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The

Journal
OF

International

the

(Continuing

Vol. 12

relations

journal

of race

development)

1922

JANUARY,

No,

GREAT BRITAIN AND THE EASTERN QUESTION

J. Holland

By

Vere-Harmsworth
Professor
Rose,
Hon.
the University
of Cambridge,

in

History

of the State University of Nebraska

Amherst College
I. The

geographical
the

plicate
of the

early
into

trated

between

gap

the

poured

the

of

survey

Any

and

Geographical

and

factors

in the Balkan

issues

Slavs,

the

viz.,
Slavized

of these

failed

to force

however,
than a

few.

social
religious,
the
Christian
Yet,
did not

Background

Peninsula.

Two,

at least,

and the Greeks,

the Albanians
pene?
settlers,
the
that
land from the sea.
through
Then,
there
and the Black
the Carpathians
Sea,

last being
(the
with Roman
mingled
and civilization.
All
who,
more

and of

must
with
begin
problem
to com?
have tended
which

eastern

ethnic

Ethnic

of Naval
LL.D.

scruple

Croats,

Tartars),
and
settlers
were
their

eastern

The

and Bulgars
Serbs,
who
also the Rumans,
their
language
adopted

conquered
religion
question

by the Turks,
on
and customs
centers

in

the

created.
thus
political
antagonisms
war
at
when
among
themselves,
powers,
as a powerful
in the
to use the Turks
piece
and

game.

II. The
The
and

Origin

of

the

Eastern

Britain
Great
between
connection
important
was
eastern
in
when
the
Tsarina,
question
1791,
307

first
the

Question

THE JOURNALOF INTERNATIONALRELATIONS,VOL. 12, NO. 3

J. HOLLAND

308

II of Russia,

Catherine

the River

beyond
induce
his

began
he failed,
of Turkish

being
threaten

the

land

parliament

to
the younger,
sought
in their favor,
intervene

Pitt,
to

parliament
set bounds

to

to

seemed about to drive the Turks

Dniester,

the British

aim

ROSE

to Russian

ambitions

approaches
no interest

with

at

naval

base

from

India.

in view

Nelson

Suez
This

for
plan,
naval

of Britain's

the ulterior

in the East.
In
and

1798

Malta,

object of founding a

the purpose
of ousting
more
melodramatic
was

supremacy,

this

in the maintenance

taking
or of the balance
of power
authority
was
more
occasion
The
second
threatening.
after
the
Ionian
Isles
securing
Bonaparte,

captured Egypt,

which
In

to India.

the British
than

shorn

sound,
asunder
by

at the Battle of the Nile, and thereafter the British

took Malta,
of Amiens
1802)
and, at the treaty
(March,
Bona?
sought to restore the status quo in the Mediterranean.
immediate
of his oriental
schemes made
resumption
parte's
war
on
and
the eastern
peace
impossible;
largely
ensued,
question,

in May,

1803.

The British policy of maintaining

was

illustrated

Turco-Egyptian
joint intervention

at Navarino

the balance of power

of 1815.
settlement
by the European
in Greece
atrocities
about
brought
of the British,

French,

1827) which

(October,

On
Greek
people.
so far as concerned

and Russian

virtually

the
fleets

freed the

the Crimean War

hand,
a well-meant
the British
people,

the

But

other

was,
effort

to set Turkey on her feet again; but it failed, owing to the

incurable
ment.
Christians
consfield

bigotry
same
The

and

field

the Turkish

about

the

of European
in 1875-76,
Turkey
cabinet
the
unwisely
encouraged

the pressure
of the other
much
needed
securing
Ottoman

of

corruption
defects
brought

power

government,
the terms
gating

Powers

exerted

reforms.

in the Russo-Turkish
supported
imposed

After

Govern?

of the
risings
when
the Bea

Porte

to

resist

for the purpose

the
collapse

of
of

the Beacons

War,
succeeded
by Austria,
on
the
Russia
by
Porte,

in miti?
and

be

GREAT BRITAIN
came

AND THE EASTERN

with

jointly

responsible,

liberal treatment of Turkey.

the

309

QUESTION

other

for the

powers,

But the Porte again ignored

over the
in this matter,
and passed
obligations
massacres
of Christians
of the powers.
Several
protests
were
out by secret orders
carried
Hamid
of Sultan Abdul
its solemn

and

II;

the

unable

to

right

this

wrong.

grievous

III.

the Near

William

a new

1898

In

East.

