppose a money stream P (t) is deposited into an account at
r percent interest compounded continuously. Then the future value
differential dB(t) at time t is
dB(t) = P (t) dt er(T t)
and the future value of the entire money stream P (t) at time T is
B=
dB(t) =
0
P (t)er(T t) dt.
4.1.9 The Theorems of Pappus

Theorem 4.24 (The First Theorem of Pappus)
Suppose the solid is generated by revolving the region R about the line
that does not intersect R. Let r denote the distance of the centroid of R from
. Then
V = 2rA,
where A denotes the area of R.

Theorem 4.25 (The Second Theorem of Pappus)
Suppose the surface is generated by revolving the arc C about the line
that does not intersect C . Let r denote the distance of the centroid of C from
. Then
S = 2rs,
where s denotes the length of C .
4.2. EXERCISES
235
4.2 Exercises
4.2.1 Evaluating Integrals
Integration by Substitution
Z
1.
x cos x2 dx
2.
ha
cos4 x sin x dx
ha
ha
3.
(x 1) x + 1 dx
3
4.
Z
Z
4x 6 2x dx
ha
x2
dx
x+2
1
Z q
6.
1 + x dx
5.
7.
t5
ha
ha
p
1 + t2 dt
8.
(x2 + 3)(x3 + 9x + 1) 3 dx
9.
e x
dx
x
sin t
dt
1 + cos t
Z
1+ x+1
dx
11.
x+1
Z
tan(ln t)
dt
12.
t
Z
sin1 2x
dx
13.
1 4x2
Z
x
dx
14.
x2 4
Z
x
dx
15.
4 x2
10.
has
ha
ha
236
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
Z
Z
5/4
dx
25 4x2
1
1 2x2
5/2 dx
23.
ha
ex
dx
9 e2x
has
x+3
dx
2
x + 4x + 13
24.
25.
26.
Z
Z
Z
Z
dx
x1
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Z
Z
Z
Z
has
tan2 x
dx
x tan x
dx
x2 a2 + x2
has
x2 ex dx
Integration by parts:
Z
1.
xex dx
Z
ha
dx
2x2 + 12x + 19
x dx
4 x2
Z p
22.
6x x2 8 dx
21.
ha
ha
has
x2 (ex 1) dx
x3 3x dx
x sin x dx
has
ex sin x dx
has
ln x dx
4.2. EXERCISES
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
xr ln x dx,
237
rR
x cos x dx
cos(ln x) dx
x arctan(x2 ) dx
1
sin1 (ln x) dx
x
x arctan(x) dx
x arcsin(x) dx
ln(x + 1)
dx
x+1
13

Z
1
x
15.
dx
x2 x + 1
Z
16.
cos x dx
14.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
ha
x ln(x + 1) dx
sin1 2x
dx
1 4x2
x2 cosh 2x dx
x2 (2x 1)7 dx

x tan1 x2 dx
sin1 2x dx
x2 tan1 (x2 ) dx
1
sin1 (ln x2 ) dx
x
238
25.
sin x dx
Trigonometric integrals:
Z
1.
tan3 x sec3 x dx
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
has
tan3 x sec4 x dx
tan4 x dx
sin4 (3t) cos(3t) dt
sin4 x cos3 x dx
sec3 (6x) dx
has
cos6 x dx
has
sin4 x cos4 x dx
has
(cos 3x sin x)2 dx
tan6 x dx
tan x sec 2 x dx
cos3 x cos2 x dx
csc3
1
2x
dx
sin 5x cos 2x dx
sec5 x dx
cot2 x csc2 x dx
sin 2x sin 3x dx
ha
4.2. EXERCISES
Partial fractions:
Z
7
dx
1.
(x 2)(x + 5)
239
2.
x
dx
(x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 3)
3.
dx
(x 1)3
4.
x5
dx
(x 2)2
5.
2x2 + 3
dx
x2 (x 1)
6.
x2 + 3
dx
x2 3x + 2
7.
3x
dx
x2 x 12
8.
x3
dx
x2 + 4x + 1
9.
7 + 6x
dx
(6x + 1)2
10.
x3 + x2 + x + 3
dx
(x2 + 1)(x2 + 3)
11.
x2 3x 1
dx
x3 + x2 2x
12.
x4 x3 x 1
dx
x3 x2
13.
e2x tan2 (e2x ) sec2 (e2x ) dx
14.
1 cos x
dx
1 + sin x
15.
25x2 + 21 + 2x
dx
(x + 3)(5x2 + 3)
240
Improper integrals:
Z
1
dx
1.
(2
+
x)
0
Z
1
2.
3 dx
2
x ln x
Z 1
3x2 1
3.
dx
3
x3 x
0
Z 1
dx
4.
1
x2
0
Z
ln x
dx
5.
x
e
Z 1 x
e
dx
6.
x
0
Z 3
1
7.
dx
2
0 x 6x + 5
Z
1
8.
dx
x(x + 1)
1
Z 1
9.
arcsin x dx
ha
ha
ha
4.2.2 Applications of Integration

Area between two curves
1. y = 2x, y = 4 x, and y = x/2
2. Under |x2 1| over [3, 1]
3. Between y = cos x and y = sin x over [0, /4]
Volume by slicing
1. Under y = 1 x2 , rotated about the line y = 1

2. Under y =
1 x2 , rotated about the line x = 1
3. The base of the solid is the circular region x2 + y 2 1. A cross-section

perpendicular to the y-axis is a square.
4.2. EXERCISES
241
4. The base of the solid is the semi-circular region under y = 1 x2

over [1, 1]. A cross-section perpendicular to the y-axis is an equilateral
triangle.
5. Two cylinders of radius r intersect at right angles, their axes meeting.
Find the volume of the intersection. What is the shape of a cross-section
parallel to the plane of the two axis?
Volume by shells:
1. {(x, y) | 0 x 2, 0 y x3 }, rotated about the line x = 3
2. {(x, y) | 3 x 5,
3. {(x, y) | 3 x 5,
4. {(x, y) | 3 x 5,
x y x2 }, rotated about the line x = 1

x y x2 }, rotated about the line x = 5
x y x2 }, rotated about the line y = 1
5. Find the volume generated by revolving an isosceles right triangle with

leg a about a line perpendicular to the hypotenuse and through a vertex
(not the right-angle vertex).
Arc length:
1. C : y = x2 , 0 x 2

2. C : y = ln cos x , 0 x /4
Surface area:
1. C := {(x, y) | x2 + y 2 = 1, x 0, y 0} revolved about the line
y=1
2. C := {(x, y) | x2 + y 2 = 1, x 0, y 0} revolved about the line
x=2
3. C : y = cos x, 0 x /2
4. A square with side s is revolved about a line parallel to a diagonal and a
distance r from the nearest vertex.
242
Mass from density:

1. Find the mass of a rod of length whose density varies as the square of
the distance from one end.
2. Find the mass of a semi-circular disc of radius a in which density varies
as the square of the distance from the diameter.
3. Find the mass of the solid circular cylinder of radius r and length whose
density varies as the distance from the axis of symmetry.
4. Find the mass of a circular disc of radius 4 in which density varies as the
distance from the center.
Center of mass and centroid:
1. Find the center of mass of a rod of length 2 whose density varies as the
distance from one end.
2. Find the center of mass of a plate covering the region below y = x2 over
[0, 2] whose density var ies as the distance from the line x = 3.
3. Find the center of mass of a wire covering the unit circle whose density
varies as the distance from the line x = 2.
4. Find the centroid of a semi-circular disc of radius a
5. Find the centroid of a solid cone.
6. Find the centroid of a solid parabolic cone obtained by revolving the
region below y = x over [0, a] about the x-axis.

7. Find the centroid of a hemispherical bowl of radius a.
8. Find the centroid of the arc y = ln x, 1 x e.
9. Use Pappus Theorem to find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region below y = sin x over [0, ] about the line x =
2.
Fluid pressure:
1. A water tank is a cylinder 6 feet in diameter, standing on end. If water
fills the tank to a depth of 4 feet, how much force is exerted on the sides
of the tank?
4.2. EXERCISES
243
2. The face of a dam is an isosceles trapezoid of height 20 feet and bases

10 feet and 40 feet. It is situated vertically with the smaller base at the
bottom. Find the force on the dam if the water level is 2 feet below the
top of the dam.
Work:
1. Find the work done in moving on object from x = 1 to x = 5 if the force
acting at point x is given by F (x) = x2 + 1.

