Professional Documents
Culture Documents
C-HAPTER 1
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The Process of
Measu rement:
An Overview
1.1
Introduction
It has been said: "Whatever exists, exists in some amount." The determination
of the amount is what measurement is all about. If those things that exist are
related to the practice of mechanical engineering, then the determination of
their amounts constitutes the subject of mechanical measurements. *
observed and quantified; that is, the input quantity to the measuring process.
The act of measurement produces a result (see Fig. 1.1).
measurand, and usually, but not always, is prescribed and defined by a legal-or
measurements.
Figure 1.1
Measurand
(Input)
Process of
comparison
( Measurement)
Result
( Readout)
1.2
1.3
the desired performances. The controlling portion of the system must know the
magnitude and direction of the difference in order to react intelligently.
In addition, many daily operations require measurement for proper
performance. An example is in the modern central power station. Tempera
tures, flows, pressures, and vibrational amplitudes must be constantly moni
tored by measurement to ensure proper performance of the system. Moreover,
measurement is vital to commerce. Costs are established on the basis of
amounts of materials, power, expenditure of time and labor, and other
constraints.
To be useful, measurement must be reliable. Having incorrect information
is potentially more damaging than having no information. The situation, of
course, raises the question of the accuracy or uncertainty of a measurement.
Arnold O. Beckman, founder of Beckman Instruments, has stated, "One thing
you learn in science is that there is no perfect answer, no perfect measure."* It
is quite important that engineers interpreting the results of measurement have
some basis for evaluating the likely uncertainty. Engineers should never simply
read a scale or printout and blindly accept the numbers. They must carefully
place realistic tolerances on each of the measured values, and not only should
have a doubting mind but also should attempt to quantify their doubts. We
will discuss uncertainty in more detail in Section 1.8 and as the subject of
Chapter 3.
1.3
There are two basic methods of measurement: (1) direct comparison with
either a primary or a secondary standard and (2) indirect comparison through
the use of a calibrated system.
1.3.1
Direct Comparison
How would you measure the length of a bar of steel? If you were to be
satisfied with a measurement to, let us say, in. (approximately 3 mm), you
would probably use a steel tape measure. You would compare the length of
the bar with a standard, and-would find that the bar is so many inches long
because that many inch-units on your standard are the same length as the bar.
Thus you would have determined the length by direct comparison. The
standard that you have used is called a secondary standard. No doubt you
could trace its ancestry back through no more than four generations to the.
primary length standard, which is related to the speed of light (Section, 2.5).
Although to measure by direct comparison is to strip the measurement
process to its barest essentials, the method is not always adequate. The human
senses are not equipped to make direct comparisons of all quantities with equal
facility. In many cases they are not sensitive enough. We can make direct
must call for additional assistance from some more complex form of measuring
system. Measurement by direct comparison is thus less common than is
1.3.2
analogous form, which it then processes and presents at the output as a known
function of the original input. Such a conversion is often necessary so that the
desired information will be intelligible. The human senses are simply not
designed to detect the strain in a machine member, for instance. Assistance is
required from a system that senses, converts, and finally presents an analogous
output in the form of a displacement on a scale or chart or as a digital readout.
through
some form of
1 w4
stage
Stage 3
performs required and definite steps in the measurement. These are calld
1.4
Figure 1.2
,
,
Auxiliary
power (not
always required)
Calibration
input
required)
Measurand
Sensortransducer
Transduced
signal
(analogous to
input)
Signal
conditioner
Analogous
driving
signal
Indicator
Recorder
Computer
r-
Proeessor
Controller
basic elements; their scope is determined by their function rather than by their
construction. Figure 1.2 and Table 1.1 outline the significance of each of these
stages.
1.4.1
The primary function of the first stage is to detect or to sense the measurand.
At the same time, ideally, this stage should be insensitive to every other
called noise when it varies rapidly and drift when it varies very slowl .
1.4.2
econd, or Signal-Conditioning,
Stage
The purpose of the second stage of the general system is to modify the
or terminating,
stage. 11\ addition, it may perform one or more basic operations, such as
!
e required.
