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    Pressure Measurement :Basics and Details

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    Pressure Measurement :Basics and Details

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
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    7 views40 pages

    Pressure Measurement

    Uploaded by

    Bhargava S Padmashali
    Pressure Measurement :Basics and Details

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
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    of 40
    CHAPTER 14 DOLE EUSP Measurement of Pressure 14.1_ Introduction ‘Presure isthe normal force exerted by a medium, usually + uid, on a omit sen. In engacring, pressure is most often expressed in paral (Pa'= 1N/a) for poundsforce per square Inch (Iiin’, or pai) Typically, prewure i Gotected as a diferent quantiy, tat Is, ab the ference between an ‘unknown pressure and a known refeence pressure. Atmosphere prewute fs ‘the most common reference, and the resing peste erence, Kaown a fig pressure sof obviows importance in determing net loads on peste ‘essel and pipe wall. In ator case, the reference presse tken to be tro (complete absence of presue), and the presure menured ale abso In the Englah tem of uns, gage and absolute presareae dsingished by lng pis sod psi, respectively Figure 14 lates these relatonship, Presue is offen measured in terms ofthe hyérostae fore per uit sea at the base of a column of guid, usually mereury or water For example, standard atmospheric pressre (10325 Fa or 14.6% psn [is approximately {sual othe pressure exerted at th boom of «merry eon 107mm (Ot 8.92in.) in bight." Thettor, ove often fads standard timoxphere peste ‘pecied at 7el‘mm He oF 29 52m. He, even though the fundamertal unit of resure is nether millimeters not inches, Presnue measurement wing lige felumns is called manometry (se Seton 145). ‘An absolute pressure less than atmosphele pressure i ofen refered to at sccm. Vacuum ie osaionally messed ia terme of a negate. Bo presure (so that —Tpsig = ps vacuum). When the vacuocn i neatly fomplet, however, smal variation in atmosphere pressure can produce large eros inthe measured gage presure. Hence, abeolate presut ir always wed Seer ietcee niet a piroaratewoeonbiacemae By 1 Meseurament of Presare to describe high vacuum, The low absolute pressures ofa high vacuum are commonly evalated in units of torr (tor = 1mm Hg) or micrometers of sereary (um Ha). Tigh presares are often expresed in units of atmospheres (am: 1.01525 x 10°Pe), bar (Lat = 10 Pa), mogapascal (UMPa = 10°F), or ‘even megabar (I bat = 1° bar). Selected uns of prsrue measurement are ‘summaizd in Table 141 142 Static and Dynamic Pressures ‘When Bui gat rest, a small pressure serior init wll read the same sae ‘presure ata given postion in the Buld no matter how itis oriented. In ott ‘ords, at any partieular point in the Mui, the small surtace experiences the Sane presure whether faces upward) or downwand ot ltt ot Tigh Table 41. Relation of various units of pressure to the Pascal iO ator, Hg st OC) imi -1fe te iyo= sare thin = 1 yo = ain ra twntyd ~a7a8Pe Tint amor ‘rama = 1383 tora Pe 1M Static and Dyna Presures ra Geaitaional force cam produce vera! presrore gradient, causing 9 higher preseie at lower evel athe ud, but any partialar level the presae on {he small surface rem Inaependent of erenaion, ‘When the Pui sin motion, a surface placed init may experience nc aly the tate pressure, But also a dynam pressure. For example, ifthe surface perpendicular to the direction of ow, the Mid must come to Test atthe {face Tir tagnation of the fow real inthe conversion of Kinetic nergy imo an additonal presuze on the ssface, much ike the pressure you ‘experience when standing In the wind. On the oder hand, ifthe surface patlel tothe flow crection, the Aid ir not stagnated and flows across the face without ereting any ations! prestre. Thos a presere transduce’ ‘rading in a moving ld wil depend on i erecta, Tn Fig. 142, two smal thes each sample the presate in an air dt, Pres