2. A vertical cylindrical tank of radius 2 feet and height 6 feet is full of
water. Find the work done in pumping out the water (a) to an outlet at
the top of the tank; (b) to a level 5 feet above the top of the tank. (Assume
that the water weights 62.5 pounds per cubic foot.)
3. A conical container (vertex down) of radius r feet and height h feet is
full of a liquid weighing pounds per cubic foot. Find the work done in
pumping out the top 21 h feet of liquid: (a) to the op of the tank; (b) to a
level k feet about the top of the tank.
4. A chain that weights 15 pounds per foot is hanging from the top of an
80-foot building to the ground. How much work is done in pulling the
chain to the top of the building?
4.2.3 Parametric Curves:

Converting Parametric Curves
Express the parametric curve by an equation in x and y:
1. x(t) = 3t 1, y(t) = 5 2t
2. x(t) = 2t 1, y(t) = 8t3 5
3. x(t) = e2t , y(t) = e2t 1
4. x(t) = e6t , y(t) = e3t 3
5. x(t) = 2 sin t, y(t) = cos t
Parametrizing Curves
Find a parametrization x = (t), y = y(t), t [0, 1]:
1. The line segment from (3, 7) to (8, 5).
244
2. The line segment from (2, 6) to 6, 3).

3. The parabolic arc x = 1 y 2 from (0, 1) to (0, 1).
4. The curve y 2 = x3 from (4, 8) to (1, 1).
The Slope of Parametric Curves
Find the slope of the given curve at the given point and give an equation of the
tangent line:
1. x(t) = 2 cos t, y(t) = 3 sin t, t = /3
2. x(t) = 1 + t, y(t) = 1 t2 , t = 2
Arc Length of Parametric Curves
Find the length of the parametric arc:
1. x(t) = t, y(t) = t2 , t [0, 3]
2. x(t) = 2 sin t, y(t) = 2 cos t, t [0, /2]
4.2.4 Polar Coordinates:

Converting Equations into Polar Coordinates
Write the equation in polar coordinates:
1. x = 2
2. x2 + (y 1)2 = 4
3. y = mx
Write the equation in cartesian coordinates:
1. r sin = 4
2. tan = 2
3. r = 4 sin( + )
4.2. EXERCISES
245
Graphs of Polar Curves

Sketch the polar curves:
1. = 41
2. r = 2 sin
3. r = 1 cos
4. r = cos 2
5. r = sin 3
6. r = 1 + 2 cos
Area in Polar Coordinates
Calculate the area enclosed by the polar curve:
1. r = a cos , [ 21 , 12 ]
2. r = a(1 + cos 3), [ 31 , 13 ]
3. Outside r = 2, but inside r = 4 sin
4. Inside r = 4, and between the lines = 21 and r = 2 sec
5. Inside the inner loop of r = 1 2 sin
Slope of Polar Curves
Find the slope of the polar curve:
1. r = a, [a, /3]
2. r = sin 2, [ 3/2, /6]

3. r = 1+cos ; where are the tangent lines either horizontal or vertical?
Arc Length of Polar Curves
Find the length of the polar curve:
1. r = 3 cos
2. r = a(1 + cos )
246

1. Substitute y = x2
2. Substitute y = cos x
3. Substitute y = x + 1
4. Substitute y = 6 2x
5. Substitute y = x + 2
6. Try the substitution (Theorem 4.18) given by y = 1 +
x.
13. Try the substitution (Theorem 4.18) given by y = sin1 (2x).

14. Substitute y = x2 4
15. Substitute y = 4 x2
5
2
sin
17. Substitute x = 1/ 2 sin

16. Substitute x =
18. First complete the square!

19. Reduce the integrand by the substitution y = ex (Theorem 4.18).
20. Complete the square and use trigonometric substitution (Remark 4.2:1).
25. Use trigonometric substitution (Remark 4.2:1) and set x = a tan .
26. let u = x3
1. Use integration by parts (Theorem 4.19) and set u = x and v = ex .
4. Use integration by parts (Theorem 4.19) and set u = x and v = sin x
5. Integrate by parts (Theorem 4.19) twice such that the remaining integral
is a multiple of the original integral. Combine those integrals on the left
side of the equation.
7. Distinguish the cases r = 1 and r 6= 1!
247
1. Use the Second Pythagorean identity (Theorem 2.3:2) and rewrite
tan3 x sec3 x = sec2 x tan2 x(sec x tan x)
= sec2 (sec2 x 1)(sec x tan x).
Then apply Theorem 4.15:2.
5. Use the first Pythagorean identity (Theorem 2.3:1) and rewrite
cos3 x = cos2 x cos x = (1 sin2 x) cos x.
Then apply (Theorem 4.15:2).
7. You can use the trigonometric identity cos2 x = 21 (1 + cos 2x) to reduce the power of cos in the integrand or apply the recursion formula
Theorem 4.16:9.
8. Use the trigonometric identities
sin x cos x =
2
cos x =
sin2 x =
to reduce the number of factors.
17. Use Theorem 2.7:1
Partial fractions:
Improper integrals:
1. Substitute y = 2 + x
2. Substitute y = ln x
3. Use Substitution
1
2
1
2
1
2
sin(2x)

1 + cos(2x)

1 cos(2x)
248

Volume by slicing
Volume by shells:
Arc length:
Surface area:
Mass from density:
Fluid pressure:
Work:

tangent line:


249
250

1.
1
2
sin x2 + C
2.
1
3
cos3 x + C
3.
2
5 (x
4.
96
5
5.
26
15
6.
8
15
7.
1 4
7 t (1
8.
1
3
4 (x +
+ 1)5/2 34 (x + 1)3/2 + C
4
15 (1
9. 2e
3
x) 2 (3 x 2) + C
4 2
35 t (1
+ t2 ) 2
+ t2 ) 2 +
8
105 (1
+ t2 ) 2 + C
9x + 1) 3 + C
+C
10. ln |1 + cos(t)| + C
11. x + 2 x + 1 + C
12. ln | cos(ln(t))| + C
arcsin2 (2x) + C
14. x2 4 + C
15. 4 x2 + C
13.
1
4
16.
12
2x3
3/2 +
1/2 + C
1 2x2
1 2x2

18. 12 2x2 + 12x + 19 21 2 ln 2x2 + 12x + 19 + 2 x + 3 + C

19. sin1 31 ex + C
17.
x2 + 4x + 13 + lnx + 2 + x2 + 4x + 13 + C
21. 4 x2 + C
22. 41 (6 2x) 6x x2 8 + 12 arcsin(x 3) + C
20.
23.
2
(x
3
3
1) 2 + 2 x 1 + C
251
24. ln |x tan(x)| + C
a2 + x2
+C
25.
a2 x
3
26. 31 ex + c
1. xex ex + C
2. x2 ex 2xex + 2ex + C
3.
x3 33
ln 3
3x2 3x
(ln 3)2
6x3x
(ln 3)3
63x
(ln3)4
+C
4. sin(x) x cos(x) + C

x
5. e2 sin x cos x + C
6. x ln(x) x + C
1 2
x+C
2 ln

7.
1
ln x
xr+1
+C
r + 1 (r + 1)2

8. 12 cos(x) + x sin(x) + C
9.
1
2
cos(ln(x)) +
1 2
2x
1
2
r = 1
r 6= 1
sin(ln(x)) + C
arctan(x2 )
1
4
ln(x4 + 1) + C
p
11. ln(x) arcsin(ln(x)) + 1 (ln(x))2 + C
10.
1 2
2x
arctan(x) 21 x + 12 arctan(x) + C
13. 12 x2 arcsin(x) + 41 x 1 x2 41 arcsin(x) + C
14. 2 ln |x + 1| x + 1 4 x + 1 + C
12.
3(x + 1)
15. p
+C
3
2 x2 (x + 1)
16. 2 cos( x) + 2 x sin( x) + C

17.
1
2 (x
18.
1
4
19.
1 2
2x
20.
+ 1)2 ln(x + 1) (x + 1) ln(x + 1) 14 x2 + 21 x +
arcsin2 (2x) + C
sinh(2x) 12 x cosh(2x) +
1
4
sinh(2x) + C
1
1
1
+C
32(2x 1)4
20(2x 1)5
48(2x 1)6
3
4
+C
252
21.
1 2
2x
22. x arcsin(2x) +
23.
1 3
3x
24.
1
2
1
4
arctan(x2 )
1
2
ln(x2 + 1) + C
1 4x2 + C
arctan(x) 61 x2 +
1
6
ln(x2 ) arcsin(ln(x2 )) +
ln(x2 + 1) + C
1
2
p
1 (ln(x2 ))2 + C
25. 2 sin( x) 2 x cos( x) + C

1.
1
5
sec5 x
1
3
sec3 x + C
2.
1
6
tan6 x +
1
4
tan2 x + C
3.
1
3
tan3 x tan x + x + C
4.
1
5
sin5 (3t) + C
5.
1
5
sin5 x
6.
1
12
7.
5
16 x
8.
3
128 x
9.
1
12
1
7
sin7 x + C
sec 6x tan 6x +
+
15
64
sin 2x +
1
128
1
12
ln | sec 6x + tan 6x| + C
3
64
sin 4x +
sin(4x) +
sin(6x) + x +
10.
1
5
tan5 x
11.
2
3
sec 2 (x) + C
12.
1
2
sin(x) +
1
3
1
4
1
1024
1
192
sin 6x + C.
sin(8x)
cos(4x)
1
2
cos(2x)
1
4
sin(2x) + C
tan3 x + tan x x + C
1
40
sin(5x) +
1
8
sin(3x) + C
cos( 1 x)
13. sin2 (21 x) + ln | csc( 21 x) (cot( 21 x))| + C