Proably the most
as may
either amplitude or power of the signal, or both, to the level required to drive
the final terminating device. In addition, it must be designed for proper
matching characteristics between the first and second and between the second
Table 1.1
Stage 1: Sensor-Transducer
Stage 3: Readout-Recording
Provides an indication or
evaluated by an unaided
human sense or by a
depending on requirement.
digitally on a computer
unwanted components or
convert signal into pulsed
form
Mechanical: Contacting
Mechanical: Gearing,
Indicators Displacement
spindle,spring-mass,elastic
cranks,slides,connecting
links,cams,etc.
force),.gyro
Hydraulic-pneumatic: Buoyant
Hydraulic-pneumatic: Piping,
float, orifice,venturi,vane,
valving,dashpots,plenum
alphanumeric readout
propeller
chambers
Optical: Mirrors,lenses,
transistors, photomultiplier
tubes,holographic plates
photography, magnetic
recording (hard disk or tape)
Electrical: Contacts,
Electrical: Amplifying or
resistance,capacitance,
attenuating systems,
inductance,piezoelectric
bridges,filters,telemetering
systems,either special
systems,various special
purpose or general,used to
thermocouple,semiconductor
purpose integrated-circuit
feed readout/recording
junction,etc.
devices
1.4.3
1.4
2.
In
as on a digital voltmeter
tire gage used for checking automobile tire pressure. Such a device is shown in
Fig.
1.3().
movement, and a stem with scale divisions. As the air pressure bears against
the piston, the resulting force compresses the spring until the spring and air
Figure 1.3
Stem
Compression
spring
- Piston
_Cylinder
(a)
.---------..,
Sensor-transducer
Input
pressure
Piston/cylinder
Spring
(Pressure to
force)
(Force to
Signal
_
I conditioning
I
I
I
I (None)
I
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L________ J
displacement)
(b)
Readout
I
(Scale and
index)
Figure 1.4
ij
E
!?
GO
.,
Stage 2
Signal-conditioning system
Integrating
Filter
Amplifier
circuit
"8
!.
_,..;.
' "'I
l
...
o
Stage 3
Recording-readout system
Data-acquisition
computer.
..,j
Printer
....
-t
"
"'G
Vohage OU!put
Signal with
from accelerometer
noise removed
Time-integrated
voltage analogous to
velocity
Increased votlage
for computer recording
III
S.
m
III
;;
;
"
:I
on
"-
>
:I
Time. m/s
Computer graph
.
;
1.5
11
forces balance. The calibrated stem, which remains in place after the spring
returns the piston, indicate-the-applied pressure.
Section 6.3), the spring converts the force to a displacement. Finally, the
In addition to a voltage
amplifier, the second stage may also include a filter that selectively attenuates
than an acceleration-time signal. Finally, the signal voltage will probably need
8)
and printer. The final record will then be in the form of a computer
Types
1.5
1.5.1
of
Input Quantities
Time Dependence
1.
2.
Staticonstant in time
Dynamic-varying in time
B.
b.
Steady-state periodic
Nonrepetitive or transient
i.
ii.
Although the accelerometer maybe susceptibl to an analysis of "stages" within itself, we shall
12
1.7
Calibration
13
1.6
Measurement Standards
1.7
Calibration
14
procedure is not optimal; the more nearly the calibration standard corresponds
to the measurand in all its characteristics, the better the resulting
measurements.
Occasionally, the nature of the system or one of its components makes the
introduction of a sample of the basic input quantity difficult or impossible. One
of the important characteristics of the bonded resistance-type strain gage is the
fact that, through quality control at the time of manufacture, spot calibration
may be applied to a complete lot of gages. As a result, an indirect calibration
of a strain-measuring system may be provided through the gage factor supplied
by the manufacturer. Instead of attempting to apply a known unit strain to the
gage installed on the test structure-which, if possible, would often result in an
ambiguous situation-a resistance change is substituted. Through the pre
determined gage factor, the system's strain response may thereby be obtained
(see Section 12.4).
1.8
Error may be defined as the difference between the measured result and the
true value of the quantity being measured (see Section 3.1). We do not know
the true value; hence, we do not know the error. We can discuss an error and
can estimate the size of an error, but we can never know its actual magnitude.
If we estimate a likely upper bound on the error, that bound is called the
uncertainty. We estimate, with some level of odds, that the error will be no
larger than the uncertainty. There are two basic types of error (remember, we
can discuss it without ever knowing its magnitude): bias, or systematic, error
and precision, or random, error.
Should an unscrupulous butcher place a ball of putty under the scale pan,
the scale readouts would be consistently in error. The scale would indicate a
weight of product too great by the weight of the putty. This zero offset
represents one type of systematic error.
