AVIA 3710 Aviation Research Methods

Week 10

AVIA3710 - Aviation Research Methods

Week 10 - Step VIII:

Making Research Public

Professor Ann Williamson, PhD

AVIA 3710 Aviation Research Methods

Last formal Lecture today

Week 10

AVIA 3710 Aviation Research Methods

Week 10

Course Coordinator
Professor Ann Williamson
School of Aviation
Tel: (02) 9385 4599
Mob: 0414 772 114
a.williamson@unsw.edu.au
Room #215 Old Main Building

AVIA 3710 Aviation Research Methods

Week 10

Contact Administrative Issues

Ann Banks
Undergraduate Studies
School of Aviation
Tel: (02) 9385 5756
aviab@unsw.edu.au

AVIA 3710 Aviation Research Methods

Whats the Point of Doing This

Course? Remember

Week 10

As a graduate in the aviation industry, youll be expected to do

some research as part of the job
You may be required to prepare (or oversee preparation of) a
tender, as a contractor/consultant, for an aviation-related study
involving research
You may be required, as an aviation manager, to review tenders
for some research that your company has invited contractors to
do
Some of you might want to go on to do Honours, Masters or
PhD degrees involving research

AVIA 3710 Aviation Research Methods

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An Eight Step Model

Step I: Formulating a research problem (Wk1&2)
Step II: Conceptualising a research design (Wk 3&4)
Step III: Constructing an instrument for data
collection (Wk5)
Step IV: Selecting a sample (Wk6)
Step V: Writing a research proposal (Wk8)
Step VI: Collecting data (Wk7)
Step VII: Processing data (Wk9)
Step VIII: Writing a research report (Wk10)

Kumar (2014)

AVIA 3710 Aviation Research Methods

Week 10

AVIA3710 Administrative stuff

Research Proposal Assessment grades will be on
Moodle by Monday 10th October. Moodle
announcement.
Marked, hard copies with comments available in
Aviation office after 10am 10th October.
Presentations start Week 11 (14/10)
Presentation schedule is on Moodle. Some changes
made (check on Moodle).
Will remind everyone this afternoon.

AVIA 3710 Aviation Research Methods

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AVIA3710 Administrative stuff

Week 11 & 12:
Your turn to present
All students are expected to attend to support
each others presentations
All audience members will assess each
presentation using the scoring method we created in
class.

AVIA 3710 Aviation Research Methods

Week 10

In Week 9 we covered:
Describing the process of data analysis and how this
might apply to your research
The key features of descriptive and inferential
statistics
Overview of which statistical tests should be used for:
Different types of data and
Different types of research questions

AVIA 3710 Aviation Research Methods

Week 9 we covered.

Measures of central tendency (mean, median, mode)

Outliers
Measures of dispersion (range, standard deviation)
Normal distribution (bell-shaped curve)
Descriptive and inferential statistics
Probability value (p value)
Parametric tests (correlation, t-tests, analysis of variance)
Non-parametric tests (eg chi-square, Kruskal-Wallis, etc)
Displaying data (tables and graphs)

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AVIA 3710 Aviation Research Methods

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Learning Outcomes Week 10

After this week you should be able to:
Discuss the ethical issues of doing and publishing
research
Describe the process of selecting a place to publish
your research
Identify different writing styles for different audiences
Identify the process of authorship
Critically appraise research evidence
Understand the criteria for determining causality
Know how to design a good research presentation
using PowerPoint

AVIA 3710 Aviation Research Methods

Issues of Ethics in conducting

research

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AVIA 3710 Aviation Research Methods

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Ethics
All professions are guided by a Code of Ethics
Many research bodies have evolved a Code of
Ethics separately to govern the way they carry out
research.
Eg medicine, psychology, education, business, etc
Definition: in accordance with principles of
conduct that are considered correct, especially
those of a given profession or group (Collins
Dictionary 1979, p. 502; cited in Kumar, 2014).

