Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Vol.6 No.2
Chapter 1
Introduction ()
1.5 Colour metallography technique
of cast iron
Colour metallography possesses better differentiation ability and
is more sensitive to segregation, grain orientation and stress state
than black-white metallography. It adds functions to traditional
metallography and displays wide application perspectives.
Colour metallography technique belongs interference film
metallography. By using chemical or physical methods, a
thin interference film can be formed on the surface of alloy
metallographic specimen; with the aid of extinction effect in thin
film interference, the microstructures are displayed with different
colours. Colour metallography methods producing interference
film include polarized light, chemical deposition, constant
potential, vacuum coating, ion sputtering and heat tinting [21].
Among them, chemical deposition (also called etching method) is
simple, convenient, therefore obtains wide application [22].
The colour metallography technique used in this book is a hot
alkaline etching display method, belonging category of chemical
deposition interference film. In this method, metallographic
sample is put into hot sodium hydrate solution and heated. When
solution reaches a certain temperature, hold the sample for certain
time at the temperature, take out, clean and dry it; microstructures
with different colours can be observed under microscope. In the
early time, this method was used in alloy steel, white iron to colour
carbide and phosphide, and in the study of segregation within grain
in grey iron [23-27]. From the middle of 1980s, the author [28-30] and
other researchers [31-34] have continuously improved and perfected
this hot alkaline etching method and gradually developed this
method into a method for studying the solidification structure and
phase transformation of cast iron.
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simultaneously reacts with NaOH:
C6H2(NO2)3OH + NaOH = C6H2(NO2)3ONa + H20
Sodium metasilicate Na2SiO3H2O, as colloid, is absorbed and
deposited onto the surface of sample and formed a thin film. For
silicon rich region containing more SiO2, the film forms quicker
and thicker; for silicon poor region, the formed film is thinner.
In the end, films with different thickness are formed. Except for
Si, segregation of other elements also accelerates the forming of
different thick films.
a) tone 1
b) tone 2
c) tone 3
Colour
Yellow
Blue green
Purple
Orange red
Pale yellow
Pale blue
Blue
Brown
Silicon content
Time to solidify
Etching time
high
early
long
low
late
short
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Solidification structure
Austempered structure
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and various types of solute elements, with serious positive and
negative segregation. The hot alkali method can be used to quickly
display face distribution information of elements in macro or
micro region.
(4) Presented information is very sensitive
Experiments have shown that the variation in composition,
which cannot be identified with electron probe, can be displayed
with different colour using hot alkaline method.
(5) Operation is simple and convenient; no special
experimental apparatuses needed
The disadvantage of this method is that it cannot display the
precipitation process (nucleation and growth) of graphite; it can
(a5 min, (b) 10 min, (c15 min, (d25 min, (e35 min, (f45 min (with polarized light)
Fig: 1-28 Relation between colour evolution and etching time (etching solution 1)
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Table 1-4: Formula of hot alkaline etching reagent and etching process
Formula
Etching process
Etching reagent
No.
NaOH (g)
KOH (g)
Temperature (oC)
Time (min)
28
200
95100
10 30
[28, 29]
100
200
95 100
1.5 4
[31, 32]
20
200
65
10 65
[28]
40
160
40
200
120
11.5
[37]
28
56
28
200
95 100
1.53
[38]
Literature
References
[1] Daris J RCast IronsIn: ASM Specialty Handbook, ASM International Materials Park, OH, 1996.
[2] Stefanescu D MCast IronIn: Metals Handbook, 9th ed.ASM, Metal Park, OH, 1988(15):168181.
[3] Steeb S, Maier UThe Molten Structure of Fe-C Alloys, The Metallurgy of Cast Iron, ed. by B. Lux, I. Minkoff and F. Mollard. In: Proc. 2nd Int.
Symp. on the Physical Metallurgy of Cast Iron. St Saphorin: Georgi Publishing Company, Switzerland,1975.
[4] Benecke T, Ta A T, Kahr G, Schubert W D and Lux BAufloseverhalten und Vorimpfeffekt von SiC in GusseisenschmelzenGiesserei1987(10
11)301306.
[5] X , K A C, H . x M y O .
,1989 (12): 910.