tap B senses only the stat presut othe dt. Tube A, onthe other ‘hod, i algned so that the fw impacts against ts opening, and I eases {otal or stgnaton preure. The sate prea ental tothe presture one ‘moolé rene f moving alongwith the steam The siagnaton presi ca be defined stat which would be abtined ifthe ream were Drought fo rest ‘entropialy. The difetence between the stagnation and static presres results fom the motion of the Auld and is called the veloc prsture or ‘mame presse: ‘Dynamic presse = stagnation peste sale presse ‘As dscnsed in Setion 15.9, this pressure diference can even be exploited for rearorement of the u's vlog. "We tee, therefore, that to obialn and LnGipret pressure measurements propery, flow conditions mist be taken nto acount. Conversely, t interpet flow measurements propery, the presure conditions mast be considered. Figure 142 Impact pressure and static pressure tubes =) oo” “4. Messorement of Presure ‘Sound Pressre. Sound waves propagate in an elt medium as longitudinal presure variations (long the pat of propagation, with prseue Muctuating Stove and below the state presere. The instantancourdierence between the ‘resure at any point and the average presure there it called the sound Dresure. Because sound preseres ae normally seaiely snl, hey ate fen fxpresied in units of mirobar (I bar ~ 10-'Ps). Measreient of sound [resure is accomplished with micropbones and relied appt, ss dscssed In Chapter 18. 143 _Pressure-Measuring System: Presuemeanag stim pobaly vary over» preter range of omen than any other Ope af meting tytn On the one handy the aren tasoncer (Fig. 143) bom of the mon lemenany mening des imopimbl. It's singe, inexpensive, and reimvel fee hom er and Jot imoy be aanged 1 altos any depo sev. Ls major eadvaages Be in ta premae ngs and np dys epee” UB nt sey recta for measuring premurespestr then sy, 10 po andi incapable Of folowing aay ut wy casing press Ancic fmiler pre teasing device, the common Doudosae gage Oe. 6 1) que well ‘fer awe peste range but oly fora or Sow chang psu 44. Prenre Metaing Toned In general, cam be ni that when the pressure it dymami, some form of prestiemeesuting stem wlling elctomechaical trandcer methods 1s {egired. A major portion of ths chapter is devoted to discussing applications of denies of ts kd ie -accouning for the dynamic rexpomse of spresure-mensuring stom, the instrumentation and the applistion must be considered a a whole. The tespome i pol detennined by the olsted. physical properes_of the instrument composens alone, but must incude the mais elasie damping ‘ets ofthe pressurized media and connecting pasagewsy. ‘As an crample,» phage pickup may be used fr neasutng the prenure ata specifi point on an aeraft skin In such ab application, i may be Undesirable to place the diphrape fush withthe aircraft surface. Possibly the Soe of the daphrapm i oo geat in comparson with the presure gradients tristng; or perhaps fish moating would stu the surface 1 to great & ‘grea or may be necessary to mount the pip lteraly to protect i ftom lnge temperstere varaions In auch cases, the prssuro Would be onde tothe sensing elemeat of the pickup trough a passageway, and 2 Smal space or eavity would ext over the diaphragm. The passageway aod avy Become, in erence, an integral part ofthe tansduce, and the ms ‘late damping properties coinibute fo the determination of the overall fesponse ofthe sytem, It obvious that would be Inutient t0 know only the traaducer carats, deal, a presure pickup should be insensitive to temperature change and seeleration;fedon shouldbe minimized, and any that s unavoidable ould fve-2 prodicable form. Dumping should remain constant for all opeating ‘condone. These ems te dacased ia move deta latet ln the chaptet, 14.4 Pressure-Measuring Transducers ‘ter presse mearured by transducing its elect 1 a detection through we ffs presiried nea and either a graiational or elastic restaring element. ‘A comprehensive clatfeation of base presure mearing methods ial {fo make, However, the following should ste for our purposes 1. Gravitational pes ‘At Ligld cols Pistons or lose diaphragms, and weights 1, Directing else ypes ‘A. Unsymmetcly faded tubes Symmetry loded tubes . Elastie daphragms D. Belows Bulk compresion IM, Lieceating clic type, piston with elastic rexteining member. 