Types of bridge

Overpass the road being designed bridges over an obstruction (river, rail, or road)
generally carries a higher capacity road over a lower capacity one.
Underpass road being designed goes under an obstruction (river, rail or road)
generally a lower capacity road carried over a higher capacity one.

1. Horizontal alignment
Issues that impact on the horizontal alignment at bridges include:
a) Width of bridge
to suit the cross sectional elements of the roadway as required by the road
authority and as amended by Clause 9.4 and Tables 9.4A, 9.4B and 9.5 of
AS5100.1;
dependent on sight widening (if required) only an issue on curved bridges;
sight distance and stopping sight distance influenced by height of barriers on
curved bridges. If barriers are tall, they may obstruct the line of sight over the
barrier on the curves and this may require the bridge to be widened; option may
be to use steel post and rail barriers but the bridge code requirements may
preclude this.
b) Skew of crossing
The angle of skew may preclude certain bridge types specially pre-tensioned
beams and planks - RTA requirements limit bridge skews to 37 degrees maximum,
DMR (Qld.) limits are 45 degrees while VicRoads limits are not specified.
It is prudent not to exceed 45 degrees without consultation with the structural
engineer or the client.

c) Horizontal Clearances
Horizontal clearance needs to be provided to sub-structure of bridges from the road
below. This should include working width which allows for the sway of vehicles as
they travel along the edge of the roadway.
Where piers are located adjacent to the roadway, provision should be made for a
traffic barrier in front of the pier. The design codes require the pier to be designed
for impact whatever the case but road authorities will specify that the pier is to be
protected anyway. The face of the pier should be set back enough from the face of
the barrier to allow for the working width of the vehicles.
Refer to Width of Bridge above for notes on barrier and widening that may be

required for sight distance.

d) Barriers
The level of barrier protection required is either usually specified or can be
determined by a simple risk analysis process defined in AS5100.1.
Different levels of protection require different barrier heights and may influence
barrier types (steel post and rail versus concrete or a combination thereof).
Where steel post and rail barriers are adopted on the basis that these barriers afford
visibility through the barrier, early advice should be sought from the structural
designers and road safety auditors to confirm this. It is possible that the structural
sizes required for the posts and rails and the spacing of these elements leads to less
visibility than originally envisaged.
The actual width of barriers will influence the width of the bridge structure but this
should not influence the road modeling. A minimum allowance of 500mm should be
allowed for the barrier with provision for this to increase later depending on
construction method and details.
e) Type of construction (at curves)
Where the roadway is on a horizontal curve at the bridge location, the type of
structural form may be influenced by the radius of the curve.
The smaller the radius of the curve, the shorter the allowable spans would be to
enable precast beams to be adopted. For example with precast Super T beams, the
flange outstand on the inside of the curve can be reduced to almost zero at midspan whilst on the outside of the curve, the flange outstand width can be increased
at mid-span whilst maintaining a zero flange outstand at the ends of the beams.
This needs to carefully considered as there are limits on the maximum cantilever
allowed depending on the type and weight of the barrier and the level of barrier
impact protection to be provided.
At cast-in-situ structures (eg box girder, voided slab etc), this is not as significant a
constraint.
Transitions and spirals should not be provided at bridge locations wherever possible
as they complicate bridge geometry not insurmountable but not preferred.

Fig 1 Curved Bridge with Straight Super T Girders

f) Super-elevation
Where bridges are located at horizontal curves, they have to cater for superelevation. This is not a major issue. However, if the super- elevation changes or
rotates over the span or length of the bridge, then it generates a number of design
issues for the bridge designers and the draftees. The risk of geometry and design
errors is significantly increased.
If one considers a precast beam form of construction, the beams form a plane. If the
deck surface then varies in crossfall and has a minimum structural thickness at one
corner, then the other three corners must vary to suit.
Bridges that have to cater for varying crossfall also generally have to cater for
additional deck thickness to overcome the above geometry issue. This increases:
the overall structural depth (forcing the bridge vertical alignment higher to
achieve the clearance to the road below),
load on the deck due to the thicker slab depth required to accommodate
crossfall; and
reduces the efficiency of the deck system adopted.

g) Drainage
Obviously with super-elevation, drainage must be provided along the low side of the
bridge. Refer also to the vertical alignment influences on drainage.

2.

