OP-AMP INTEGRATOR

1) Vin = Step signal

The step signal is defined as follows

Vin (t)=A

for

t>0

Let the product RC = 1.

The output voltage is given as,

Thus for the positive step signal, output is a negative ramp signal with slope (A/RC). At a particulart, integrator goes into negative saturation, so continuous
dc signal is avoided for integrator. The input and output waveform is shown
below.

2) Vin = Square Wave

The square wave is nothing but combination of positive and negative step
signals. As seen in first case, the output of step signal is a ramp signal. For
positive step signal, a negative ramp and for negative step signal, a positive
ramp is obtained because it is inverting integrator.
Thus for a square wave input, the output obtained is a triangular waveform as
shown in figure below.

OP-AMP DIFFERENTIATOR
1)Vin = Step signal
The step signal is defined as follows
Vin (t)=A
for t>0
Let the product RC = 1.
The output voltage is given as

Practically the step input is taking some finite time to rise from 0 to magnitude A.
Due to this small interval of time, the differentiator output is not zero; but
appears in the form of spikes at t = 0. The input and output waveform is shown
below

2)Vin = Square Wave

The square wave is nothing but combination of positive and negative step
signals. As seen in first case, the output of step signal is a spike. For positive step
signal, a negative spike is obtained because it is inverting differentiator. Thus for
a square wave input, the output obtained is a spike waveform as shown in figure
below.

NON-INVERTING COMPARATOR

The op-amp is in open loop configuration and hence its output is in saturation.
The saturation level at the output may be positive or negative depending on the

input signal. Here op-amp acts as a comparator and compares the input signal
with the reference voltage.
If the difference between the two signals is positive, op-amp goes into positive
saturation i.e. Vo = +Vsat .
If the difference between the two signals is negative, op-amp goes into negative
saturation i.e. Vo= -Vsat.
The above simple operation can be summarized in mathematical conditions as
follows.
1. If Vin>Vref, Vo = +Vsat
2. If Vin<Vref, Vo = -Vsat
The input and output waveforms are shown below,

INVERTING COMPARATOR

Due to open loop configuration of op-amp, the output goes into saturation.
The operation of the comparator is explained with the following two equations
1. If Vin>Vref then Vo= Vsat
Thus for the positive half cycle of the input signal the above condition is true. So

for the positive half cycle of input signal, the output goes into negative
saturation i.e. Vsat. The input and output waveforms are shown below.

2. If Vin<Vref then Vo= +V_sat

Thus for the negative half cycle of the input signal the above condition is true. So
for the negative half cycle of input signal, the output goes into positive
saturation i.e. +Vsat.
The transfer characteristics are shown in figure below.

PRECISION RECTIFIER
The major limitation of conventional rectifiers is that it cannot rectify
AC voltages below forward voltage drop VD (0.7V) of a diode. The
precision rectifier will make it possible to rectify input voltage of a very
small magnitude even less than forward voltage drop of diode. The
diode can be used in AM detector where power is negligible and we
want information in the signal. Rectifier circuits used for circuit
detection with op-amps are called precision rectifiers.
Necessity of Op-Amp:
When forward biased voltage is less than 0.7V, then diode is not
conducting. In case of normal power rectifier input applied is much
larger than 0.7V. So diode is not operated. Therefore Op-amp is used to
help diode to conduct.
The precision rectifiers are classified in two categories.
1. Precision HWR
2. Precision FWR
Precision Half wave rectifier(HWR) :
In HWR, the diode conducts in one of the half cycles of applied ac input
signal. Because of this again we can classify HWR as positive PHWR
(output is positive) and negative PHWR (output is negative).

In positive half cycle of applied ac input signal output of op-amp is

negative, so diode D1 is forward biased and D2 is reversed biased. The
output of op-amp is virtually shorted to ground and output voltage is
zero.
In negative half cycle of applied ac input signal output of op-amp is
positive, so diode D2 is forward biased and D1 is reversed biased. The
circuit works as an inverting amplifier with gain of (-Rf/R1 ) Therefore
Vo=VinA. But in negative half cycle input magnitude is negative
therefore we get, Vo=(-Vin )[-Rf/R1]
Vo= Rf/R1 (Vin )
Thus in negative half cycle output is positive with a gain of(Rf/R1 ).
Precision Full wave Rectifier:
In PFWR, for both the half cycles output is produced & in one direction
only. In positive half cycle of applied ac input signal, output of first opamp (A1) is Negative. Therefore diode D2 is forward biased & diode D1
is reverse biased.

SCHMITT TRIGGER
The Schmitt Trigger is a logic input type that provides hysteresis or two
different threshold voltage levels for rising and falling edge. This is
useful because it can avoid the errors when we have noisy input signals
from which we want to get square wave signals.

So for example, if we have a noisy input signal like this, that is meant
to have 2 pulses, a device that has only one set point, or threshold,
could get incorrect input and it could register more than two pulses as
shown in this illustration. And if we use the Schmitt Trigger for the
same input signal we will get a correct input of two pulses because of
the two different thresholds. So thats the primal function of the
Schmitt Trigger, to convert noisy square waves, sine waves or slow
edges inputs into clean square waves.

Types of Schmitt Trigers

There are many logic ICs that have built-in Schmitt Triggers on their
inputs, but also it can be built using transistors or easier using an
Operational Amplifier, or comparator and just adding some resistors to
it and a positive feedback.