[6] Margerie J C. The Notion of Heredity in Cast Iron Metallurgy, The Metallurgy of Cast Iron, ed. by B. Lux, I. Minkoff and F. Mollard. In: Proc. 2nd
Int. Symp. on the Physical Metallurgy of Cast Iron. St Saphorin: Georgi Publishing Company, Switzerland,1975: 545-558.
[7] H B M. O --.
, 1991(4): 4.
[8] Bian Xiufang, Liu Xiangfa and Ma Jiayi. Heredity of Cast Metals. Jinan: Shandong Science & Technology Press, China, 1999. (In Chinese)
[9] Masaalski T BBinary Alloy Phase Diagrams2nd ed., Vol. 1, America: William W: Scott, Jr., 1996.
[10] Lu WenhuaLi Longsheng and Huang Liangyu. Cast Alloys and Smelting. Beijing: China Machine Press, China, 1997. (In Chinese)
[11] Oldfield WChill-reducing Mechanism of Silicon in Cast IronBCIRA Journal, 1962(1):1727.
[12] Janovak J F, Gundlach R BA Modern Approach to Alloying Gray IronAFS Transactions1982(90)847863.
[13] Heine R WThe Fe-C-Si Solidification Diagram for Cast IronAFS Transactions, 1986(94): 391402.
[14] Labrecque C Gagne MInterpretation of Cooling Curves of Cast IronsA Literature ReviewAFS Transactions, 1998(106): 8390.
[15] Strong G RThermoanalyse als Mittel zur Quanlittssicherung bei der Erzeugung von Gusseisen mit KugelgraphitGiesserei-Praxis, 1985(13
14)210215.
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[16] Elliott R. Cast Iron Technology. London: Butterworths & Co., 1988.
[17] Nagayoshi H, Imanishi K. Effect of Mg Content of Spheroidizer on the Chilling Tendency of SG Melt. AFS Transactions, 1996(104): 7578
[18] Mouquet O, Delpeuch F, Godinot P. Ermittlung des Metallurgischen Zustandes von Induktionsofeneisen durch Thermische Analyse. GiessereiPraxis, 2001(5): 199213.
[19] Deike R. Einflu von Spurenelementen auf die eutektische Erstarrung und die eutektoide Umwandlung von Gueisen. Giesserei, 1999(6): 175182.
[20] Wallace J F. Effects of Minor Elements on the Structure of Cast Irons. AFS Transactions, 1975 (83): 363378.
[21] Beraha E, Shpigler B. Color Metallography. 1st ed., ASM, Metals Park, OH, 1977.
[22] Weck E, Leistner E. Metallographic Instructions for Colour Etching by Immersion. Deutscher Verlag fr Schweitechnik GmbH-Dsseldorf, 1982.
[23] Petzow G. Metallographic Etching. 1st ed., ASM, Metals Park, Ohio, 1978.
[24] (Ukraine) B C. Handbook of Metallurgical Phase Reagents. Translated by Li Chunzhi, et al, Beijing: Metallurgical Industry Press, 1973.
(In Chinese)
[25] M , O H . , 1962(3): 315.
[26] Motz J, Rohrig K. Untersuchung einiger Gefgezusammenhange in phosphorarmen Gieereiroheisen. Giesserei-Forschung, 1970(4): 142152
[27] (Russa) , et al. The Structure of Cast Iron. Translated by Harbin University of Technology, Beijing: China Machine Press, 1977. (In Chinese)
[28] Zhou Jiyang. Gefgebildung von Gueisen mit Kugelgraphit bei langsamer Erstarrung. Germany Aachen. Fotodruck. J. MAIN GmbH, 1986
[29] Zhou Jiyang, Schmitz W und Engler S. Untersuchung der Gefgebildung von Gueisen mit Kugelgraphit bei langsamer Erstarrung. GiessereiForschung, 1987(2): 5570
[30] Zhou Jiyang, Zhong Fengqi, Schmitz W, Engler S. Application of a New Colour Metallorgraphy Technique to Cast Iron. Practical Metallography,
1993(3): 122128.
[31] Wang Y, Fan Z, Gan Y, et al. Eutectic Solidification Characteristics of Commercial Gray Cast Iron. In: Proc. Conf. on Physical Metallurgy of Cast
Iron, Cast Iron IV, America Materials Society, 1990: 95102.
[32] Tian H and Stefanescu D M. Application of a Coloration Etching Method to the Study of Microstructures in Primary and Eutectic Solidification in
Cast Iron. Materials Characterization, 1992(3): 329333.