2
14. 41 cos(7x)
15.
sin(x)
4 cos4 (x)
1
6
cos(3x) + C
3 sin(x)
8 cos2 (x)
3
8
ln | sec(x) + tan(x)| + C
(x)
16. 3cos
+C
sin3 (x)
1
17. 10
sin 5x +
1
2
sin x + C
253
Partial fractions:
1. ln |x 2| ln |x + 5| + C
2. 23 ln |x + 3|
3.
4.
1
2
ln |x + 1| + 2 ln |x + 2| + C
1
+C
2(x 1)2
1 4
4x
+ 43 x3 + 6x2 + 32x
5. 3 ln |x| + 5 ln |x 1| +
3
x
32
x2
+ 80 ln |x 2| + C
+C
6. x + 7 ln |x 2| 4 ln |x 1| + C
7. 79 ln |x + 3|
8.
1
2
9.
12
7
ln |x 4| + C
ln |x2 + 4x + 1| +
1
+
6x + 1
10. arctan(x) +
1
6
3
5 3
3 arctanh( 3 x
2 3
3 )
ln |6x + 1| + C
1
2
ln |x2 + 3| + C
11.
1
2
12.
1 2
2x
13.
tan3 (e2x )
+C
6
ln |x| ln |x 1| +
3
2
ln |x + 2| + C
+ 2 ln |x| 2 ln |x 1|
1
x
+C
14. ln | tan2 ( 12 x) + 1| 2 ln | tan( 12 x) + 1|

15. 5 ln |x + 3| +
1
10
Improper integrals:
1.
2.
21
1
1
2 ln 2
3. 0
2
4. /2
5. Diverges
6. 2e 2
7. Diverges
8. ln 2
9. /2 1
+C
ln |5x2 + 3| +
1
5
2
tan( 12 x)+1
arctan | x3 | + C
5
+C
254

Volume by slicing
Volume by shells:
Arc length:
Surface area:
Mass from density:
Fluid pressure:
Work:

tangent line:


255
256

13. Using the substitution (Theorem 4.18)
y = sin1 (2x)
2dx
dy =
1 4x2
and thus
dy
dx
=
2
1 4x2
follows immediately that
Z
Z
sin1 2x
1
dx = 2 y dy
1 4x2
= 41 y 2 + C

2
= 14 sin1 (2x) + C
=
1
4
sin2 (2x) + C.
19. The substitution (Theorem 4.18) y = ex , dy = ex dx leads to the reduction

Z
Z
dy
ex
p
=
dx =
2x
9e
9 y2
This integral can be solved using trigonometric substitution (Remark 4.2:1).
With the substitution y = 3 sin , d = 3 cos we obtain
Z
Z
3 cos d
cos d
p
=3 q
2
9 9 sin
9(1 sin2 )
Z
Z
cos d
cos d
=
=3
2
cos
9 cos
Z
= d = + C
257
x
provided that cos > 0. Thus, solving
the equation e = y = 3 sin for
1 1 x
and conclude
theta, we find that = sin
3e
ex
dx = sin1
9 e2x
1 x
3e
+ C.
20. We first complete the square in the radicant: x2 + 4x + 13 = (x +

2)2 + 9. Then the integral
Z
x+3
dx =
2
x + 4x + 13
Z
x+3
p
dx
=
(x + 2)2 + 9
and with the substitution (Theorem 4.18) y = x + 2, dy = dx
y+1
p
dy
y2 + 9
With the trigonometric substitution (Remark 4.2:1) y = 3 tan which

implies dy = 3 sec2 d the last integral changes to
3 tan + 1
(3 sec2 ) d
2
9
tan
+
9
Z
3 tan + 1
(sec2 ) d
=3 p
9(tan2 + 1)
Z
3 tan + 1
=3 p
(sec2 ) d
9 sec2 )
Z
3 tan + 1
(sec2 ) d
=
sec
258
provided sec > 0, recall that
2
Figure 4.15:
2)
x+2
x+
p 9+(
A2 = |A|, and thus
(3 tan + 1) sec d
Z
Z
= 3 sec tan d + sec d
= 3 sec + ln | sec + tan | + C

p
= x2 + 4x + 13
p

+ ln 13 (x + 2 + x2 + 4x + 13) + C
p

= x2 + 4x + 13 + ln 13
p

+ lnx + 2 + x2 + 4x + 13 + C

and then combining ln 31 and C to a new constant D, we finally obtain
=
p
x2 + 4x + 13
p

+ lnx + 2 + x2 + 4x + 13 + D
since 3 tan = y = x + 2, implies that

tan = 31 (x + 2)
p
sec = 13 9 + (x + 2)2
p
= 13 x2 + 4x + 13
as can be easily verified consulting the following right triangle:

25. With the substitution x = a tan and dx = a sec2 d, cf. (Remark 4.2:1),
follows
Z
dx
dx =
x2 a2 + x2
Z
a sec2 d
=
2
a2 tan a2 + a2 tan2
Z
a sec2 d
p
=
2
a2 tan a2 (1 + tan2 )
Z
a sec2 d
p
=
a2 tan2 a2 sec2 )
Z
Z
a sec2 d
sec d
1
=
=
a2
a3 tan2 sec
tan2
259
provided a > 0 and sec > 0 and thus
1
a2
1
cos d
sin2
cos2
1
= 2
a
cos
d
sin2
cot csc d
1
csc + C
a2
Figure 4.16:
by Theorem 4.16:8 and equals
a2 + x2
=
+C
a2 x
since x = a tan implies tan =
x
a
and thus
a2 + x2
csc =
x
as can be easily verified consulting the triangle:
1. We use integration by parts (Theorem 4.19) in the form
Z
uv = uv
u v
and try to reduce the factor x in the integrand to 1 by choosing u = x:

Z
x
a2 +
x |{z}
ex dx
|{z}
u
v
Z
= |{z}
x |{z}
ex |{z}
1 |{z}
ex dx
xe dx =
= xex
ex dx
= xex ex + C
4. We use integration by parts (Theorem 4.19) in the form
Z
uv = uv
u v
1
= 2
a
260
and try to reduce the factor x in the integrand to 1 by choosing u = x:

Z
Z
x sin x dx = |{z}
x sin
x dx
|{z}
u
= x( cos x) 1 ( cos x) dx
Z
= x cos x + cos x dx
which by Theorem 4.15:3) equals

= x cos x + sin x + C.
5. We will use integration (Theorem 4.19) by parts twice and will see that
the remaining integral will be a multiple of the original integral:
Z
Z
ex sin x dx = |{z}
ex sin
x dx
|{z}
= ex sin x
ex cos
|{z}
| {zx} dx
v
u
Z

= ex sin x ex cos x + ex sin x dx
Z

x
= e sin x cos x ex sin x dx
R
Collecting the term ex sin x dx on the left side, we obtain
Z

2 ex sin x dx = ex sin x cos x
and thus
Z
ex sin x dx =
ex
2

sin x cos x + C.
1. Using the Second Pythagorean identity (Theorem 2.3:2), we obtain the
equation
tan3 x sec3 x = sec2 x tan2 x(sec x tan x)
= sec2 (sec2 x 1)(sec x tan x).
261
Thus
Z
tan3 x sec3 x dx =
Z
= sec2 (sec2 x 1)(sec x tan x) dx
Z
= sec4 x(sec x tan x) dx
Z
sec2 x(sec x tan x) dx
which by the Generalized Powerrule (Theorem 4.15:2) equals

=
1
5
sec5 x
1
3
sec3 x + C.
5. Using the first Pythagorean identity (Theorem 2.3:1), we obtain

cos3 x = cos2 x cos x = (1 sin2 x) cos x.
Hence
Z
sin4 x cos3 x dx =
Z
= sin4 x(1 sin2 x) cos x dx
Z
Z
4
= sin x cos x dx sin6 x cos x dx
which by the Generalized Powerrule (Theorem 4.15:2) equals

=
1
5
sin5 x
1
7
sin7 x + C
7. First Method: We demonstrate first, how the integral can be solved by

reducing the power of cos: To this end, we first use Theorem 2.6:2 and
Theorem 2.7:3 and reduce cos3 A:
cos3 A = cos A cos2 A
=
=
1
2
1
2
cos A(1 + cos 2A)

cos A +
1
=
(T h 2.7:3) 2
3
4
1
2
cos A cos 2A
cos A +
cos A +
1
4
1
4
cos A +
cos 3A.
1
4
cos 3A
262
Then
1
3
cos6 x = (cos2 x)3
=
(1 + cos 2x)
2
(T h 2.6:2)

1
= 8 1 + 3 cos 2x + 3 cos2 2x + cos3 2x
which by Theorem 2.6:2 and the computation above equals
=
=
1
8

