CHAPTER 15 LULL UCU C UCU UCU U0 08) Measurement of Fluid Flow 15.1. Introduction Accrale measurement of fow presen many and varied problems. The flowing mecium may be a gud, a gas, a granular slid, or any combination thereof. The flow may be laminar or trbolent, steady-state of tame. In tdtion, there are several very iforent Baie approaches to the problem of flow measurement. Tht section, therefor, wil present only an outline of tome ofthe more inportant aspects ofthe general topic "The most cect way to measure flow rate isto capture and record the lume or mats tat Sows Suing a fied me inleval (a primary measurement of lw rae), More often, some other quantity, such as 4 pretue diference for mechanical respons, is used to ifr the ow rate (@ secondary mearure- inex). Another distinction is tht between Rowers and wciocty sensors lowmeters determine volume or mass fow res (eg, gallons per minste) ‘trough tubes and ducts, whereas velocin-sensing probes measure id speed (erg, meters per second) at point in the flow. Although veo sensing probes can be ased a bung blocks fr Nowe, the converse rae {toe In aldion, ow-ubualizaion techniques ae sometimes employed 10 fbtsin an image of the overall ow fel. A categorization of fow ‘nessaroment methods is flows 1, Primary or quantity methods "Weight or volume tanks, burets, ee 1. Postve-dsplacement meters ee Obmtrcton meters Venturi meter4% ow noses i Onitees be. Vaiableares meters © Turbine and propeller meters ‘&. Magnetic fowaetes (igus nly) ‘& Vorter shedding moter 3. Velocy probes 18 Prosar probes "Total pressure and Pitta uber 1 Directon sensing probes by. Hot end botfim anemometers © Seaterng techniques i. Lasee-Doppler anemometer (LDA) A. Uleasonic snemometer (primary quid) Flow-isuaization techniques ‘Smoke tras and smoke wie (ates) 1. ye injection, chemical precaes (igus) Hidrogen bubble (igus) Laserinduced forescence fe Refractveindex change: interferometry, selioren,shadoweraph ‘The above outine doesnot exhost the lst of flow measuring method, but {tds atte to ince thos of primary interest tothe mechanical engiect ‘Obstruction meters are probably thowe mort often wed in industrial pracice, Application of some ofthe methods led isso obvious tht only pasting nots willbe made of them, This Is patalty tse of quanty methods, Weight {anks are especialy useful for rony-atate calibration of Tigud Bowancler, tnd no particular problems are connected wit thet use, Dispacement'meters have many forms snd variation, Common ex amples ae the water and ga meters used by sopplies to establish charges for services. Basal, displacement meters are hydrate or pacuatie motors ‘whose cycles of motion are recorded by some form of counter, Only tach net fom th stream is absorbed ais necessary ta overcome the fiction in the deve, and this is maniested by a presse drop between inlet and ole ‘Most of the configurations used for motors have bean spplied to metering. ‘These include reciprocating and osllating pistons, vane erengemets includ ing the mutating (or nodding) disk, helical sew deve, ot. 4 15.2 Flow Characteristics ‘Whe fui move trough sniform conduits at very low velocities, the ovions of individual parties are generally along lines paralleling the cond wall ‘Actual price veloc greatest athe center and zero a the wall with the ‘velocity ditbuton as shown in Fg. 15.13). Such aw scaled laminar,152 low Chances oy Figure 15.1. Velocity lstibution for (a) lamina low ina pipe oF {ube and, (b) turbulent ow ina pipe or tube ® ‘As the lw rate is increased, a point i resched where the particle motion ‘comes more random and complex. Although ths change i the nature Of flow may sppeat to cur ats definite velocity, carefal sbcrvatin wil show that the change can be somewhat gradual and ay oscr over Flatvely narrow range of velocities. The appraximate velocky at which the change ‘occurs called the eral veloc, andthe low at higher rates is refered 0 turbulent. The corresponding time-aveage velocty distbution across 8 ‘eur tbe shown in Fig. 1510), Te has been