145 Gravitational-Type Transducers _ ‘The simple weltype manometer (Fg, 144) i one ofthe most dementary forms of presturemeasurng device. A forco-equllvium expression fr the nee gui cola is (Pad ~ Fas) = atl 8) un @a- nye nom) ate) aad = the apie bot pees, 2Pe= their rental promt, (= deny oe ft, maaan, f= went ep ead" =e prvionl at fre, 1a prac, prem commentator nd tanto (2 uy Pie Pan) Figure 144 Welliype manometer eet F 14S. Geatatonat ype Transducers = where 2. = the gage pressure at pat Perhaps it would be wise at this point to make sure we understand the ‘units tobe used In simplified form the preseding equations ray be weten a> rox olf) ua ‘Subsitting units inthe sghthand side of the equation, we have, forthe SI vom, (hm) 9) ‘Using the Engl system of units, we have (atom tee) om 4) Nim = Po we Because the id density is involved,aocarate work wil quite consider. tion of temperature variation: The manometer possess 4 certain amount of {emperatere sent. ‘When the applied abuohte presure A, i made tbe 200, atmospheric, we obtain the ordinary barometer. ln this ease enealy mercury. Figure 14.5 ilutrates the fonction of the simple Utube manometer. resus are‘applied Yo both legs of the U, and the manometer Suid lspaced until force equim Is attsined. Pressues Py and Py ate transmitted tothe manometer lpr through some fd of des py, whe te ‘manometer uid has some greater deasty py, In general we ace tat = nono) as a on « id Utube manometer the er tyme itpredvher aie the tment id and ahs ad fo nace ata ae, Bt sever 10 In general a Utube manometer will have a grestr pressure range when 3 or dn meting i ed aa exer sey (Changs Bik ‘et unit change in presse) when a less dense ‘ret eay ay ote obeiad tag #Saseent mpic tion scheme, two of which are shown in ig. 14.6 and 047. Tor the sage +B. a4) Inthe ese ofthe word type manometer (Fig, 14.7), i 7 Sent = 35" aK pNP Wien te resenor amet ae lage and the Aud desis re sine, he ‘snatviy con be sta (mcmama) I compan th me ‘fete manometer te defeton aptnton ets [gorse Foil se) where p = the density of the Hid in the simple manometer and py < Figure 146 _Inclined-tpe manometer 0 14 Measurement of Pressure Figure 147_Two-luld manometer with reservoirs Figure 4.8 Deadineightiype tester wh AS Hasdetype Tamdocers om Figure 149 Inverted bell pressure-measuring device Figure 148 lustrates the familie deadocight tester that is commonly sed a8 source of static presure for eaibraion purposes but i basicly & ressure-producing and pressre-measuing device, When the applied weights nd piston area ae known, the resin peste may be realy calculated Figure 14.9 iustates the principle of operuion of the, inverted ball preauremeasurng system. In thie eae, the fore entted by the prewere ‘gaint the ier to ofthe bells balanced pans the et weight of the be ‘The net weght depends onthe depth of immersion and, as he pressure are, the bell es or falls szordng to pressure agsitude, The prearyappiction ‘ofthis device i for actuating industial pressure recorders snd cotter, OF our, al gravitations-type presare transducers a semitve 10 the Toc Value of pavlyaceeraton 146 _ElasticType Transducers sti transducers operate on the principle thatthe deflection or deformation secompanyng a balance of presure and elastic forces may be wed as 2 ‘messure af presue. A familar example & the ordinary Bourdon tube (ee Fig 61). A tabe, normaly of oval section, i italy coed nto cea ae oftadssR, as shown in Fig 1410. The inctded angle of the oe i ually es than 347; however, in some cates, when increased sensitivity is desed, the tube may be formed into shel of several turns, "Ata pressure i applied tothe tbe, the oval scion tends o round out, becoming more cular section. The iner and outer ate lengths wl renal approximately equal to their orignal longi, and hence the only Tecourse forthe