1 + 3 cos 2x +
1 5
8 2
+
+
15
4
3
4
3
2
3
2
cos 4x
cos 2x +
cos 2x +
3
2
1
4

cos 6x
cos 4x +
1
4

cos 6x .
Therefore,
cos6 x dx =
1 5
8 2x
5
16 x
+
3
8
15
8
sin 2x
sin 4x +
15
64
3
64
1
24
sin 2x
sin 4x +

sin 6x + C
1
192
sin 6x + C.
Second Method: We will now show how the integral can be solved
using the recurrence formula Theorem 4.16:7
cosn x dx =
1
n
cosn1 x sin x
Z
n1
+ n
cosn2 x dx.
Note that the recurrence allows us to compute
cosn x dx provided we

have already computed
Z
Z
Z
Z
cosn2 x dx.
cos0 x dx = x
cos1 x dx = sin x
1
2
cos x sin x +
1
2
cos x sin x + 21 x
cos x dx =
1
3
cos x sin x +
2
3
1
3
cos2 x sin x +
2
3
1
4
cos3 x sin x
1
2
cos0 x dx
cos1 x dx
sin x
Z
cos4 x dx = 41 cos3 x sin x + 34 cos2 x dx
3 1
4 2

cos x sin x + 21 x
1
4
cos3 x sin x +
cos5 x dx =
1
5
cos4 x sin x
+
1
5
4 1
5 3
cos6 x dx =
+
=
+
1
6
3
8
cos x sin x + 83 x
cos3 x sin x +
cos4 x sin x
+
cos2 x dx =
+
Z
263
4
15
cos2 x sin x +
2
3

sin x
8
15
sin x
cos5 x sin x
3
5 1
3
3
6 4 cos x sin x + 8 cos x sin x + 8
5
1
6 cos x sin x
3
5
5
5
24 cos x sin x + 16 cos x sin x + 16 x.
8. We will use the trigonometric identities

sin x cos x =
2
cos x =
2
sin x =
1
2
1
2
1
2
sin(2x)
(4.1)

1 + cos(2x)

1 cos(2x)
(4.2)
(4.3)
to reduce the number of factors of the integrand (at the expense of creat-
264
ing higher frequencies).

Z
sin4 x cos4 x dx =
Z
Z
2
4
2
1
1
=
sin
2x
sin
2x
=
dx
2
16
(4.1)
Z
2
1
1
= 16
1
cos
4x
dx
2
(4.3)
Z

1
1 2 cos 4x + cos2 4x dx
= 64
Z

1
= 64
1 2 cos 4x + 21 + 21 cos 8x dx
(4.2)
Z

1
1
3
= 64
2 2 cos 4x + 2 cos 8x dx

1 3
1
1
= 64
2 x 2 sin 4x + 16 sin 8x + C
=
3
128 x
1
128
sin 4x +
1
1024
sin 8x + C.
Partial fractions:
Improper integrals:

Volume by slicing
Volume by shells:
Arc length:
Surface area:
Mass from density:
Fluid pressure:
Work:

265
tangent line:

266
5
S EQUENCES AND
S ERIES

5.1.1 Sequences of Real Numbers
Definition 5.1 (Real Sequence)
A real-valued function a : N R from the set of positive integers N into
the real numbers R is called a sequence of real numbers or a real sequence.
It is customary to denote a(n) simply by an and the whole sequence by
(an )nN = (a1 , a2 , a3 , . . .) or by {an }nN = {a1 , a2 , a3 , . . .}. Often the
notation is simplified to (an ) or {an }.
Definition 5.2 (Boundedness)
A (real) sequence (an )nN is said to be
1. bounded from above if there exists some constant B R such that
an B for all n N.;
2. bounded from below if there exists some constant b R such that
an b for all n N;
3. bounded if there exists some constant C R such that |an | C for
all n N.
267
CHAPTER 5. SEQUENCES AND SERIES
268
Definition 5.3 (Monotonicity)

A (real) sequence (an )nN is said to be
1. increasing if there exists some k N such an < an+1 for all n N
with n > k.
2. non-decreasing if there exists some k N such an an+1 for all
n N with n > k.
3. decreasing if there exists some k N such an > an+1 for all n N
with n > k.
4. non-increasing if there exists some k N such an an+1 for all
n N with n > k.
Definition 5.4 (Limit)
A (real) sequence (an )nN has limit L R, written
an L,
lim an = L,
if and only if, for any > 0 there exists some constant N N such that for
all n N:
n > N |an L| < .
We then also say that the sequence (an )nN converges to L, or is convergent.
If no such L exists, the sequence is said to diverge or be divergent.
Theorem 5.1 (Limit Theorem)
Suppose (an )nN and (bn )nN are convergent sequences and R, then
1. lim (an + bn ) = lim an + lim bn

n
2. lim (an ) = lim an

n
3. lim (an bn ) =
n
lim an
lim bn
lim an
an
= n , if bn 6= 0 for all n N and limn bn 6= 0.
n bn
lim bn
4. lim
Theorem 5.2 (Continuity)

Suppose the function f : Df R is continuous and (an )nN a convergent
sequence
such that an Df for all n N. Then the sequence of images
f (an ) nN also converges and
lim f (an ) = f

lim an .
269
Theorem 5.3 (Squeezing Theorem)

Suppose an bn cn for all n N with n > k for some k N. If
limn an = limn cn = L, then limn bn = L.
Example 5.1
If limn an = 0 and (bn )nN is bounded, then
lim an bn = 0.
Theorem 5.4 (Convergence Boundedness)

Every convergent sequence is bounded.
Theorem 5.5 (Monotonicity + Boundedness Convergence)
Every bounded monotonic sequence is convergent.
More precisely: Every non-decreasing sequence that is bounded above
converges to its least upper bound, every non-increasing sequence that is
bounded below converges to its greatest lower bound.
Example 5.2
If the sequence (an )nN is monotonic and unbounded, then
lim
1
= 0.
an
Theorem 5.6 (Some Important Limits)
1. lim c = c, c R;
n
2. lim x1/n = 1, x > 0;

n
3. Geometric Sequence:
|x| < 1
0
lim xn = 1
x=1
n
diverges else;
4. lim
1
= 0, p > 0;
np
xn
= 0;
n n!
5. lim
6. lim
ln n
= 0;
n
7. lim n1/n = 1;
n
8. lim
1+
x n
= ex ;
n
270
5.1.2 Infinite Series

Definition 5.5 (Infinite Series)
P
Let (an )nN be a (real) sequence. The infinite series k=1 ak is defined to
be the sequence (Sn )nN of n-th partial sums
Sn :=
n
X
ak .
k=1
The coefficients an are

the terms of the series.
Pcalled
Moreover, the series k=1 ak is called a series of positive terms if ak > 0

for all k N.
Definition
P 5.6 (Convergence)
P
Let k=1 ak be an infinite series and S R. The series k=1 ak converges to S if the sequence (Sn )nN of partial sums converges to S. If
limn Sn = S, we call S the value of the infinite series and write
ak = S.
k=1
Definition 5.7
Convergence)
P(Absolute
The
series
a
is
said to be absolutely convergent if the series
k=1 k
P
|a
|
converges.
k=1 k
Definition 5.8
Convergence)
P(Conditional
If the series k=1 ak converges, but not absolutely, then it is called conditionally convergent.
Theorem
5.7 (Combinations
of Series)
P
P
If
and
are
convergent
series and R, then
a
b
k
k
k=1
k=1
1.
(ak + bk ) =
ak =
k=1
2.
k=1
k=1
k=1
ak .
ak +
k=1
bk ;
271
5.1.3 Convergence Tests

Theorem 5.8P
(Divergence Test)
If the series
converges, then limn an = 0. Equivalently: If
n=1 anP
limn an 6= 0 then n=1 an diverges.

Theorem 5.9 (Integral Test)
If f is a positive, continuous and decreasing function on the interval [K, )
for some constant K N, then
k=K
f (k) conv.
f (x) dx conv.
Corollary 5.1 (p-Series Test)

The p-series
X
1
n
n=K
converges if and only if p > 1, for any K N.