found thatthe ct! velosity is «funtion of several factors that may be put in dimensionless frm called the Reyalds number, Reg at follows ep = BY as ve = renal inn ft id seam omy der ithe conduit apie of crue seston) the deasity ofthe id, Bui velocity, 1 = the absolte vison of the ud ‘See Example 2.1 for examples of commonly used unis Ti gs ce wu ae Na (of), doping te ost of wis sed Wea nou fm te 45 ten et lea ‘Sedo si opr on base Enh Ensen pc, fuampte,on tc rat Same vet oft ics sYonerst dmcoumaly wed oaou 15. Measurement of Fuld Flow thas been shown by many investigators [that below the ctia-veloy ange, fietion lass In ppes i & function of Rep obj, whereas for turbulent flow, the Reynolds number andthe rrfae rouphnet determine the lose, ‘The eal Reynolds namber for pipes is usualy between 2100 and 4000 “Te vokume Sow rte, Q, through pipe ot duct jst the ltepal of the oct ditbuton, Vir), over the cosesectional area 2= f vnan as2) For enginoering purposes, an average velocity, V, over the cross setion is ‘often sed 24 vases sa Flowmeter: messure Q andjor V, while velocty probes measure V(x). However, the output of a velocity probe can be integrated to obtain Q 0 ¥. "Hemoulls equation forthe ow of maompresbie Rds between pint 1 and 2 (Fig. 15.2) may be writen in terms of local or average velocty” 8 B_Vi-Vi, @— Ze asa) in which P= aboot pressre, veo Nim (or Pa) Tomst ain? V = linear velo, fils mis 2 = devaton, « a 15+ scelertion due to gravity, S217 RIE 9.07 mist ‘= mensional constant SRAM Tom Abts? Age m/N st Figure 182_Section through. “oats pt gles ls fw ag eal, ered in res fa ‘ie pl spruce a he rae wie ela ae ‘Sea emi163 Obstruction Meter os ‘As written her, the relationship asumes that thee is no mechanical wok ‘done cn or by the Bud and that there leno het transferred to of from the ‘uid st pases between points 1 and 2, This equation provides the bel for ‘eralusting the operation ‘of fowmessring devices genevaly clsifed sr ‘burton meters and of velocity sensors clasied ss presure probes 15.3 Obstruction Meters ‘igure 15.3 shows tree common fom of obstruction meter: the vena he flow nore, and theories. Tn each ease the base meter cts a a0 bac placed inthe path of the owing tid, causing localized changes in veloy, Figure 153, @) Aventui (b) 2 flow nozzle, c)anofifce flowmeterae 15 Measurement of Fuk Flow CConcuretly with veloc change there wil be pressure change, illustrated in the igure. At poins of maximom restriction, hence maximum velo, ‘minmam peesares are found. A cortan portion of this pressure drop becomes Fecoveable oving to disiption of Hinee energy; therefore, the ouput rescue wll slvaye be less than the input pressure. "This indated inthe Fenre, which shows the vent, with ie guided reespnsion, to be the most ‘insert Lose of abou 309%-40% of the dlerentl pressure occur though ‘he orice mete, 15.3.1. Obstruction Meters for incompressible Flow For incompresible fis, sep and Q= AM Aly, where 2 = volume/uai tine, An mes ewe let Z; # Zand sbetiate Vi = (AlAs In a, (183), we obtain Vip \ none GT as and ane melaretigl BE. ons Forgiven mete, Ay ad A; are etablised value, and it ten convenient fo alate 1 Wray os) For cco sections the ara = w(iamete) 4 hence ass) where sand the smaller diameter. ‘We cll Ethe veloc of approach factor15 Measurement o Fait Fow Figure 155 Dimensional relations for ASME long radius low nozzles (Source: ASME, Fld Meters, th ed 1971) ses anton 200s SET contrite Eres, ESE the entrance cone. For the vent (2, 095 << 098 153.3 Flow-Nozzle Characteristics Figure 15.5 losrates examples of two “standard” types of flow noades. The approach curve must be proportioned to prevent septation between the fw and the wall and the parallel section is weed to ensue tat the fw fils the throat The wsial range of dicharge cooficents ie shown in Fg” 15.6, In ‘aon, the following emplical uation i ited in Ret. [2] or valeting the discharge coeficen: _ (636 + 0130 ~ 0246") C= 0.9862 + 0.000890 HD = 0208) as.) 15.34 Orifice Characteristics ‘The primary variables inthe ue of