te to uncol. In the simple pressure gage, the movement Othe end of the tbe is communicated rough linkage ad gesting to a pomter whose ‘movement over a sale becomes # measure of pressure, Rigorovs treatment of the mechanics of Bourdon-tube ton is complex, sad only approximate alycs have boon mace (2). Bsc Bourdon tube 14,7 _Hastic Diaphragms Many dynamic pressure-messuring devices wwe an lie diaphvgm as the primary prose transducer, Sich dphraprs may be either fat ot oragated; the Bat type (Fg. 14-1(0)] often used in conjuction with ‘oneal secondary transducers Whose Seasiivity enables detection of very Stall diaphragm eflentions, wherese the convent type (Fig. 1411()) 5 ‘arity wef when larger defections ae requite, ‘Diaphragm diplaement may be tranaited by mechanical means 10 some form of idistor, perhaps a pointer and sale 25s used in the familie neroidtaromete, For egineesng measurements, particulary when dynamic esas are required diaphragm motion more offen sensed By some form of ‘Hectrial secondary tramdacer wove piniple of operation maybe este, Capackive,indocive, piezelecric of plzoresstne, a» disused in the following section, The output from the secondary transducer i then processed by appropriate intermediate devices and fed fo an indicate, recorder, of ingot ‘Diaphragm sesign for presure taniducers generally involves all the {allowing requirement to some degree 1. Dimeasions and toa load mest be compatible with physical properties of the material wed 2. Fesbity must be such to provide the seasiviy required by the secondary wassdocer ‘Volume of elaplacement should be minimized to provide reasonable yma esponte 4. Natural feguency ofthe diaphragm should be suconly high to provide satsfetry frequency response Outpt should be near 14.7.1 Flat Metal Diaphragms Delisction of fat meta diaphragms i ited eihor by stress requirements or by deviton fom Useaiy. It has been found that as 8 general rule the ‘usimum defiction that can be tolerated maintsining » neat presre: ‘dsplacement relation i abost 205 ofthe diaphragm thiknes [3] In cersn cates secondary tanaducers requepliyacal comnetion withthe diaphragm at its center TH i generally tre when mechanical Unkages are ted and also necessary for certain types of electrical secondary transices In addon, suslary spring force Is sometimes introduced to increase the dlsphragm defection corstamt. These requirements make necessary some form tof bos or reinforcement atthe centr ofthe dipavage face, which reduces ‘laphrapm fextilty and competes tecreucl design analy When a central connection ia made, a conentated free will normaly tbe applied. In general, thetefore, the diaphragm may be simultan-ously sbjerted to two defection forces, the distributed pressure load and a ceil onceatrted force. Design relationships for the fodedge, prestuind ‘laphragn may be found is [or daphrapms with central bose, i (3). Calelations for diaphragm dimensions should ot be relied on as representing more than a rough guide for design purpoes, There are several factor that cannot be accurately predict, Amn these ze (1) te rig of the otter supporting tng and toner Bos, whieh i cidom as complete 6 Sssumeld; and (2) the mater physi properties, which are seidom acurately kKoown. In addon, an undesirable characters of simple Nat aphragas that offen encountered isa nonlinearity refered to a5 al canning. The term ‘dried from te action ofthe bottom Of simple ot an when is pressed Asigtuplatentionl dmpling in the atembly of » t-lphrapm Presse Pickup is fc ro eliminate unless special precautions are taken. In aon, Oil canning may be apgrvated by eieental expusions die to changing ‘ambient condons. I's desable, therfore, to contact «presse cell mn ‘atedals having the same coefficient of expansion. Even tis, however ny ‘not alwaye sve the problem because temperate. gradients withia the inrument ise may result in ¢ diferent expansion. One solution to this problemi: obtained by sting a tetced o radaly preloaded diaphragm (6. ‘Theoretical solutions for the rally preloaded dapinagm ae considerably ‘more