Theorem 5.10 (Comparison Test) P
Suppose
the series of positive terms
k=1 bk dominates the series of positive
P
terms k=1 ak , i.e. bk ak for all k > K for some K N. Then
P
P
1. If
k=1 bk converges, then
k=1 ak converges;
P
P
2. If k=1 ak diverges, then k=1 bk diverges;
TheoremP
5.11 (Limit Comparison
Test)
P
Suppose
k=1 ak and
k=1 bk are series of positive terms and
an
<
n bn
0 < lim
then
k=1
ak conv.
bk conv.
k=1
Definition 5.9 (Alternating Series)

If (an )nN is a sequence and an 0 then the infinite series
(1)n+1 an
n=1
is called an alternating series.
272
Theorem 5.12 (Alternating Series Test, Leibniz Criterion)

If (an )nN is decreasing, positive and lim an = 0, then
n
1.
(1)n+1 an converges;
n=1
2. |S Sn | < an+1 for all n N, where S denotes the value of the

alternating series.
Theorem
P 5.13 (Ratio Test)
Let
n=1 an be a series and let

an+1

:= lim
n
an
then
1. If < 1 then
an converges absolutely;
an diverges;
n=1
2. If > 1 then
n=1
3. If = 1 then the test is inconclusive.
Theorem
P 5.14 (Root Test)
Let
n=1 an be a series and let
:= lim |an |1/n

n
then
1. If < 1 then
an converges absolutely;
an diverges;
n=1
2. If > 1 then
n=1
3. If = 1 then the test is inconclusive.
273
Theorem 5.15 (Important Series, Estimate)

1. Geometric Series:
1
X
|r| < 1
rn = 1 r
diverges else
n=0
2. p-series:
3. Telescoping Series:
X
1
converges p > 1
p
n
n=1
1
=1
n(n + 1)
n=1
4. Useful Estimate: For all k N there exists a constant bk such that

for x (bk , )
ln x x1/k
5.1.4 Power Series
Definition 5.10 (Power Series)

1. An infinite series of the form
bn xn
n=0
is called a power series in x.

2. If g is any function, then an infinite series of the form
n=0
n
bn g(x)
is called a power series in g(x).
274
Theorem
P 5.16 n(Radius of Convergence, Interval of Convergence)
Let
n=0 bn x be a power series in x. Then there exists a unique r with
0 r (note: r can be !) such that
1.
n=0
2.
bn xn converges absolutely for all |x| < r;
bn xn diverges for all |x| > r. This r is called the radius of conn=0
P
vergence of n=0 bn xn . The interval
X

x R
bn xn converges
n=0
is called the interval of convergence of the power series
n
n=0 bn x .
Theorem
5.17 (Computing the Radius of Convergence)
P
n
If
b
n=0 n x is a power series in x, then its radius of convergence is given
by

bn

1. r = lim
n bn+1
2. r =
1
p
lim n |bn |
(Hadamard)
TheoremP
5.18 (Differentiation and Integration)
n
Suppose
n=0
Pbn x isn a power series with radius of convergence r > 0.
Let f (x) = n=0 bn x . Then
1. f is differentiable on (r, r) and its derivative f has a power series

representation with the same radius of convergence. Moreover,
f (x) =
nbn xn1
n=1
for all x (r, r).
R
2. f is integrable on (r, r) and its integral f (x) dx has a power series
representation with the same radius of convergence. Moreover,
Z
for all x (r, r).
f (x) dx =
bn
xn+1 + C
n
+1
n=0
275
Corollary 5.2 (Taylor Coefficients)

f has continuous derivatives of all orders on (r, r) and
bn =
f (n) (0)
n!
for all n {0, 1, 2, . . .}.

Theorem 5.19 (Identity Theorem)
Suppose
X
X
an xn =
bn xn
n=0
n=0
for all x in the intersection of the intervals of convergence of the two series.
Then an = bn for all n {0, 1, 2, . . . , }.
Theorem 5.20 (Algebraic Operations)
P
P
k
k
Given two power series f (x) =
k=0 ak x and g(x) =
k=0 bk x with
positive radius of convergence. Let r > 0 be chosen such that both power
series converge for all |x| < r. Then
1. f (x) + g(x) =
k=0
2. (f )(x) =

ak + bk xk .
(ak )xk .
k=0
3. f (x) g(x) =
k=0
k
X
aj bkj xk .
j=0
5.1.5 Taylor Series

Definition 5.11 (Taylor Series)
Suppose f possessess derivatives of any order on the interval I containing
x0 . Then the series
T (x) :=
X
f (j) (x0 )
j=0
j!
(x x0 )j
is called the Taylor series or Taylor expansion of f centered at x0 ;

Remark 5.1
Note that the Taylor series T of a function that is infinitely differentiable, say
Figure 5.1:
Brook Taylor (16851731)
276
at x0 = 0, does not have to converge f for some open interval I containing 0.

The classic counterexample is
f (x) :=
e1/x
0
for x 6= 0
else
It can be shown that

f (j) (0) = 0 for all n = 0, 1, 2, . . .
Hence, T (x) = 0 for x R, which implies that the Taylor series T of f
converges to f only at x0 = 0. Taylors remainder term provides a useful to
tool to check whether the Taylor series of a function represents the function.
Figure 5.2:
Counterexample
Definition 5.12 (Taylor Polynomials)

The n-th partial sum
Tn (x) =
n
X
f (j) (x0 )
j=0
j!
(x x0 )j
of the Taylor series expansion of f at x0 is called the n-th Taylor polynomial

of f centered at x0 (which exists if f has derivatives up to order n on I).
Definition 5.13 (Taylors Remainder Term)
Suppose Pn is the n-th Taylor polynomial of f centered at x0 . Then the term
Rn (x) := f (x) Tn (x)
for x I is called the n-Taylors remainder for f at x.
Theorem 5.21 (Taylors Remainder Theorem)
If f possesses derivatives up to order n + 1 on the open interval I containing
x0 , then for each x I
Z
1 x (n+1)
f
(t)(x t)n dt.
Rn (x) =
n! x0
Theorem 5.22 (Lagranges Form of Taylors Remainder)
If f possesses derivatives up to order n + 1 on the open interval I containing
x0 , then for each x I there exists a number between x and x0 such that
Rn (x) =
f (n+1) ()
(x x0 )n+1
(n + 1)!
277
Theorem 5.23
Let T denote the Taylor series of f . Then
T (x) = f (x)
lim Rn (x) = 0
where Rn (x) denotes the n-Taylor remainder for f at x.

Theorem 5.24 (Important Taylor Series Expansions)
1. Exponential Series:
X
xk
, |x| <
ex =
k!
k=0
2. Sine Series:
X
x2k+1
,
sin x =
(1)k
(2k + 1)!
k=0
|x| <
3. Cosine Series:
X
x2k
cos x =
(1)k
,
(2k)!
|x| <
4. Hyperbolic Sine Series:
X
x2k+1
,
sinh x =
(2k + 1)!
|x| <
k=0
k=0
5. Hyperbolic Cosine Series:
X
x2k
, |x| <
cosh x =
(2k)!
k=0
6. Geometric Series:
X
1
=
xk , |x| < 1
1x
k=0
7. Binomial Series:
X
k
(1 + x) =
x ,
k
k=0
|x| < 1, R
8. Logarithmic Series:
X
xk
(1)k+1 ,
ln(x + 1) =
k
k=1
9. Arc-Tangens Series:
X
x2k+1
,
arctan(x) =
(1)k
2k + 1
k=0
|x| < 1
|x| < 1
278
5.2 Exercises
5.2.1 Sequences
Boundedness and Monotonicity
Investigate whether the following sequences are bounded, monotonic (and convergent):
2
a
1. nn1
2
n

2. (1)n n2
3.
4.
5.

n2 1
n1
ln n
n1
a
n
ln
n
n
bounded by 0 from below and by 1 from above,

decreasing (starting at about 10, converges to 0
n
h s
2
(n+1)!
Convergence
Determine the following limits if they exist:
1
1. lim (n + 2) n
n
5n+1
n 42n1

n
1
3. lim
n
3

4. lim n1 n
2. lim
5. lim 2n
6. lim ln n1

n
1
7. lim 1 +
n
3n
ha
x50n
n n!
ln n2
n n
8. lim
9. lim
5.2. EXERCISES
10. lim ln
n
279
n1
n
2n!
3n
2n2

1
12. lim 1 +
n
n

13. lim
n+2 n
11. lim
14. lim
15. lim
p

n2 + n 1 n
1 + 2 + 3 + + n
n2
a
a
16. The Finacci sequence (an )n is defined recursively by a1 := 1, a2 := 1

and an+1 := an + an1 for
n = 2, 3, 4 . . .. Calculate the first 20 terms
of the sequence an+1 /an n . Does this sequence converge? What is its
limit?

Limit
Find the sum of the infinite series if it exists:
X
3
1.
n(n + 3)
n=1
2.
3.
1
2n(n + 1)
n=1
X
1 2n
3n
n=0
X
3n
4.
2n+2
n=1

X
1
1
+
5.
en
n(n + 1)
n=1
6.
(1)n
n=0
7.