II proceeded

Sultan

Abdul

the

and

Germany

In and after
in

were

powers

European

Hamid,

Eastern

to mould
began
of that year

influence

the

Question

autumn

to Constantinople,

fraternized with
to

and, proceeding
that he would

proclaimed
Damascus,
the
interests
of the Moslem

affairs
Kaiser

Jerusalem

and

champion
always
His
negotiations

peoples.

with the Porte resulted in the Bagdad Railway being begun

in 1903, its course being into Central Asia Minor and Cili
cia.

its

Avowedly,

but

cultural;

raison

in 1911 its literary

that

admitted

along
a blow might
extension,
cord, the Suez Canal.

Rohrbach,
Palestine
spinal
The

was

d'?tre

commercial

and

champion, Herr Paul

and that of its

its course,
at Britain's
be delivered

German
character
of this undertak?
predominantly
concessions
ing and the extensive
by Germany
acquired
on both sides of the line, had meanwhile
alarmed France
and
saw
in
Both
Russia.
their
interests
powers
important
the

Levant

for it was

petitors;
the

seriously

added

influence
at Bukharest

sovereigns
able situation
Minor,
nections,

for

by new

menaced

and

powerful

com?

clear that the Central Empires, with

gained
and

controlling

of German
presence
a
were
in
favor?
highly
Sofia,
Asia
the Balkan
Peninsula,
by

and Mesopotamia.
Syria,
no less than the through

the

Their
railway

con?
political
communications

then being forged, promised to lay at their feet the most

central and strategically important land in the Old World.

J. HOLLAND

310
These

considerations

ROSE
former

the

dulled

rivalries

between

in that quarter,
and the
for mutual
support.
together
and France
their
In April,
Britain
composed
1904, Great
the
Newfoundland
disputes
respecting
outstanding
Siam,
In August,
Cordiale.
the Entente
etc., and framed
fisheries,
came about.
Entente
1907, the Anglo-Russian
can be little doubt
that
fear of Austro-German
There

Great

Britain,
Powers

three

to these

Great
powers.
and
Suez Canal
felt

to draw

in the Near

supremacy
conduced

nervous

Russia

and Russia

France,
tended

harbor

for Russia

three

the
in

the

France

the

of her

overthrow

secure

to

that

the motives

and
ports;
Syrian
cherished
long
hopes
of her vast
southern
trade

with

trade

her

the

exits

or through
1907
the
the need
year
By
was
to ice-free
all the
ports
the Dardanelles

by

of Alexandretta.

more

of

agreements
important
her
Britain
interests
perceived
to be endangered;
Gulf
the Persian

the natural
of controlling
to western
whether
Europe
the

one

between

about

foresaw

was

East

access

the Russo-Japanese
War
(1904-05)
urgent
on the Pacific
of securing
such ports
had dashed her hopes
Great
Britain
found
coast
of Siberia.
Consequently,
in the Orient
to
conclude
her former
rivals
friendly
ready
because

were
to ripen
into alliances
which
destined
arrangements,
of Austro-German
hostilities
in 1914.
the pressure
under
such as fear of Germany's
Other motives,
rapidly
expanding
in bringing
the
their part
about
have
navy, must
played
formation
German

of

the

policy

to

but

ententes;
control

the

the Balkan

aim

of Austrian

Peninsula

and

and
the

contributed
towards
the new group?
East undoubtedly
new
more
The
became
of
the
pro?
powers.
alignment
ing
to
two
1908-11
nounced
in the years
owing
important
and Germany's
Austria's
annexation
of Bosnia,
events,
of predominant
acquisition
rights over the port of Alexan?