[33] Van C A de Velde. Untersuchungen zum Erstarrungsproze vom GGG. In: der Deutsche Meehanite-Tagung, 1993. Gieerei-Erfahrungsaustausch,
1994(3): 105108.
[34] Motz J M, Wolters D B. ber Erstarrungsgefge und Eigenschaften in dickwandigen Gustcken aus ferritischem Gueisen mit Kugelgraphit-Teil 1:
Mikroseigerungen. Giesserei-Forschung, 1988(2): 6979.
[35] Colour Metallography Technical Group. Colour Metallography Techniques: Principle and Method. Beijing: National Defence Industry Press,
China, 1987. (in Chinese)
[36] Zhao Yanhui. Study on Colour Metallography of Cast Iron Solidification[Dissertation]. Dalian: Dalian University of Technology, China 1999.(in
Chinese)
[37] Motz J M. Microsegregations Easily Unnoticed Influencing Variable in the Structural Description of Cast Materials. Practical Metallography,
1988(25): 285293.
[38] Boutorabi S M A, Campbell J. An Etching Technique for Primary Austenite Dendrites in Ductile Cast Iron. Materials Characterization, 1993(1):
127132.
Chapter 2
Grey Iron ()
Grey iron is a type of cast iron with grey color fracture and
carbon precipitated as flake graphite. According to its chemical
composition in Fe-C phase diagram, grey iron is categorised
into three types: hypoeutectic, eutectic, hypereutectic irons. In
order to satisfy strength demand, most engineering grey irons are
hypoeutectic composition. However, for achieving combinations
of good castability, strength, conductivity and dumping capacity,
eutectic and even hypereutectic grey irons attracted more and more
attention in research.
In a hypoeutectic cast iron with carbon saturation degree (the
ratio of carbon content in the iron to the actual carbon of eutectic
point) Sc < 1, the first precipitated phase is primary austenite
during solidification; for a hypereutectic iron with Sc > l, the
first precipitated is primary graphite. For these two type irons, at
the second solidification stage, eutectic crystallization will take
place. While, a cast iron with Sc = l only has the second stage
eutectic crystallization during solidification. In the last stage of
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Vol.6 No.2
iron, while, the last one is obtained from solid tempering treatment.
The cast irons with above types of graphite are correspondingly
named grey iron, vermicular iron, spheriodal iron and malleable
iron.
Internationally, according to their shape and distribution, flake
graphite is classified into A, B, C, D and E five types, see Fig. 2-1.
(a) type A
(b) type B
(c) type C
(d) type D
(e) type E
Type
Feature
Flake graphite
Rosette graphite
Kish graphite
Coarse and large primary graphite flakes with small flakes around
Star-like graphite
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(a) Schematic, (b) Lattice fringe image under high resolution electrical microscope[1], fringe spacing 0.335 nm
Fig. 2-2: Crystal structure of graphite
(a) Schematic
i =2r cos a
2
Where apex angle, possible range for spiral pack is = 0-180o.
(b) Typical screw: pure screw dislocation perpendicular to
plane (0001)
(c) Cylinder screw: apex angle is 0o for this case.
Actual often existing screw dislocations are circular cone
screw; the apex angle is between 0-180o. Nodularizing elements
are embedded in the layers or absorbed in basal plane causing
local barrier effect on (10 0), easily creating screw dislocation.
Besides, liquid iron undercooling, especially the undercooling
at existence of low S and O-active elements, will significantly
increase disturbing sources and accelerate the formation of screw
dislocations [4].
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(a) schematic
two conditions:
(1) Conform to certain relation of lattice mismatch or
disregistry: a certain lattice face of the foreign particle (inclusion)
substrate has a certain corresponding relation in lattice parameter
and orientation with graphite crystal lattice.
A characteristic parameter of the lattice matching relationship is
plane mismatch .