Bt plat orcs ste the ratio of orice to pipe dameter, ap lecaons, and charters of erie sections. Various fonfgurations of bevel and rounded edges are ueod in seeking, partult performance characteristics, especially constant coeficients at low Reynolés ‘umbers. Figure 15.7 usate pial oie Installations Thee tap ocaions153. Obstruction Meters ow ‘Two atone factors used in obstruction meter cicalations ae the dacharge coefiiet, C, 20d the flow coficient, K. These are defied 23 {ellows: iva cone sd c Ke cen 7 assay ‘The discharge coeficént C isthe factor that accounts for loses through the meter, anc the ow cooticient K is wed ae 8 matter of convenience, combining the loss factor with the meter constant "Therefore, we may write Oona = Kary EVER, «asse) 153.2. Venturi Characteristics Ventas proportions are not standardaed; however, the dimensional ranges shown ia Tig. 15.4 include most caves They are hglrefiency device wth Aiscarge cottons aliagwahins narrow range, depending on the finch of Figure 18.4 Recommended proportions of Herschelype venturi tubes (Source: ASME, Fuld153 Obstruction Meters or Figure 15.6. Range of discharge coeficint or longradius flow nozzles Figure 15.7 Locations of pressure taps fr use with concentric, thinplate, square-edge orice (Source: ASME, Fuld Meters, 6th ed. 1971), +f Al. a io Fierce@ 15. Measorament of Fit Fow sre inated: (1) Sang tps, 2) “1D” and LD" taps, and (2) vena contact taps. Thee are all shown compose fashion in Fig. 15.7; however, only one Set would be used fora given instalation, ‘As fold ows ough an orice, the necessary trinwerse velocity ‘components imparted to the uid as it spproscher the obstrston catty ‘through to the downsteam side. AS res, the minimum seam seton ‘crus not inthe plane ofthe oie, but somewhat dowasteam, a shown it Fig. 15.53). The term vena contract is applied tothe locaton and condtoos ‘of this minimum steam dimension. Ths iso the location of minimum pressure; hence it explains the interest in the vena contracts tp location. A is given in Fig 15.80). Reynolds number, based on the diameter ‘The dashed lines ave fol of verge values forthe diameter ratios nsested. For example, the values for {B= 05 range on ether side of he = 0.9 pot, depending on the tap focitions and patcolr characters cis important to not tha this gure & ‘Figure 15. (a) Diagram lustrating vena contract location fran orifice, (©) guide for locating vena contracta ss measured fom orice face tne tom sca nf.182 Oberon Meters a Figure 15.8 Range of flow coefficients fr fat plate orifices ot intended for prcite Now coeBcient predictions. Rather, it dipays the ‘ranges within which he values my be expected t fall The gue may be used for estimates; however, for more precise values the reader is directed fo the Suggested Readings a the end of the chapter. In any case, however, the experimenter shold be aware that scrurate work requires cael calibration ea installation (Soe abo Sesios 3.112 and 1512), ‘An orice pls i vulnerable to damage caused by presre surge, caurined debris, apé the Ike. Aa estinate of the masimum sess due t0 Aiferemial pressure may be found from the folowing. The elasonship ‘Mapied from rather complex equation [3] ad aeumes Poon ratio= 03. ADAP asa) where na = maxima normal tes (ail destion atthe camped ed), ae thickness, erential presute aros the plate, factor, the value of which may be estimated fom the following ap. Fe pjo2 03 o4 05 08 07 08 “Flose ox 076 072 0m oo ome‘a 15 Measurement of ld Flow 15.35. Relative Merits of the Venturi, Flow Nozzle, and Orifice High accuracy, good pressure recovery, and resistance to abrasion are the ‘primary advenages ofthe venti, They ae fe! however, by considerably [eater cont and space requirements than withthe odfce and moze. The ‘rie is inexpensive, and may often be installed between existing pipe ange. ‘lowever, i pressure recovery 8 poor, snd iti expec surcptbe 10 inscuraces resulting fom wear aud abrasion. It ma) ako be damaged by ‘presure transients Because Of Is lower physical sueagih. The