Vertical Alignment
a) Vertical Clearances

Vertical clearances should include as a minimum (not limited to):

Statutory Vehicle clearances (refer Table 9.7 AS5100.1) or as specified by
road authority for the project;
Crossfall on the bridge;
Longitudinal gradient on the road below the bridge;
Hog of the bridge (typically allow 80mm)
Structural depth (allow span/20 for simply supported and span/26 for
continuous structure but confirm with the bridge engineer); and
Asphalt on the bridge.
b) Maximum and minimum grades
It is preferable to locate bridges on a constant grade rather than on a vertical
curve. Sag vertical curves should be avoided at all costs as they present a
worrying visual aspect to viewers. The location of a bridge at a vertical curve has
significant impacts on the load carrying efficiency of the structure especially
where precast beams are used. This is because the curvature of the deck results
in significant increases in thickness of the deck overlay to suit the vertical grade.
This then has an impact on the span length that can be accommodated by a
particular beam depth note that in these instances, the rule of thumb for
structural depth of span/20 no longer applies.
The vertical grade has an influence on some structural types of bridges eg
incrementally launched bridges. These bridges are best suited for a constant
circular curve.
c) Bearing Design
Where the deck is ona longitudinal gradient, it is important to ensure that the top
surface of the bearing is horizontal to avoid imposing any horizontal component
of the gravity loading into the bearings. Also this horizontal component needs to
be considered in the design of the tapered mortar pad above the bearings.
3. Construction/structural Depth
The values given here are approximate only and are significantly influenced by
the authoritys requirements and codal requirements eg these would not apply
in Qld in 2008 onwards when a new regime was implemented in DMR, Qld.
It would be reasonable for a preliminary or concept design to assume the
following values for various forms of construction. These values would apply for
steel or concrete forms of construction.

Type of
support/
construction

Simply
supported

Continuous

Estimated
structural depth
(does not include
asphalt or cross
fall)
Span/20

Span/26

Typical form of
construction

Remarks

Super T beams (upto

1800mm deep) and
slab max span 38m

Applicable for BS,

Australian and AASHTO
codes. Not applicable for
Qld!

Precast plank (upto

1000mm deep x 600
wide) and slab max
span 25m
Precast beam and
slab with diaphragms
(upto 40m);
Voided slabs;
Box girders;
Steel composite
beam and slab,
Steel composite box
girders
Typically used for
spans upto 60m.

Balanced
cantilever

Half span/10 at
pier location and
span/26 at midspan

Box girders (50 to

200m main span)

This applies to structures

which are fully continuous
and not to the typical super
T form of construction
where only the deck slab is
made continuous. This
form of construction can be
extremely expensive and
needs confirmation by the
client/ contractor prior to
adoption for preliminary
design.
The decision to use this
form of construction will
need to involve the client
and contractor as costs are
significantly higher than
other forms of construction.

4. Types of bridge construction

4.1

Precast beam and slab bridges

In Australia, Super T beams are mainly (if not always) used when precast beam and
slab type of bridges are adopted. These beams come in depths of 750mm to 1800mm
and are available in increments of 50mm. They are precast pre-tensioned in a casting
yard and transported to site. A in-situ concrete topping slab is always placed on the
beams.
Typical features of these beams are :
a) beams come in depths of 750mm to 1800mm and are available in increments of
50mm;
b) width of top flange can vary from a minimum of approximately 1.1m to 2.4
maximum (depends on span, deck thickness and barrier impact load);
c) web thickness is typically 100mm but can be increased depending on the
facilities available at the casting yard (note that not all moulds may allow this to
occur!)
d) No. of strands that can be accommodated in these beams is a function of fitting
them into the beam and also what the casting yard stressing bed can
accommodate.
The main advantage of these beams are:
a) Precast
b) Shape is structurally efficient the box shape provides good torsional rigidity;
c) Shape comes with a precast top flange which acts as precast formwork for the
topping slab
Typical considerations include:
Weight of beam to be lifted;
Length and width of beam to be transported;
Flange widths;
Web thicknesses
Normally erected by twin crane lift is access for crane possible and height of lift
possible;
Typical spans are from 18m to 38m.

Figure 2 Single Span Super T with Vertical Abutments (Ginninderra Dr)

4.2

Precast plank bridges

In Australia, each state appears to have slightly different planks in use.

Planks are typically 600mm wide and vary in depth from 300mm to 1000mm deep.
There are two different type of plank bridges with and without a decking slab. The
plank bridges without a decking slab are usually stressed together transversely.