AVIA 3710 Aviation Research Methods

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Ethical Issues Concerning Participants

Collecting information (eg Will you inconvenience the
person; Will you put pressure on the person?)
Seeking consent (Participants must give their
informed consent. Participants must know what info,
you want from them, why, what will be done with the
info., how they are expected to participate, how study
will affect them).
Providing incentives (Controversial. Rather than
incentive, think about providing reimbursement for the
persons time. Most ethics committees think a small
incentive gift or money - is OK)
Kumar, 2011

AVIA 3710 Aviation Research Methods

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Ethical Issues Concerning Participants

Seeking sensitive information (Certain information
can be regarded as sensitive or confidential by some
participants and this an invasion of privacy eg sexual
behaviour, drug use). Sensitive information can be
age etc. Tread carefully.
Possibility of causing harm to participants (eg
physical hazards; discomfort, anxiety, stress etc).
Must minimise risks to participants.
Maintaining confidentiality (Sharing participant
information with others is unethical. As far as
possible,keep data anonymous.
Kumar, 2011

AVIA 3710 Aviation Research Methods

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Ethical Issues Concerning the Researcher

Avoiding bias (It is unethical to hide what you have found
in your study, or highlight something disproportionately
true to its existence, etc)
Provision or deprivation of treatment (eg Is it ethical to
deprive a control group of a treatment that could save their
lives?)
Using appropriate research methodology (Its unethical
to design your research to get the results you want, rather
than the allowing the results to occur naturally).
Incorrect reporting (Its unethical to report findings in a
way that changes or slants them to serve your own
interests.)
Inappropriate use of information (Is it ethical to ask
respondents information that could be used against them?)
Kumar, 2011

AVIA 3710 Aviation Research Methods

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Ethical Issues Concerning the Funding

Organisation
Restrictions imposed by the sponsoring
organisation (eg They may demand to select the
methodology, prohibit publication of what was found,
or impose other restrictions that prevent information
dissemination)
The misuse of information (eg How will the
sponsoring organisation use the information? How
will this affect the study population?)
Kumar, 2014

AVIA 3710 Aviation Research Methods

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The Ethics Process

University
Human Research Ethics Committee (significant human
impact)
Human Research Ethics Panel (minimal human impact)

Potentially lengthy application process 1-3

months
Panels should constitute individuals from all walks
of life (layperson, expert, religion representative,
native representative, etc)

AVIA 3710 Aviation Research Methods

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Research Proposal versus

Research Report
a Research Proposal describes how you will perform
a research study (as you all know!)
A Research Report describes how you actually
performed a research study, including the results and
a discussion of your results
The headings you use in a Research proposal and a
Research Report are similar but in a Research
Report you will have a Results section, a Discussion
section and a Conclusion.

AVIA 3710 Aviation Research Methods

Week 10

Writing for clients

Client may be your organisation, another organisation
or group that you are consulting for or are sponsoring
your research
Format and nature of report depends on who is the
client
May be specified in the contract or agreement to do the
research
If not specified, the scientific journal article style is a good
start

AVIA 3710 Aviation Research Methods

Scientific journal format

Title Page
Abstract or Executive summary
Introduction
research problem, aims, objectives

Methodology
Study design, participants, equipment, procedure, data analysis
plan

Results
Discussion and Conclusions
References
Appendices

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AVIA 3710 Aviation Research Methods

Practical considerations
Find out what is expected: length, format, etc
Provide an Executive Summary (one or two (max)
pages)
Most readers appreciate short, clear reports so
include as much detail as possible in Appendices
Ensure report is to a professional standard

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AVIA 3710 Aviation Research Methods

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Making an impact: Why Publish Research?