According to planar lattice corresponding model by Bramfitt[6],
the mathematical expression for plane lattice mismatch is:
(a) Circular cone type (b) typical screw (=180o)
(c) cylinder screw (=0)
Fig. 2-5: Type of spiral structure in graphite [3]
Where,
d [UVW] - atomic spacing of foreign nucleus along [UVW]
direction, UVW is the low-index direction of foreign nucleus in
(hkl).
d[UVW] - the inter-atomic spacing of graphite along [UVW]
direction, UVW is the low-index direction of graphite in (hkl)
-angle between heterogeneous nucleus and graphite in
[UVW] direction
The smaller the mismatch of the two substances , the stronger
the nucleation ability between them. The general relation is [7,8]:
has the strongest nucleation ability
<6
=6-12 has nucleation ability
has a weak nucleation ability
>12
Mismatch (%) between a certain special lattice face of some
substances and the (0001) face of graphite is listed in Table 2-2.
Except for a small lattice mismatch, the good matching
relationship also means that the two substances have the same
lattice structure, similar or proportionally similar lattice constants;
the two substances have different lattice structure, but have similar
atom pack arrangements and close or proportionally similar lattice
constants on certain lattice plane. It is obvious that if the substrate
and growing crystal are the same substance, the growing crystal
has the best nucleation condition.
(2) Satisfy interfacial energy requirement between
heterogeneous nucleus and graphite: only when the foreign
particles can be wet by graphite, graphite can form nuclei on the
foreign substrates.
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Table 2-2 Mismatch (%) between a special lattice face of some substances and the (0001) face of graphite
Substance
Mismatch (%)
Substance
Mismatch (%)
graphite
Reference
CaS
8.3
BN
2.0
CeS
2.9
CaS
8.3
LaS
1.5
CaC2
9.9
BaS
7.5
MnS
10.2
CaO SiO2
7.5
-Al2O3
11.4
SrO SiO2
3.5
CaO
13.3
BaO SiO2
1.5
-SiO2
37.1
3.7
-Si3N4
43.9
6.2
MgS
12.5
MnS
12.1
[9]
[10]
7.1
AlN
9.47
Reference
[10]
[6]
[11]
independently along (1010) face; the steps on (1010) face can only
advance to the edge of crystal. Due to the weak connecting force
(bond) between a single atom and (1010) face, graphite growth
is very difficult, even almost impossible to grow with this type of
mechanism.
(2) Rotating step growth: graphite deposits on the rotating twin
steps, the (1010) face grows by step expanding laterally. Since the
deposited atom has two touching faces, this growth is more stable
than the two dimensional growth and has large growth probability.
(3) Screw dislocation growth: carbon atoms deposit on the
edge of steps caused by screw dislocation, the steps continuously
expand, sweeping the crystal plane. The angle-velocity sweeping
crystal plane at dislocation centre is faster than that in the region
far from the centre, giving rise to spiral, tower-tip-like crystal
surface. Due to having three touching surfaces, carbon atoms enter
step without need of forming a new surface.
Two-dimensional growth and rotating step growth mechanisms
adapt prism face (1010) growth, the growth velocity v a and
undercooling T follow exponential rule:
va = ae-b/T
Where a, b - coefficients
When graphite basal face (0001) grows, carbon atoms deposit
on the steps of screw dislocations, the growth velocity vc of basal
face and undercooling T follow parabolic relation:
vc = cT
Where c - coefficient
Summarizing the relationship of prism face growth velocity va,
and basal face growth velocity vc with undercoolng T , the cross
of the two curves is called critical undercooling T c; whenT
T c, vcva and whenT T c, vcva.
When graphite grows under an ideal state without lattice defects,
carbon atoms are packed in the form of single crystal graphite
flake with the same crystalline orientation. Kozlov observed that
without of influences undercooling and subversive elements, the
equilibrium shape of graphite is flake [15]. In the same way, Nakae
also found that the graphite in a pure Fe-C-Si alloy is a straight,
thin and long shape [16].
However, the actual growth state of graphite is very different
from the ideal state. There exist various defects in the actual crystal
germs or embryos, these defects destroy the neat arrangement of
graphite lattice, causing braches and many crystalline orientations.
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(a)
(b)
(c)
(a) Branch along a-axis, (b) Branch along c-axis, (c) high magnification lattice
fringe image of branch along c-axis.
Fig. 2-7: Types of graphite branches
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Table 2-3 Relationship between branch types and severity and graphite morphology
Branch type
Influencing factor
Degree of branching
Graphite morphology
Small
Medium
Small
More
Flake
Intermediate
Medium
Big
More
Severe
Intermediate
Spheriodal
lattice defect
undercooling
a-axis branch
Rotating twin
c-axis branch
Screw dislocation
(Be continued)
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