Near

dretta.

German

reorganization
over the Sublime

officers

also

of the Turkish
Porte,

strong

played

the

chief

and

British

in the
part
influence

after

the Turkish

army,
for a time

GREAT BRITAIN
revolution

of 1908,

Germany.
It is an open

AND THE EASTERN

gave

more

and more

before

during

the Balkan

War

way

secret

that,

311

QUESTION
that

of

of 1912,

Berlin expected the Turks to beat the Balkan Allies?Serbia,

and
Bulgaria
at the victory

Balkan

was

Greece?and
of

strife which

from Vienna,
and
ground,

profoundly
states.
But

the Christian

stirred up

some of the lost

to regain
were
left in a posi?
again

the Porte

entente

the

in 1913, probably

ensued

enabled

disappointed
the fratricidal

powers

tion of inferiority in Balkan politics.

Mr.

Morgenthau's
of the methods

some

Secrets

of the Bosphorus,
and Austria
Germany

book,

reveals

whereby
gained
at Constantinople.
Inter alia he describes
of the German
Liman
proceedings
general,
had been
to
who
sent from Berlin
in order

the upper hand

the high-handed
von

Sandars,
the Turkish
A
characteristic
army.
reorganize
episode
was
at an official dinner which
of the general
the behavior
that ambassador
in commem?
gave at the American
embassy
of Washington's
oration
resolved
birthday.
Morgenthau
to

invite

the

general,
of his seat

allocation

the

skilled

took

the

table.

advice

It

as

appeared

the
the

13. The guest, however,

number
took
an officia]
remonstrance
very
ill, and afterwards
on the ground
to Mr. Morgenthau
that the gen?
should have had precedence
over the ambassadors
and

Turkish

which

ministers.

revealed

Turkish

the

The

incident

claims

extravagant

one

was
of

of many
in

Germany

circles.
The

IV.

Eastern

and

Question

the

World

of Turkey
the growing
Undoubtedly,
dependence
the Central
to the outbreak
contributed
Empires
World
cause was
War.
Its proximate
the murder
Austrian
fanatics
time

to
that

chair was

appropriate
the affair
was made
eral

and
at

when

Archduke,
at Sarajevo
Germany's

Francis
in June,

by

Ferdinand,
1914,

preparations

which
for war

War
upon
of tue
of

the

two

pro-Serb
at a
occurred
had

attained

J. HOLLAND

312

unparalleled
to concern
the

that murder

completeness.
Outwardly
Austria
and Serbia alone.

eastern

In reality

in a way

and

question,

the Central

Not

ROSE

highly

seemed

it reopened
to
favorable

Empires.

only the military

success

promised

but also the diplomatic

to their

efforts.

was

Serbia

situation
and

isolated

to
and the other Balkan
seemed
States
likely
unpopular,
a friendly neutrality.
or to observe
join the Central
Empires

It is not generally known that on August

of alliance
with
treaty
binding
Germany,
a suitable
at
afford
armed
help
opportunity.
this alliance
skilfully
kept
secret, meanwhile

to
Turks

The

2, 1914, Turkey

a secret

signed
herself

Great
assuring
true
friends.

Britain

and

that

France

they

were

their

for
good,
doubtless,
none
Porte
the
the
ministers;
but,
less,
was
to break with
committed
the entente
powers.
secretly
affair
of
in
the
Great
especially
they,
Therefore,
Britain,
were
at a grave
the Goeben
and Breslau,
disadvantage.
to their ignorance
at Constanti?
of the real situation
Owing
some

This

statement

held

of the Turkish

nople, they played a waiting game which directly furthered

the

aims

The

of

the

evidence

Central

But
Empires.
in the Kautsky

revealed

this was

not

volumes

all.