X
n=0
5n
32n+3
1
1
n+1 n+5
280
Repeated Decimals
Rewrite each repeating decimal as a fraction:

1. 0.2222 . . .
2. 0.232 232 232 . . .
3. 27.56123123123 . . .
4. 1.5342424242 . . .
Convergence
Determine whether the following series converge. Justify your conclusion!
1.
X
1
5
n
n=3
2.
2
3 + ln n
n=1
3.
1
(3n
+
1)5
n=0
4.
1
1 + 2 + 3 + + n
n=1
n

X
1
1+
5.
n
n=0
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
X
n!
nn
n=1
X
X
X
X
X
3n
n2 + 5
3n
+5
2
2n 1
n3
3
n 3n
1
n ln n
5.2. EXERCISES
12.
13.
14.
15.
281
X n
ln n
X 3
n2 ln n
X ln n
n
k!
kk
k=1
X ln n
16.
n n
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
X ln n
n2 n
X ln n
n1.005
X 2n 4
2n
X sin2
n n
Xn1
n2 2 n
sin2 (n)

Determine whether each infinite series converges absolutely, conditionally or
diverges:
1.
(1)n+1
n=1
2.
(1)n
n=1
3.
(1)n
n=1
1
2n + 1
nn
n!
n3
X
cos n
4.
n
n=1
n+2
+ 3n + 5
282
5.
(1)n
n=2
6.
ln n
n
(1)n+1
n=1
7.
8.
X (1)n ln n
2n 3
(1)n+1
n=2
9.
10n
(n + 1)42n+1
(1)n
n=1
1
n(ln n)2
1 3 5 (2n + 1)
2 5 8 (3n + 2)
5.2.3 Power Series

Interval of Convergence
Find the radius of convergence and the interval of convergence of the power
series:
1.
X
k1
k=1
2.
xk
X
1 k
x
ln k
k=2
3.
n3 xn
n=1
4.
5.
X
n(n 2) n
x
2
n=2
ln(k) xk
k=2
6.
(1)n
n=1
7.
1 n+3
x
n3
n(n + 2)
xn
(n
+
1)(3n
+
1)
n=1
X
1
8.
(x 3)n
ln
n
n=2
5.2. EXERCISES
X
(1)n
(x 1)n
9.
ln(n + 1)
n=1
10.
x2n+1
n=1
11.
12.
X
n3 + 1 5n
x
2n
n=0

X
2 n + 1 (x + 1)3n
n=0
X
9n n + 1
13.
(x 1)2n+1
2
+
n
n=0
Radius of Convergence
Find the radius of convergence:
1.
X
nn n
x
n!
n1
X
n2n n
2.
x
(2n)!
n=1
3.
1 3 5 (2n 1) n
x
n [1 4 7 (3n 2)]
2
n=1
Limit Function
Find the sum of each power series and give its interval of convergence:
1.
n=0
2.
n(n 1)(n 2)xn3
(1)n nxn
n=0
3.
(1)n n(n 1)xn
n=0
4.
5.
X
(1)n n+1
x
n+1
n=0
(1)n
xn+2
(n
+
1)(n
+
2)
n=0
283
284
Expansions
Establish the following indenties:
1.
1 1 1 1
= 1 + + +
4
3 5 7 9
2. ln 2 =
3.
1
1
1
1
+
+
+
+
2
3
12 22
32
4 24
ex dx =
x2n+1
+C
(2n + 1)n!
n=0
Limit Function
Determine the limit function:
5
2 3 4

1. 1 + +
2 4 8 16
2. 1 +
3.
1
1
1
1
+
+
+
+
2
3
22 32
42
5 24
12 23 34 45 56
+
+ 2 + 3 + 4 +
1
3
3
3
3
Taylor Series Expansions

Find the Taylor expansion at x0 for each function and give its interval of convergence:
1. f (x) =
1
,
1 x4
2. f (x) =
1
,
1 + x3
3. f (x) =
1
,
(1 + x)3
x0 = 0
x0 = 0
x0 = 0
4. f (x) = ln(1 + x2 ),
5. f (x) =
1
,
1 + 2x
x0 = 0
x0 = 0
6. f (x) = tan1 3x2 ,
x0 = 0
7. f (x) = sin(3x),
x0 = 0
8. f (x) = x3 cos x,
x0 = 0
9. f (x) = x3 e3x ,
x0 = 0
5.2. EXERCISES
10. f (x) =
1
,
x
285
x0 = 1
1
, x0 = 2
(1 + 2x)4
12. f (x) = x, x0 = 1
11. f (x) =
13. f (x) = ln x,
x0 = 2
286
5.3 Anwers to the Exercises

5.3.1 Sequences
Boundedness and Monotonicity
Investigate whether the following sequences are bounded, monotonic (and convergent):
1. bounded by 0 from below and 1 from above, increasing, converges to 1
2. bounded by 2 from below and 1 from above, not monotonic (alternating), converges to 0
3. bounded by 2 from below,
unbounded from above, increasing, diverges
ln
n
(converges to ) n
bounded by 0 from below and by 1 from
n
above, decreasing (starting at about 10, converges to 0
5. bounded from below by 0 and 1 from above, decreasing, converges to 0
Convergence
Determine the following limits if they exist:
1. 1
2. 0
3. 0
4. diverges
5. diverges (converge to )
6. diverges (converges to )
7. 3 e
8. 0
9. 0
10. 0
13. 0
14. 1/2
15. 1/2
5.3. ANWERS TO THE EXERCISES
287
16. In rounded decimals: 1.5, 1.66667, 1.6000, 1.62500, 1.61538, 1.61905,

1.61765, 1.61818, 1.61798, 1.61806, 1.61803, 1.61804, 1.618303, 1,61803,
1,61803,
1,61803, 1,61803, 1,61803 . . .; the sequences converges to
1
(1
+
5) 1.6180339887498948482. . .
2

Limit
Find the sum of the infinite series if it exists:
1. 11/6
2. 1/2
3. 3/2
4. diverges
5.
e
e1
Repeated Decimals
Rewrite each repeating decimal as a fraction:
1. 2/9
2.
232
999
3.
123
917 789
2 756
+
=
100
99 900
33 300
4.
5 063
3 300
Convergence
Determine whether the following series converge. Justify your conclusion!
1. diverges by p-series test (Corollary 5.1)
2. diverges by the Comparison Test (Theorem 5.10)
3. converges by Limit Comparision Test (Theorem 5.11)
4. converges by the Comparision Test (Theorem 5.10)
5. diverges by the Divergence Test (Theorem 5.8)
6. Converges by the Ratio Test (Theorem 5.13, Theorem 5.6:8)
288
7. diverges by the Comparision Test (Theorem 5.10)

8. converges by the Limit Comparision Test (Theorem 5.11)
9. converge by the Comparision Test (Theorem 5.11)
10. converges by the Limit Comparision Test (Theorem 5.11)
11. diverges by the Comparision Test (Theorem 5.11)
Determine whether each infinite series converges absolutely, conditionally or
diverges:
1. converges conditionally
2. diverges
3. converges absolutely
9. diverges
5.3.3 Power Series

Interval of Convergence
Find the radius of convergence and the interval of convergence of the power
series:
Radius of Convergence
Find the radius of convergence:
Limit Function
Find the sum of each power series and give its interval of convergence:
Expansions
Establish the following indenties:
5.3. ANWERS TO THE EXERCISES
289
Limit Function
Determine the limit function:
Taylor Series Expansions
Find the Taylor expansion at x0 for each function and give its interval of convergence:
I NDEX
(an )nN , 267

<, 32
[a, b], 17
#(S), 15
C, 16
N, 16
N0 , 16
Q, 16
R, 16
, 17
Z, 16
n
k , 42
, 18
, 18
, 16
x, 20
x, 20
,
R 142
f (x) dx, 212
Rb
a f (x) dx, 207
, 30, 31
|, 52
inf(S), 34
limx f (x) = L, 142
limxc+ f (x) = L, 142
limxc f (x) = L, 142
limxc f (x) = L, 141
limxc f (x) = , 143

max(S), 34
min(S), 34
sup(S), 34
expa , 45
loga , 46
\,
18
n
a, 36, 37
,
17
P
n=1 an , 270
, 19
{x | P }, 16
{x1 . . . . , xn }, 16
ax , 45
df , 152
dx, 152
ex , 39
f , 152
f : D C, 24
n!, 41
|x|, 41
absolute convergence, 270
absolute value, 41
properties, 41
addition, 29
addition formulae, 106, 113
additive, 210, 216
290
INDEX
adjacent, 102
algebra
fundamental theorem, 56
all quantifier x, 20
alternating series, 271
alternating series test, 272
angles, 101
magnitude, 102
anti-derivative, 212
anti-symmetric, 18, 30, 31
arc, 226
arc length differential, 226
arccos, 111
arccosh, 117
arccot, 111
arccoth, 117
arccsc, 111
arccsch, 117
Archimidean Axiom, 20
arcsec, 111
arcsech, 117
arcsin, 111
arcsinh, 117
arctan, 111
arctanh, 117
area, 220
area differential, 220
associative law, 20
asymptotes
horizontal, 142
vertical, 143
average
rate of change, 154
average value, 211
Mean Value Theorem, 211
base, 37
Bernoulli numbers, 109
Bernoulli, Jakob, 109
bijective, 25
binomial coefficients, 42
binomial formula, 43
bound
greatest lower, 34
infimum, 34
least upper, 34
291
lower, 33
supremum, 34
upper, 33
bounded, 33, 267, 269
bounded from above, 33, 267
bounded from below, 33, 267
C, 16
cancellation law
for addition, 32
for exp/log. functions, 47
for multiplication, 32
Cantor, G., 15
cardinality #(S), 15
cartesian product, 19
Cavalieris principle, 221, 224
Cavalieri, Bonaventura, 224
center of mass, 229
centroid, 229231
symmetry, 232
circular functions, 104
co-domain, 22
coefficient, 48
commutativ law, 20
comparison test, 271
comparison theorem, 219
completeness axiom, 35
completing the square, 44
complex numbers, 16
complex roots, 38
composition , 25
comvergence tests
limit comparision test, 271
concave
downward, 155, 156
upward, 155, 156
concavity, 155, 156
conditional convergence, 270
constant, 155
constant polynomial, 48
continuity, 150, 268
continuous, 150
algebraic operations, 150
at a point, 150
definition, 150
differentiable, 152
INDEX
292
elementary functions, 150
existence of zeros, 151
Extreme Value Thm, 151
intermediate value theorem, 151
limit description, 150
on a set, 150
converge, 141, 268270
convergence, 270
absolute, 270
conditional, 270
convergence tests
divergence test, 271
integral test, 271
ratio test, 272
root test, 272
convergent, 141, 268270
cos, 103, 104
law of, 110
zeros, 105
cosh, 112
cot, 103, 104
zeros, 105
coth, 112
critical numbers, 156
csc, 103, 104
csch, 112
cubic polynomial, 48
curves
rectifiable, 226
smooth, 226
df , 152
dx, 152
de Morgans rules, 21
decreasing, 155, 268
definite integrals, 207
degree, 48
derivatives, 152
constant function, 155
differential, 152
differentiation rules, 153
elementary functions, 154
power series, 274
Rolle Theorem, 154