They are precast pre-tensioned in a

casting yard and transported to site.
The latter type are not normally
used in high traffic situations
anymore due to concerns about
fatigue and durability of the
stressing bars.
They are precast pre-tensioned in a
casting yard and transported to site
and placed side to side with
approximately 10-20mm between
them. An in-situ concrete topping
slab is then placed on the planks.
Fig 3- Precast planks being erected
Typical features of these beams are :

a. planks come in depths of 300mm to 1000mm and are available in increments

of 50mm;
b. width of top flange can vary from a minimum of approximately 600mm to
1200mm maximum (depends on span, deck thickness and barrier impact
load);
The main advantage of these planks are:
a) Precast
b) Shape is structurally efficient the box shape provides good torsional rigidity;
c) Shape comes with a precast top flange which acts as precast formwork for
the topping slab
Typical considerations governing the choice of planks are similar to those for precast
beams above.
Typical spans are from 18m to 26m.

4.3

In-situ bridges

This form of construction includes the following types of bridges:

In situ beam and slab;
Voided slab;
Box girder
Through girder
This form of construction is used where
Spans are greater than can be catered for by the precast pre-tensioned beams
Curved road geometry precludes the use of straight precast beams;
Skews are more than can be accommodated by precast beams;
Insufficient structural depth forces the use of post tensioned construction;
Use of formwork/falsework is possible (no traffic management issues);
Soil conditions are reasonable to support falsework loads;
Continuous soffit line required with no headstock below the deck
Typical disadvantages include
requires significant formwork/falsework;
Soil conditions need to be such that to avoid expensive treatment for falsework
loads;
time required to erect falsework;
Falsework creates traffic management issues;
Design considerations more complex especially for continuous spans;
Generally an expensive form of construction unless no choice is offered.
Spans are typically more than 35m and upto maximum of 60m though 50m is really a

practical limit.
Through girder bridges in particular have specific design constraints. However, they
offer the least structural depth. The main issues with this form of structure as a concept
include:
Upstand beams have to resist impact loads not recommended for major roads or rail
without client acceptance of risk;
Transverse distribution for wide bridges needs careful consideration;
Structural depth requirements are typically (except Qld for current DMR requirements):
Span/20 for simply supported and
Span/26 for continuous

Fig 4 - Post tensioned In Situ beam and slab bridge (Brunswick Yelgun Heads
Infra 12)

Figure 5 Skew Cast in Situ Voided Slab (GDE)

Figure 6-45m Long Through Girder Bridge with 500mm Deck (GDE)

4.4

Steel Composite Bridges

Steel bridges have made a significant comeback in recent years. This form of bridge
can be simply supported or continuous and can include

Steel beams with steel deck plate (not used recently);

Steel beams with concrete composite deck;
Steel beams with non-composite deck;
Steel box girder with composite deck

The typical spans used in recent times range from 40m to 60m.
Structural depth requirements are typically :
Span/20 for simply supported and
Span/26 for continuous
The erection sequence for these bridges needs some thought and consideration.
Propping of the beams is often needed before the concrete slab can be cast or even
before beams can be spliced on site.
These bridge types are expensive but useful where the use of falsework is not possible
and spans are greater than that suitable for precast beams.
These bridges can accommodate curved alignments but this adds to the fabrication and
erection costs.

Figure 7 Steel Box Girder (Bolted Segments) (San Francisco)

4.5

Balanced cantilever Bridges

These can be either precast segmental or cast in situ. Precast is not normally an
option because the a large deck area is required to make the casting yard cost
effective. Typically, in the order of 1.5km of dual carriageway deck!
In this form of construction, the piers are built first and then 1 segment at a time
on each side of the pier resulting in a balanced deck at the end of every stage
of construction.
Usually, this form of construction is used where
a) propping or falsework is not possible
b) Obstructions to be crossed eg road or railway that cannot be closed;
c) Sufficient height in the alignment over (refer discussion on structural depth
below);
d) Good foundations as over-balancing loads during construction are likely to
govern.
e) Can cater for curved geometry
Generally, box shaped although beam and slab form of deck has also been used.
It is commonly box girder decks.
The typical span ranges can be 50m to 250m. (Probably uneconomical at the
maximum end of the range)
The structural depth is typically:
a) At pier section = span/10
b) At mid-span = span/26.