Shrink rules are used to make patterns for the casting of metals. Cast steel
shrinks in cooling by about 2%; hence the patterns used for preparing the
molds are oversized by the proper percentage amounts. The pattern maker
uses a shrink rule on which the dimensional units are increased by that
amount. Should a pattern maker's shrink rule for cast steel be inadvertently
used for ordinary length measurements, the readouts would be consistently
undersized by fa in one (that is, by 2%). This is an example of scale error.
In each of the foregoing examples the errors are constant and of a
systematic nature. Such errors cannot be uncovered by statistical analysis;
however, they may be estimated by methods that we discuss in Chapter 3.
An inexpensive frequency counter may use the 60-Hz power-line fre
quency as a comparison standard. Power-line frequency is held very close to
the 6O-Hz standard. Although it does wander slowly above and below the
average value, over a period of time-say, a day-the average is very close to
60 Hz. The wandering is random and the moment-to-moment error in the
1.9
Reporting
Results
15
1.9
Reporting Results
When experimental setups are made and time and effort are expended to
obtain results, it normally follows that some form of written record or report is
to be made. The purpose of such a record will determine its form. In fact, in
some cases, several versions will be prepared. Reports may be categorized as
follows:
1.
Executive summary
2.
3.
Progress report
4.
5.
Technical paper
16
entire report
should
1.9.1
The laborato ry note is written for a very limited audience, possibly even only
as a memory j ogger for the experimenter or, perhaps more often, for the
information of an immediate superviso r who is thoroughly familiar with the
work. In some cases, a single page may be sufficient including a sentence or
two stating the problem, a block di agram of the experimental setup, and some
data presented either in tabular form or as a plotte d diagram. Any pertinent
observations not directly evide nt from the data should also be included.
Sufficient i nformation should be included so that the experimenter can
mentally reconstruct the situation and results 1 year or e ve n 5 years hence. A
date and signature should always be included and, if there is a possibility of
important developments stemming from the work, a second witnessing
signature should be included and dated.
,
Full Report
1.9.2
The full report must relate all the facts pertinent to the project. It is even more
important in this ca se to make the purpose of the project compl etel y clear, for
the report will be read by persons not closely associated with the work. The
full report should also include e nough detail to allow another professional to
repeat the measurements and calculations.
One format that has much merit is to make the re port proper the main
body-short and to the point relegating the supporting materials, data,
detailed qescriptions of e q uipment, review of literature, sample calculations,
and so on, to appendixes Frequent refe rence to these materials can be made
throughout the report proper, but the option to peruse the details is left to the
reader This scheme also provides a good basis for the technical paper, should
it be planned
-
1.9.3
Technical Paper
1.10
final Remarks
figure 1.5
17
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l
Digita Data
Acquisition
Sensors
I
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L
Chapter 6, Part II
Signal
Conditioners
Chapter 8
Chapter 7
Readout and
Processing
Devices
Hardware
_______________
Chapter 9
-------------
I
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Uncertainty
Analysis
Chapter 3
1.10
Final Remarks
An attempt has been made in this chapter to provide an overall preview of the
problems of mechanical measurement. In conformance with Section 1. 9, we
have tried to state the problem as fully as possible in only a few pages. In the
remainder of the book, we will expand on the topics introduced in this chapter.
Figure 1.5 illustrates the interrelation of these topics and their organization
within this book.
Suggested Readings
Dally,
18
1982-85.
Monison, R.
1984.
Handbook of Measurement SCience. 2
Sydenham, P. H.
1983.
New York:
Instrumentation
Problems
1.1
From the list of Suggested Readings at the end of this chapter, select one book,
and write a short executive summary of a chapter discussing pressure, tempera
ture, force, strain or motion measurement.
1.2
1.3
1.4
Set up test procedures you would use to estimate, with the aid only of your
present judgment and experience, the magnitudes of the common quantities
listed.
Distance between the centerlines of two holes in a machined part
8.
b. Weight of two small objects of different densities
.
Figure 1.6
1.2,
I :
I
W/#,
Test
Item
I
"-///////////J:
1.10
Problems
c.
d.
e.
1.5
19
Time intervals
Temperature of water
Frequency of pure tones
Consider the impact frame shown in Figure 1.6. Mass M is raised to an initial
height H and released from rest. Discuss how you would measure the mass
velocity just prior to impact with the test item in order to account for friction
between mass M and the guide rails.