Invalved than thse forthe simple flat type. Another soliton t the ‘i-caning problom is to use a small external spring Tosd to. bis the ‘phragm: however, this practice adds mass and thereby sucrics dynamic responte. in all caer, care mist be exered (0. mivimize undesrable Tenperature eect. 147.2 Corrugated Diaphragms corrugated diaphragms are normally used in larger diameters than the fat types. Conrugstons permit inrened linear deflosions and reduced ste. See the lgger size and deflection reduce the dynamic response of the corrugated daphragms ab compared ‘with the At ‘ype, they are more femmonly used in sate applications. ‘Adding convohtions to a diaphragm increases the complexity of the theoretical design approach, Grover and Bel [] have used brite costings a 8 ‘ean for evaluating approximate theoreti salons for sree “Two corrugated dsphrapms are often joined a hls edges to provide what is refered to a a presure caaue. This the type commonly sed inane Drom ‘Metal bellows ae sometimes wed as pressuresening elements, Bellows are generally wefl for presse range fom about {pt fo 130 ill ele FHfyseress and zero shit are somewhat reste problems with this type of clement tan wih mos ofthe others ‘48 Secondary Trnaduces Used with Diaphagns as 14.8 Secondary Transducers Used with Diaphragms ‘Most elecromechaical anus principles have been applied to dlaphragm pressure pickups. The following examples are only representative of say posible variations 14.8.1 Use of Resistance Strain Gages with Fat Diaphragms ‘An obvious approach is snply to aply strain gage diel 0 «diaphragm Sarface and calforate the measured strain in terms of presse One drawback ‘ofthis method that soften encountered the small physical aq vaabl for ‘mounting the gages for this reason, gages wih shor gage lenge mt be teed ‘Special pt grid have ben ud (3,8) Grid te mounted athe cera sca ofthe diphraym, with th cements in tension (eee Pig 12. ‘Wenk [3] has found that a ststactry method for mounting sal gages the one itsrated in Fig. 14.12. When pressure i applied to the 6 oppose the sages, the conta gage i subject fo tension wile the Dur gage Sones compression. The two gages may be weed in ance bide aun thereby ‘ding thei indvdual outputs and simultncoony providing tempering ompenstion r2_Location of strain gages on fat elaphragn _/ \ . ( ‘i SY Figure 14:13 Diferential pressure cell with Inductance-ype secondary transducer _ fe 14.82 Inductive Types Variable inductance as also ben sucesslly used asa form of secondary nsdueroted with a daphragm (6). Figure 14.13 ilustrates one arrangement ofthis sor. Fesing ofthe diaphragm de to applied pressure causes it to move toward one pole piece and aay from the othe, thereby altering the rave Inducances. Aa inductive bridge creat may be Used, as shown. Standard [Mboretory equipment, such as an oscllscope or electron voltmeter, as well 1 recorders, may be used to dplay the gage output. Avallble ranges are fiom 0-1.0 aio 0-100 ps. 14.83. Piezoelectric Pressure Cells Presure cols using plezncectsctype secondary wansducers (Section 6.14) have the advantage of ery high sens coupled with high natural ffequences. These desirable quale permit wide ranges of working pressures ‘nd excelent frequency reponse. Typical maximum preses ates igh 35 43 Sle cage Presre Cel @ 100,000 pai with ssohtions of eas than 1 psi. Outputs are in terms of coulombe per unit input and may be oa the order of 0.2 pCfpst Apical fesonanes fequency & 150,00 Hz. Inasmuch as the output impedance Imerentl very high, sme form of impedance transformation, sucha a charge amp (ection FEZ), requed in proximity to the transducer 484 Other Types of Secondary Transducers Flexing diaphragms have teen wed to aller capacitance ae means of roducing am eetrisl output (see Fig. 614). This method is wot #0 com fon at those previowly dscused, primarily because of low sensivty and the probloms ‘accompanying the requzement for rlavely igh carer frequencies. ‘Semiconductor chip may be etched 10 produce a pressuesensiive

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