Figure 8 Precast (Segmental) Balanced Cantilever Construction (M4/M7)

Figure 9 Cast in situ Balanced Cantilever (Belconnen Way, ACT)

4.6

Launched bridges
Launching is a method of casting a continuous superstructure on an approach,
and progressively pushing the structure out over the piers.
Typical spans are about 35 to 65m - If intermediate temporary piers are used,
spans can be increased upto a maximum of about 120m this is a function of
available jacks, longitudinal grade and weight of the bridge and adds significant
technical difficulty to the design.
A temporary launching nose is attached to reduce bending and accommodate
deflection. The superstructure must be a uniform box cross section (no increase
in depth over piers) variable depth decks are possible but add significant
complexity and cost to the bridge and advise should be sought at concept stage..
The launch method involves the launching of a steel or prestressed concrete
superstructure constructed at ground level on one of the approaches and then
pushed forward out over the span to its final position. The entire superstructure
can be constructed before launching, (monolithic-launch), or it can be
constructed in segments (incremental-launch). These methods often have their
greatest advantages when clearances (highways, railroads, or navigable rivers)
or site restrictions such as environmentally sensitive areas make it difficult to
construct supports for the formwork required by cast-in-place construction. The
method also offers greater worker safety, easier construction, and short
construction duration.
These bridges may be launched either longitudinally or transversely. For
transversely launched bridges, they are generally completed on to the side of the
proposed bridge location and then, during a traffic closure, slid into place.

Figure 10 12500 tonne laterally launched bridge RN19 at Boissy-St-Lgerl

Figure 11 Incremental Launch Method - Woronora Bridge Horizontal (R450m)

and Vertical Curve Max. Span 58.
The launch geometry generally defines the soffit of the superstructure or the launch
surface of the superstructure. Three possibilities for incremental (and monolithic)
launching exist:
uniform grade and straight horizontal alignment (straight superstructure)
uniform grade and circular horizontal alignment (helical geometry)
curved geometry that result in the superstructure conforming to a great circle on a
sphere
The great circle geometry has three cases:
the plane of the great circle is vertical this has straight horizontal alignment and
circular vertical alignment8
the plane of the great circle is horizontal this has circular horizontal alignment and a
zero grade
the plane of the great circle is inclined this results in a curved vertical alignment and
curved horizontal geometry requiring special calculation

The soffit of the full length of the superstructure must be on the same crossfall, and the
curvature if any must be uniform. Transition curves (if any) and superelevation changes
should be on the approaches away from the superstructure. Where this is not feasible, it
is possible to accommodate some alignment variation by adjusting the width of the
cantilevered portion of the deck.

4.7

Long Span Bridge Types

Beyond the above choices, there are other form of major bridge types. The choice of
these forms of construction requires some thought and consideration and are too
complex to summarise here. In brief the table below shows indicative spans for the
various bridge types:
Cable stayed spans greater than 200m
Extra-dosed bridge spans greater than 200m
Suspension bridges spans greater than 700m
Arch bridges spans over 50m
Steel trusses spans over 50m
Factors affecting the choice of bridge type

Available spans can a span layout be arrived at that suits construction,

obstructions, design constraints, utilities etc? Refer bridge types above.

Economy precast beam (or plank) and slab bridges are most economical and
quick to construct, insitu bridges are more expensive, segmental is only
economical if there is more than 3km of bridge deck to precast and even then it is
only break even.

Cost of substructure versus superstructure superstructure costs increase with

span, sub-structure costs reduce with span. The optimum spanis where these
two lines intersect

If adjacent to existing structure or widening of existing, then consider matching

pier spacing and deck type?

Span lengths governed by navigation, transverse clearances to road below?

Vertical aligment governed by clearance to ships, trucks?

Possible pier locations avoid clash with utilities, heritage sites, swamps,
environmentally sensitive sites, acid-suplhate or contaminated soils

Flood immunity raise bridge or design for overtopping, debris

Protection for piers at railway sites?

Bridge articulation and expansion joint locations will influence pier design.

Constructability is there room for traffic staging and falsework?

Transportation of elements to site- can a 40m beam be transported from precast

yard to the site?

Time available for construction precast is quickest. Multi stage construction is

most time consuming.

Availability of materials and equipment In third world countries some equipment

and materials may be very expensive.

Aesthetics what does the urban designer think?