descriptive form, 16
difference (of sets), 18
differences of powers, 44
differentiable, 152
continuous, 152
Rolles Theorem, 154
differential, 152
arc length, 226
area, 220
future value, 234
mass 3d, 229
mass of a plate, 228
mass of a rod, 228
mass of a wire, 228
surface area, 227
volume, 221, 224
disjoint, 18
disk method, 223
distributive law, 20
diverge, 141, 268
divergent, 141, 268
division, 28, 32, 53
long, 52
synthetic, 53
Division Algorithm, 52
divisor, 52
domain, 22
principal, 111
double angle identities, 113
double-angle identities, 106
e, 39
element, 15
element of, 16
empty set, 16
, 16
equality
fractions, 28
of functions, 22
of sets, 17
rational numbers, 28
estimate, 273
estimates
INDEX
integrals, 209211
Euler, 109
formula type of, 114
Euler constant, 39
Euler formula, 107
Euler numbers, 109
Euler type formula, 114
Euler, Leonhard, 107
even, 104
definite integral, 211
existence quantifier x, 20
exponent, 37
laws of, 40
exponential function, 45
properties, 46
extrema
absolute or global, 149
First Derivative Test, 156
relative or local, 149
Second Derivative Test, 156
Extreme Value Theorem, 151
f , 152
factorial, 41
Fermats Theorem, 156
Fermat, Pierre de, 156
field
linearly ordered, 30
for absolute extrema, 156
for all x, 20
force, 233
hydrostatic, 233
fractions
addition, 29
additive inverse, 29
cancellation, 28
division, 28
equality, 28
inequalities, 30
multiplication, 28
multiplicative inverse, 28
order relation, 30
293
subtraction, 29
fractions, Q, 28
functions, 22
f : S T , 22
anti-derivative, 212
asymptotes, 142, 143
average rate of change, 154
average value, 211
bijective, 25
circular, 104
, 25
co-domain, 22
composition, 25
not commutative, 25
concave
downward, 155, 156
upward, 155, 156
constant, 155
continuous, 150
decreasing, 155
derivative, 152
differentiable, 152
domain, 22
equality, 22
even, 104, 112
existence of zeros, 151
exponential, 45
extrema, 149, 156
horizontal asymptotes, 142
horizontal line test, 24
hyperbolic, 112
identity map, 25
image, 22
increasing, 155
infinite limits, 143
injective, 24
inverse, 26
criterion, 26
inverse image, 24
inverse map, 26
criterion, 26
invertible, 26
criterion, 26
left-sided limit, 142
limits, 141
294
limits at infinity, 142
logarithmic, 46
maximum
absolute, 149
relative, 149, 156
minimum
absolute, 149
relative, 149, 156
net change, 154
non-decreasing, 155
non-increasing, 155
odd, 104, 112
one-to-one, 24
onto, 24
periodic, 104
primitive, 212
range, 22
restriction, 24
right-sided limit, 142
sequences, 267
surjective, 24
trigonometric, 102, 104
two-sided limits, 141
vertical asymptotes, 143
zeros, 105
existence, 151
future value, 234
geometric series, 273
group, 31
associative law, 31
commutative law, 31
inverse element, 31
neutral element, 31
Hopitals Rule, 148
half-angle identities, 107, 114
homogeneous, 210, 216
horizontal line test, 24
hydrostatic force, 233
hydrostatic pressure, 233
hyperbolic functions, 112
inverse, 117
hypothenuse, 102
identities
INDEX
addition, 106, 113
double angle, 113
double-angle, 106
Euler, 107
half-angle, 107, 114
phase shift, 107
power, 106, 114
product, 107
Pythagorean, 106, 113
image, 22
implication, 17
truth table, 17
improper integrals, 217219
infinite interval, 217, 218
unbounded integrand, 218
increasing, 155, 268
indefinite integrals, 212
indentity map, 25
indeterminant, 48
inequalities, 30, 31, 33, 147
limits, 147
infimum, 205
infinite limits, 143
infinite series, 270
infinity
limits, 143
limits at, 142
injective, 24
integers, 16
Z, 16
integrable, 207
integral test, 271
integrals, 207
additive, 210
by partial fractions, 216
comparision theorem, 219
definite, 207
definition, 207
estimates, 209211
homogenous, 210
improper, 217, 218
comparison, 219
indefinite, 212
integrable, 207
integration by parts, 216
INDEX
interval property, 210
Left-Hand Sums, 209
linearity, 210
lower, 206
lower sums, 206
Midpoint Sums, 209
order properties, 211, 219
partition, 205
positivity, 211
power series, 274
Riemann Sums, 208
Right-Hand Sums, 209
Simpsons Rule, 210
substitution, 216
rationalizing, 216
trigonometric, 216
Trapezoidal Estimate, 209
triangle inequality, 211
unbounded domain, 217, 218
unbounded integrand, 218
upper, 206
upper sums, 206
intermediate value theorem, 60, 151
intersection, 18
generalized, 21
interval of convergence, 274
intervals, 17
closed, 17
half-open, 17
interval property, 210
open, 17
partitition, 205
inverse, 24, 26, 28, 29, 32
hyperbolic functions, 117
image, 24
map, 26
trigonometric functions, 111
invertibility criterion, 24, 26
invertible,
26
irrational, 2 is, 35
is element of, 16
is not element of, 16
LHopitals Rule, 148
Lambert, Johann, 112
295
law of cosines, 110
law of sines, 110
laws
cancellation equations, 26, 47
cancellation laws for , +, 32
for the inverse (rel. to +), 32
inequalities, 31, 33
monotony laws, 31
of cosines, 110
of exponent, 40
of radical, 40
of sines, 110
order, 33
leading coefficient, 48
least upper bound axiom, 35
left-sided limit, 142
limit theorem, 268
limits, 142, 268, 270
at infinity, 142
inequalities, 147
infinite, 143
LHopitals Rule, 148
left-sided, 142
limit theorem, 145
right-sided, 142
Squeezing Theorem, 147, 269
substitution rule, 146
twosided, 141
linear, 210
linear order, 30, 31
linear polynomial, 48
linearly ordered field, 30
logarithmic functions, 46
base change formula, 47
cancellation equations, 47
inverse hyperbolic, 117
properties, 47
logical junctors
implication, 17
, 17
logical quantifiers
x, 20
x, 20
296
long division, 52
lower bound, 33
lower integral, 206
lower sums, 206
magnitude, 102
mass, 228, 229
center of, 229232
maximum, 34, 156
First Der. Test, 156
for integrals, 211
Second, 212
measure, 102
member, 15
minimum, 34, 156
First Der. Test, 156
money stream, 233
monic polynomial, 48
monotonic, 155, 268
monotony laws, 30, 31
multiplication, 28
multiplicity, 56
N, 16
N0 , 16
n-th of unity, 38
natural numbers, 16
net change, 154
non-decreasing, 155, 268
non-increasing, 155, 268
not element of, 16
n tuple, 19
odd, 104
INDEX
definite integral, 211
one-to-one, 24
onto, 24
opposite, 102
order properties (integral), 211
order relation, 30, 33
anti-symmetric, 30, 31
linear, 30, 31
monotony laws, 30, 31
reflexive, 30, 31
transitive, 30, 31
ordered pair, 19
p-series, 271, 273
Pappus, 234
1st Theorem, 234
2nd Theorem, 234
partial fractions, 216
partial sums, 270
partition, 205
Pascals triangle, 42
period, 104
fundamental, 104
periodic, 104
phase shift, 107
plane angles, 101
pole, 23
polynomial over R, C, etc., 48
polynomials, 48
coefficient, 48
complex roots, 38
cubic, 48
degree, 48
factors, 55
fundam. thm. algebra, 56
identity theorem, 275
indeterminant, 48
leading coefficient, 48
linear, 48
monic, 48
quadratic, 48, 49
rational zero test, 57
real roots, 37
roots, 36, 53
Taylor polynomials, 276
the factor theorem, 53
INDEX
variation in sign, 57
zeros, 53, 55
postive terms, 270
power identities, 106, 114
power series, 273
algebraic operations, 275
derivatives, 274
differentiation, 274
identity theorem, 275
integrals, 274
interval of convergence, 274
radius of convergence, 274
computing, 274
Taylor series, 275
powers
with integer exponents, 37
with rational exponents, 39
with real exponents, 39
pressure
hydrostatic, 233
primitive, 212
principal n-th root, 37
principal domain, 111
product identities, 107
Pythagorean Identities, 106
Pythagorean identity, 113
Q, 16
quadratic formula, 50
quadratic function, 49
line of symmetry, 49
quadratic formula, 50
standard form, 49
vertex, 49
quadratic polynomial, 48, 49
quantifiers
x, 20
x, 20
quotient, 52
R, 16
radical
laws of, 40
radical symbol, 37
radicant, 37
radius of convergence, 274
297
computing, 274
range, 22
ratio in similar triangles, 102
ratio test, 272
rational function
pole, 23
vertical tangent, 23
addition, 29
additive inverse, 29
cancellation, 28
division, 28
equality, 28
inequalities, 30
multiplication, 28
multiplicative inverse, 28
order relation, 30
subtaction, 29
rational numbers, Q, 28
real numbers R, 16
real roots, 37
real sequences, 267
rectifiable, 226
reflexive, 30, 31
remainder, 52, 53
remainder theorem, 53
restriction, 24
Riemann Integral
integrable, 207
Riemann integral
Riemann sums, 208
Riemann Sums, 208
Riemann sums, 208
Riemann, Bernhard, 208
right-sided limit, 142
Rolles Theorem, 154
Rolle, Michel, 154
root test, 272
roots, 36, 37, 53, 55
complex, 38
definition, 53
existence, 56, 151
existence test, 60
multiplicity, 56
of unity, 38
298
INDEX
integral test, 271