To add to the existing body of knowledge
To contribute to the advancement of the field
To stimulate development of new research and ways
of thinking
To allow other researchers to benefit from your
findings
To allow government and industry to use the findings
to create new programs and policies
To crystalize and clarify your ideas, concepts and
thoughts
Not much point in doing research if you dont publish
the outcomes

AVIA 3710 Aviation Research Methods

Week 10

Refereed vs Non-Refereed
Refereed independently reviewed by experts in
the field prior to publication
detailed examination of work ensures research is rigorous
and credible worth publishing
reviewers are anonymous
need to be prepared for criticism of work comments
should be viewed as constructive, not personal
can be lengthy review process may take months before
publication is finally accepted
but constructive comments from experts in the field
can turn an ordinary paper into an excellent paper; the
peer review process is there to add value to your paper
eg. majority of academic journals, some conference
submissions

AVIA 3710 Aviation Research Methods

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Refereed vs Non-Refereed
Non-refereed reviewed by editors or board
not anonymous or independent
review process not as rigorous so non-refereed publications
not viewed as highly
eg. many book chapters, many conference proceedings,
magazine articles

AVIA 3710 Aviation Research Methods

Week 10

Ethics and publication

Safeguarding the anonymity of participants
de-identify participants

Authorship
sensitive issue in academia
contributions need to be recognised
best to sort out prior to starting research (or at least writing
the report)

Data ownership
who owns the data? eg., instrumented vehicle study
authorship needs to be agreed on before commencement of
project

AVIA 3710 Aviation Research Methods

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Where to Publish Research?

First step is to select a journal in which to publish
prior to writing - as journals have different
requirements
Aim for best journal in your field check impact factor
Need to consider research topic and theme of journal
as well as target audience
Also worth considering rejection rates, length of review
process and publication waiting lists
eg. some prestigious journals have high rejection rates and
very long waiting lists

AVIA 3710 Aviation Research Methods

Week 10

Publication Process
Can only submit paper to one journal at a time
Submit to chosen journal
Letter of notification
reject/accept/accept with changes

Revise & resubmit (or submit elsewhere if rejected)

Letter of notification
reject/accept/accept with changes

Revise & resubmit

Acceptance

AVIA 3710 Aviation Research Methods

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Reading and interpreting research

Critical appraisal is the process of carefully and
systematically examining research to judge its
trustworthiness, and its value and relevance in a
particular context.

AVIA 3710 Aviation Research Methods

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Critical appraisal of scientific literature

Checklist of points to consider:
* Adequacy of design of research and description
Provides background to proposed research
sufficient to justify the project?
Aims and objectives clearly stated?
Hypotheses and research questions clearly
specified?
IV and DV clearly stated?
Variables adequately operationalised?
Adequate description of the study design?

AVIA 3710 Aviation Research Methods

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Critical appraisal of scientific literature

* Research methods adequate?
Measures used appropriate with adequate
reliability/validity
Participants described: source, inclusion/exclusion
criteria, response rates and sample attrition rates?
Ethical issues considered
Consideration of power of study (type 1/type 2
error)
Statistical analysis appropriate and adequate
* Results clear and adequately reported

AVIA 3710 Aviation Research Methods

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Critical appraisal of scientific literature

* Discussion and conclusions from the results
Does discussion report results in terms of hypotheses
and relevant literature from introduction?
Are there limitations of the research and design?##
Are conclusions drawn justified by the results of the
study? ##
Can the results be generalised to other populations etc?
Are the implications of results discussed?
Who was the sponsor of the research any conflicts of
interest?
Is the data available for scrutiny and reanalysis?

AVIA 3710 Aviation Research Methods

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Critical appraisal of other* literature

Checklist of points to consider:
Author:
- Institution, educational background, relevant expertise
Institution:
- reputable, relevant expertise
Date of publication:
- Recency
Publication/Journal
- scholarly, scientific or popular media
* Can also apply to scientific literature

AVIA 3710 Aviation Research Methods

Critical appraisal of other literature

Is the information fact, opinion or propaganda?
Is the information valid and well-researched (any
references? Scientific or popular media?)
Is material presented objectively and impartially?