Now nore poseses the advantages of the vento, except that Ht has lower {ecoery, aid it has the aed advantage of shorter physical lagth. It ‘expensive compared withthe orice and (i relatively clfcat to install,RP,» [@OaMe.002 x aos 957 8/2 % 1) i : IP Fe en algae Apes ef shat 1p — DLP tha overtng HR'®). mecha | BEC tae ee | Gee Foon 15.4 Obstruction Meters for Compressible Fluids When compresible fide fow tough obstruction meters of the (pes cased in Section 15°, the density does got remain constant daring the thats, ps. The usual practice ito base the ener sation, Ea ens at condition 1 (Fig 15.2) ad to ited an expesion allows: W = KAYVIEDIF= PD, ass) ‘where W = the mass flow rte, ‘The expansion factor, Y, may be deteemined theoretically for gases ‘owing throuph nozales and venturls and experimentally for aases i ciioe meters. Fr aozies and vents values may be cilelated ‘fom the follwinga 15. Measurement of iid Flow Figure 15.10 (3) Expansion factors for ventris and nozzles k = 1.4), (© expansion factors for square-edged concent onfices (Source: ASME, Flld Meters, 6th ed 1971) raion 2} (PAG pie oe __ speci heat at constant presse ~ posi estat contant volume For squee-edged ores, an empirical relation has been developed that is ‘expeesed a ato 2): Baw ~(0a1s ssp asm)184 Obstruction Meter for Compre Fue @ Figure 1:10 continued vninn, ‘Expansion factor, Y, for venture and osses with k = 14 are shown pote against pressure ratio in Fg. 15.10. Simla value or squae-edged erfcor te given in Fig 15.1000). Example 152 ‘A sharpedged orlfce is used to mensre flow of 30°C ir through a ‘Osmeiameter crcularsectioned duct. Estimate the fow rate i the itera ese bevesn vena coca 62m of 052 ie fravity ol The upsream pressure Fi 4% 10 Pa(abs) sad Sota, Aj= 001m, A= 001770 From Fig. 15.9 we may estimate C~ 0.6. (Note At thi point we are ‘nsble to determine Rez) eet omg Kace‘One particular iswe necessitates caution when considering isentropic flow of ‘compres fuds, AS Now rues are increased, the flow veloty though & ‘omtricion evenly reaches the soni velocity Yor the existing conditions155 Predictably of Obstruction Meter Peformance oo (Qtach number = 1.0). The condition of Mach numer equal fo unity at & Sonstition sac asthe trout af a nozzle ie called “choked.” [4 When this oozury, varaons in pressure downstream of the consticton or throat, so shown in Fig. 15.3, no longer infvene the mas ow rate, One might intepet this eooon by stating tat ones 4 Mach number of ity is feched a Us throat, the fet fea pressure variation can no longer be propmgated back ‘parca, ‘The cra pressure rai for the chokedlow conton is expressed in tems ofthe stale upstream aed throat presues ss en ass) ‘This ratio can be interpreted a being the lining rai for achieving soni ow ‘na now; that, slong asthe pressure rato Ps preater the the vale tiven in Eq, (139, the Bow may be predicted by Eq (128), However, when {he pressure ratio given by Eg. (15.9) is reached, the fw & choked nd the mas low rate cannot be increased by lowering the presae ai further. For tit, = 14 and this ratio Beoomes 0.528 15.5 Predictability of Obstruction Meter Performance ‘The foregoing dscusson of obtruction meters is based fo gest extent on ratial information asembled and published by the Amercan Society of Mechanical Engineers (ee Suygested Readings atthe end of this chaps). ‘Tables and chars of coetcient for various and preciely prescribed metering smcthods have evolved through the years from socmulated experiences of sary deren people and interested comercial and reserch oranzations. ‘This material probably format wefal end relable a guide fo ow measure: mens as is avalble, and when diligently adhered to, yok setifacory and Prac resis, However, a “lt of aocuracy” must be spied tothe values Of any generally expresed discharge or fow eoeficents ot expansion factors. Table 18.1, Tolerance ranges for theoretical flow measurement coefficients and factors Tecttenent “otros a Prcn onto Fer erFiw Soendents tree Fastre Gpowesecinemisoson tm a Pn“The