real, 37
Rolles Theorem, 154
of positive terms, 270
partial sums, 270, 276
rules, 20, 21
power series, 273
chain (differentiation), 153
ratio test, 272
de Morgans, 20, 21
root test, 272
differentiation, 153
telescoping series, 273
for , , \, 20
terms, 270
set
inverse (differentiation), 153
C, 16
partial fractions, 216
descriptive form, 16
product (differentiation), 153
, 16
quotient (differentiation), 153
equality, 17
scalar mult. (differentiation), 153
=, 17
scalar multiple, 216
Z, 16
substitution, 216
intervals, 17
summation, 216
is element of, 16
summation (differentiation), 153
, 16
scalar multiple rule, 216
is not element of, 16
sec, 103, 104
6, 16
sech, 112
N, 16
N0 , 16
sequences, 267
Q, 16
bounded, 267
R, 16
from above, 267
subset, 17
from below, 267
anti-symmetric, 18
continuity, 268
transitive, 18
converge, 268, 269
, 17
decreasing, 268
6, 17
important limits, 269
tabular form, 16
increasing, 268
set operations, 18
limit theorem, 268
cartesian product, 19
limits, 268, 269
n-tuple, 19
monotonic, 268
ordered pair, 19
non-decreasing, 268
, 19
non-increasing, 268
de-Morgans rules, 21
series, 270
difference set, 18
series, 270
properties, 20
p-series, 271, 273
\, 18
alternating, 271
disjoint sets, 18
intersection, 18
generalized, 21
converge, 270
properties, 20
, 18
geometric series, 273
union, 18
INDEX
generalized, 21
properties, 20
, 18
set-builder form of a set, 16
shell method, 224
similar triangles, 102
sin, 103, 104
law of sines, 110
zeros, 105
sinh, 112
smooth curve, 226
solids of revolution, 223
Squeezing Theorem, 147, 269
subset, 17
properties, 18
substition rule, 216
substitution, 216
rationalizing, 216
trigonometric, 216
substitution rule, 216
substitution rule for limits, 146
subtraction, 29, 32
summation rule, 216
sums
lower, 206
upper, 206
sums of powers, 45
supremum, 205
surface area, 227
Pappus Theorem, 234
surjective, 24
symmetric, 211
symmetry, 232
centroid, 232
synthetic division, 53
tabular form, 16
tabular form of a set, 16
tan, 103, 104
zeros, 105
tanh, 112
Taylor coefficients, 275
Taylor polynomials, 276
Taylor series, 275
cosh, 116
cos, 109
299
cot, 109
sinh, 116
sin, 109
tan, 109
counterexample, 275
expansions, 277
converge, 277
representations, 276, 277
basic expansions, 277
Taylors remainder term, 276
Taylors remainder theorem, 276
Lagranges form, 276
Taylor, Brook, 275
telescoping series, 273
terms, 270
there exists x, 20
torus, 225
transitive, 18, 30, 31
triangle inequality, 41, 211
trigonometric functions, 102, 104
inverse, 111
principle domain, 111
truth table, 17
two-sided limits, 141
union, 18
generalized, 21
unity
roots of, 38
upper bound, 33
upper integral, 206
upper sums, 206
variation in sign, 57
vertical tangent, 23
volume
Cavalieris principle, 221, 224
disk/washer method, 223
Pappus Theorem, 234
shell method, 224
solids of revolution, 223
torus, 225
washer method, 223
work, 233
Z, 16
300
zeros, 3638, 53, 55
definition, 53
existence, 56, 151
existence test, 60
multiplicity, 56
Rolles Theorem, 154
INDEX

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F UNDAMENTAL C ONCEPTS

Math Refresher Course

BYU ACADEMIC PRINTING

August 16, 2010

Basic Techniques of Algebra

1.2.7 Inverse Functions . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.4.5 Domain and Range . . . . . . . . . . .

Answers to the Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Intermediate Value Theorem . . . . . . . .

Intermediate Value Theorem . . . . . . . .

Integrals of Elementary Functions . . . . . . . .

Sequences and Series

5.1.5 Taylor Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.1 Definitions and Results

Georg Cantor (18451918)

CHAPTER 1. BASIC TECHNIQUES OF ALGEBRA

which can be expressed by S is the set consisting of the elements x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ,

1.1. DEFINITIONS AND RESULTS

Definition 1.3 (Intervals)

Figure 1.3: Subset

CHAPTER 1. BASIC TECHNIQUES OF ALGEBRA

P ROOF : (1) Suppose M N and N M . We have to show that M and

Figure 1.5: Union Set.

is called the union of A and B.

Figure 1.6: Difference Set.

1.1. DEFINITIONS AND RESULTS

Definition 1.9 (Cartesian Product)

the Cartesian product of the sets A1 . . . , An , whose elements (a1 , . . . , an )

Figure 1.7: Product Set.

Figure 1.8: Product Set.

CHAPTER 1. BASIC TECHNIQUES OF ALGEBRA

Suppose S is a set and P a statement concerning the elements x of S, then

1.1. DEFINITIONS AND RESULTS

Definition 1.10 (Generalized Intersection and Union)

2. The (generalized) union of the sets Si is defined as the set

i{1,...,n} Si and similarly

Figure 1.9: Generalized Intersection.

Lemma 1.3 (De Morgans Rules)

Figure 1.10: Generalized Union.

CHAPTER 1. BASIC TECHNIQUES OF ALGEBRA

Definition 1.11 (Function, Domain, Range, Image)

3. If f : S T is a function, then the set S is called the domain of f ,

1.1. DEFINITIONS AND RESULTS

(i) Domain of f : The domain of f is the largest subset of R

is defined. Therefore, we have to eliminate those x R for which 0 = x2

Figure 1.12: Domain and Range.

Figure 1.13: Restriction.

CHAPTER 1. BASIC TECHNIQUES OF ALGEBRA

range(f ) = [0, ) [6 3, ) [0, )

Definition 1.12 (Restriction of a Function)

Figure 1.14: Not Injective.

1.1. DEFINITIONS AND RESULTS

Definition 1.15 (Bijective)

Example 1.13 ( is not commutative)

for all x R. Hence, we see that in general

Figure 1.15: Horizontal Line Test.

CHAPTER 1. BASIC TECHNIQUES OF ALGEBRA

Definition 1.18 (Invertible Functions)

Figure 1.16: Inverse Function.

Therefore, f is not invertible on it naturual domain R. However, we can

1.1. DEFINITIONS AND RESULTS

Hence, the inverse function

CHAPTER 1. BASIC TECHNIQUES OF ALGEBRA