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AVIA 3710 Aviation Research Methods

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Research and establishing causality

How do we determine the causal relationship between
two factors, A B?
Correlation does not mean causation
If all the research on a subject is based on crosssectional studies or surveys, can we conclude that A
causes B?

AVIA 3710 Aviation Research Methods

Week 10

Research and establishing causality

How do we determine the causal relationship between
two factors, A B?
Correlation does not mean causation
If all the research on a subject is based on crosssectional studies or surveys, can we conclude that A
causes B?
NO.. Often it is just as likely B A
Unless there is other supporting evidence for the link.
Bradford Hill Criteria for Causation

AVIA 3710 Aviation Research Methods

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Establishing causality
Does exposure to cosmic rays cause cancer in flight
and cabin crew?

AVIA 3710 Aviation Research Methods

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Bradford Hill Criteria of Causation

1. Temporal relationship A must always precede B
argued to be the only essential criterion, although often cannot
be established in practice (eg., causes of health effects)

2. Strength of relationship as measured by statistical tests,

correlation suggests higher likelihood of relationship (not
necessarily causation though)

3. Dose-response relationship higher exposure increases

risk so is evidence for causal relationship (although lack of
dose-response doesnt imply relationship is not causal as may
depend on an exposure threshold before causation)

4. Consistency evidence of relationship is replicated in

different settings using different methods

AVIA 3710 Aviation Research Methods

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Bradford Hill Criteria of Causation

5. Plausibility requires some theoretical basis for suggestion a
causal relationship A B (although research disagreeing with
current theory is not necessarily false; may challenge the theory)

6. Consideration of Alternative explanations other or

alternative explanations should be able to be ruled out

7. Experiment - A B is demonstrated through an experiment

where A (and/or levels of A) is present or not and the effect on B
is investigated (often not possible with human participants)

8. Specificity only A causes B, but this is seen as the poorest

evidence for causality as often B can be caused by other factors.

9. Coherence the relationship should be compatible with

existing theory and knowledge (although research disagreeing
may not be false as for plausibility)

AVIA 3710 Aviation Research Methods

Week 10

Car colour and crash risk

Found odds of being
involved in injury crash
compared to white cars:
50% lower for silver
cars
Significantly higher risk
for brown, black and
green
What can you conclude??

Furness et al., (2003). Car colour and risk of car crash injury: population
based case control study, British Medical Journal, 327, 1455-1456.

AVIA 3710 Aviation Research Methods

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Car colour and crash risk

Found odds of being involved in
injury crash compared to white
cars:
50% lower for silver cars
Significantly higher risk for
brown, black and green
What can you conclude??
Authors concluded that:
increasing the proportion of silver cars could be an effective passive
strategy to reduce injury from car crashes
Other conclusions possible?
Furness et al., (2003). Car colour and risk of car crash injury: population
based case control study, British Medical Journal, 327, 1455-1456.

AVIA 3710 Aviation Research Methods

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Cosmic rays and health for flight/cabin crew

What evidence do we need to show that the link is
causal?

AVIA 3710 Aviation Research Methods

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Cosmic rays and health for flight/cabin crew

What evidence do we need to show that the link is
causal? eg.,
o Animal experiments show a link
o Cross-sectional studies of pilots/cabin crew show
higher incidence of cancer than the general population
o Cross-sectional studies of cancer in pilots/cabin crew
show expected relationships with exposure:
oThose who fly the most have higher risk
o those who fly higher altitudes have higher risk
o etc.....

AVIA 3710 Aviation Research Methods

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Austin Bradford Hill, The Environment and

Disease: Association or Causation?,
Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine, 58
(1965): 295-300.

AVIA 3710 Aviation Research Methods

Week 10

Tasks for Week 11

Prepare your presentations especially early presenters
Start studying for your exam on Friday 18th November
Presentations start next week - refer to presentation
schedule on Moodle