tolerance ranges in Table 15.1 have boon abstracted fom Ret (2 nd spply to creicent and factor data presented therein. From tis tablntion we Se that the coeticints maybe qulte acutely predicted Of cour, it mar be remembered that these fgures donot iciade eros of observation, efor: ‘of subsequent signal contonng apparatus, etc. For more accurate work, faliraton of individual meters along with sssocstedintrumentation i ‘qeeed 15.6 The Variable-Area Meter ‘A major disdvantage of the common forms of obstruction meter (he ‘entr, theories, andthe sozle) thatthe pressure dop varies at the {quae ofthe fow rate [Eq (15 5e)]- This means tht if these meters are tobe ‘ed over a wide range of fow rats, presuremeastring equipment of very ‘wide range wil be required. In general ifthe pressure range ts acommo> ated, accuracy at low fom rates wl be poor: the smal pressure readings 1a that range wil be limited by presure Waneducerzesolaon. One sluon ‘would be tose two (or more) pressure-measiing Stems: one for Low Now {ates and another for high rte. Figore 18.11_Vaciabie-area flowmeter‘A desice whote indication is esentaly linear with ow ate f shown a seaion in Fig) 15-1. This fstromentis'@ varable-asea meter, commonly Call 2 rotamer. Two parts are esentil, the fost andthe tapered tbe in whieh the Betis fee to move. Te erm floats omewba «misnomer in that it must be heavier than the guid it cplaces. As Row taker place upward through the tube, four frees act onthe oat. a downoad gravity free, a8 upward buoyant force, and preare and viscous deg forces. ‘or a given rate of flow, the float asm 4 poston inthe tube where the fores acting on it are in equltim Throwgh cattul desig, the effects of hanging vscosty or density may be minimized, leaving only the pressure force asa varias. The latter i dependent on flow ate and the annular ae ‘between the float andthe tube. Hence its postion willbe determined by the flow rate alone. A base equation for the rotameter ha been developed (it the folowing for: oe a.c[2eder= to], (5.10) (= thevohimetri rt of fo, y= the volume of the ost, = sclenton dt gravy, yt ot densi, x= thei east, (y= the ae ofthe ay C= the cicharg cote, Az = th aren ofthe sana orice (io +a, De ae dant we a nin, bathedug lnuis dinar poe tuoi, ‘he maximum diameter of the Host, y= the height ofthe oat shove zero potion. ‘Noxmaly, the values of D,b, and d wil be selected to prodece an esentllly linear variation of A, with y. Thu, the fow rate fa car fonction of the reading, In contrast to the obstruction meters. Because the rotamcters ‘respons sea, is reoltion isthe same at both high and low flow rates,@ 15, Measurement of Fis Flow Certain disadvantages of the cotmctr as compared vith the otber, consanerea bsroction meer re the meter mist be tale ina veri poston; the Nout may not be vble when opague ids ae wed: cannot be {sed with iguds carrying large percentages of soli in suspension; for high presses or temperatures, its expensive. Advantages icade the folowing {There is» orform ow vale over the range of the insroment, with the preosre Tos fied a al Bow rates the capaiy may be changed wth relate fine by changing Boat and/or tube: many corrosive fide may be handled ‘thot completion; the condition of flow i realy vb, Rotameters ae ‘yplaly ecurate to between I and 10% of ful sae 15,7_Additional Flowmeters __ “The proceding dsussion covers the more common types of flowmeter, bat ‘many addtional types are in use. In his aril, we considera few ofthe more lnportant ones. Note that each ofthe following devices prodaces 80 output that nea Bow rate. 15.7.1. Turbine-Type Meters ‘The famllaranemometer used by weather stations to measure wind velocity is {simple form of fre-team turbine meter. Somewhat similar rotngehest fovimeters are used by cil engineers to measure water ow inrvers and stream (6. Both the cupype rotors and the propel types ae ued for this ‘purpose In each cate the number of tue of the wheel per unit time ls Counted and eed as messure of the fw rat Figure 15.12. Turbineype Nlowmeter el Le