Operational Amplifier based Schmitt Trigger

Here we have an op-amp which inverting input is connected to the

ground or zero volts and the non-inverting input is connected to a
voltage input, VIN. So this is actually a comparator and compares the
non-inverting input to the inverting input or in this case the input
voltage VIN to 0 V. So when the VIN value is below 0 volts the output of
the comparator will be the negative VCC and if the input voltage is above
0 volts the output will be positive VCC.

Now if we add a positive feedback by connecting the output voltage to

the non-inverting input with a resistor between them and another
resistor between the VIN and the non-inverting input we will get the
Schmitt Trigger. Now the output will switch from V CC to VCC+ when the
voltage at the A node will cross 0 volts.
That means that now by adjusting the values of the resistors we
can set at what value of the VIN input the switch will occur using the
following equations. We get these equations with the following
relationships. The current i through this line equals VIN VA divided by
R1 as well as VA VOUT divided by R2. So if we replace the VA with zero, as
we need that value for the switch to occur, we will get that final
equation. For example if the output is -12 volts and the V IN input is
negative and rises, the switch from -12 V to +12 V will occur at 6 volts
according to the equation and the values of the resistors and vice versa
when the VIN input is high and declines the switch from +12 V to 12V
will occur at -6 volts.

Schmitt Trigger or Regenerative Comparator Circuit

A Schmitt trigger circuit is also called a regenerative comparator circuit. The circuit is
designed with a positive feedback and hence will have a regenerative action which will
make the output switch levels. Also, the use of positive voltage feedback instead of a
negative feedback, aids the feedback voltage to the input voltage, instead of opposing it.
The use of a regenerative circuit is to remove the difficulties in a zero-crossing detector
circuit due to low frequency signals and input noise voltages.
Shown below is the circuit diagram of a Schmitt trigger. It is basically an inverting
comparator circuit with a positive feedback. The purpose of the Schmitt trigger is to
convert any regular or irregular shaped input waveform into a square wave output voltage
or pulse. Thus, it can also be called a squaring circuit.

Schmitt Trigger Circuit Using Op-Amp uA741 IC

As shown in the circuit diagram, a voltage divider with resistors Rdiv1 and Rdiv2 is set in
the positive feedback of the 741 IC op-amp. The same values of Rdiv1 and Rdiv2 are used
to get the resistance value Rpar = Rdiv1||Rdiv2 which is connected in series with the input
voltage. Rpar is used to minimize the offset problems. The voltage across R1 is fedback to
the non-inverting input. The input voltage Vi triggers or changes the state of output Vout
every time it exceeds its voltage levels above a certain threshold value called Upper
Threshold Voltage (Vupt) and Lower Threshold Voltage (Vlpt).
Let us assume that the inverting input voltage has a slight positive value. This will cause a
negative value in the output. This negative voltage is fedback to the non-inverting terminal
(+) of the op-amp through the voltage divider. Thus, the value of the negative voltage that
is fedback to the positive terminal becomes higher. The value of the negative voltage
becomes again higher until the circuit is driven into negative saturation (-Vsat). Now, let
us assume that the inverting input voltage has a slight negative value. This will cause a
positive value in the output. This positive voltage is fedback to the non-inverting terminal
(+) of the op-amp through the voltage divider. Thus, the value of the positive voltage that
is fedback to the positive terminal becomes higher. The value of the positive voltage
becomes again higher until the circuit is driven into positive saturation (+Vsat). This is
why the circuit is also named a regenerative comparator circuit.

Schmitt Trigger Input and Output Waveform

When Vout = +Vsat, the voltage across Rdiv1 is called Upper Threshold Voltage (Vupt).
The input voltage, Vin must be slightly more positive than Vupt inorder to cause the
output Vo to switch from +Vsat to -Vsat. When the input voltage is less than Vupt, the
output voltage Vout is at +Vsat.
Upper Threshold Voltage, Vupt = +Vsat (Rdiv1/[Rdiv1+Rdiv2])
When Vout = -Vsat, the voltage across Rdiv1 is called Lower Threshold Voltage (Vlpt). The
input voltage, Vin must be slightly more negaitive than Vlpt inorder to cause the output Vo
to switch from -Vsat to +Vsat. When the input voltage is less than Vlpt, the output voltage
Vout is at -Vsat.
Lower Threshold Voltage, Vlpt = -Vsat (Rdiv1/[Rdiv1+Rdiv2])
If the value of Vupt and Vlpt are higher than the input noise voltage, the positive feedback
will eliminate the false output transitions. With the help of positive feedback and its
regenerative behaviour, the output voltage will switch fast between the positive and
negative saturation voltages.

Hysteresis Characteristics

Since a comparator circuit with a positive feedback is used, a dead band condition
hysteresis can occur in the output. When the input of the comparator has a value higher
than Vupt, its output switches from +Vsat to -Vsat and reverts back to its original state,
+Vsat, when the input value goes below Vlpt. This is shown in the figure below. The
hysteresis voltage can be calculated as the difference between the upper and lower
threshold voltages.
Vhysteresis = Vupt Vlpt
Subsituting the values of Vupt and Vlpt from the above equations:
Vhysteresis = +Vsat (Rdiv1/Rdiv1+Rdiv2) {-Vsat (Rdiv1/Rdiv1+Rdiv2)}
Vhysteresis = (Rdiv1/Rdiv1+Rdiv2) {+Vsat (-Vsat)}

Schmitt-Trigger-Hysteresis Characteristics