proves

that, from June 28 until near the end of July, Kaiser William
was

on the Austrian
urging
in Balkan
affairs.1
He also

to vigorous
action
government
of
brushed
aside the objections
at Constantinople
to the formar

the Austrian
ambassador
tion of a Balkan
League
He

over

to win

time

further

take

the

every

and

was

warned
side

that

declared

rifle which

Constantine
King
Powers.
of the Central

ready
that

now

was

the

in the Balkans.
Greece

must

1
Kaut

of November,
after
the German
Revolution
Minister
sky, Foreign
to the
the despatches
of the German
Office
1918, caused
relating
Foreign
were
of war
to be published.
outbreak
edited
Montgelas
by Herren
They
on the dispatches
are
and
comments
The
Kaiser's
repro?
Sch?cking.
duced

in

Bulgaria
to
order
Dokumente

full.
and,
free

and
that
he
prove
Rumania,
Turkey,
They
expected
on Russia
war
in
and Serbia,
if possible,
to make
Greece
from Russian
influence.
the Balkans
forever
Kautsky,

des Weltkrieges,

Vol.

IV,

pp.

121,

133,

136,

162,

164.

AND THE EASTERN

GREAT BRITAIN

British

and French

July-August,
The
Turks

1914,
welcomed

diplomacy

to

hold
the

its

in the crisis of

failed,
own

German

313

QUESTION

on

the

Bosphorus.
Goeben
and

warships,

in the Bosphorus;
and neither
sought
refuge
were
sent after
French
them out of
warships
the supposed
of the Sublime
Porte.
neutrality

which

Breslau,
British

nor

for
regard
Near
the end

1914 that government

of October,
on Russian
harbors
sudden attacks

the mask
by
frontier
districts.
The entente
Egyptian
war.
of
declarations
The
by
rupture was

of the forward wing

to recover

Enver,
control

threw
and

powers
responded
due to the resolve

of the Turkish ministers,

especially

lost to Russia,
formerly
lost to Great Britain.
and Egypt

the

of Cyprus

off

on the

lands

and

the

British policy in the Near East during the crisis of July

August,
ing.
on the

1914, must
It was
caught

be pronounced
unawares
by

displayed
contrary,
on the victory
everything

The Turkish
her

unexpected
of the Central

attack on Russia

and

weak

unenterpris?

the Sublime

who,
Porte,
and staked

daring
Empires.

having all but sundered

her western

to help
it became
their duty
allies,
to be to force the
feasible
seemed
her; and the most
plan
a
to
and
the
Porte
peace
compel
by the threat
Dardanelles,
of bombarding
That
if successful,
Constantinople.
blow,
would
both paralyze
and
liberate
Russia
from the
Turkey
from

encircling policy skilfully prepared by the Central Empires.

The

blow missed
cost

enterprise

its mark,
the British

and

that

ill-starred

force

but

casualties.

117,000
it cost the Turks
of their best
about as many
theless,
and greatly
their
upon Russia's
pressure
lightened
casus
frontier.
the Gallipoli
After
the
venture,

glorious
Never?
troops
Cau?
Allies

sent troops to hold positions in front of Salonika.

I do
not intend to describe that campaign. The Allies finally
formed

long

front,

and

in the

their

sequel

efforts

were

justified; for, although there was a terrible loss of life, their

forces
Greek

prevented
harbors

Greece
and

islands

from
from

being

overrun

becoming

and
the

bases

saved
for

submarines.

German
to save

the

we

note

could

contingents
take part

furnished

which

scarcely

war

but

was

the Tigris

up

brought
for the oil

a failure

Indian

across

been

have

in the European

advance

of pro?

and

the Australian

that

the Turks by the arrival of the British

first

to

also

and
quarter,
means
the chief

power to the British fleet in the East Indies.

here

may

in that

interests

oil wells

viding motive
And

Allied

commercial

the

expedition
helped
Mediterranean.
vindicated
by the suc?

in the Eastern

policy was
of the autumn
of 1918.
advance
was sent to save
Gulf an expedition

Salonika

brilliant

in the Persian

Away
British

the Salonika

Thus,
situation

the naval

Ultimately
and
cessful

save

ROSE

J. HOLLAND

314

to

saved

from

expedition.

The

and

led to the sur?

render of about 8000 British and Indian troops?the

biggest

since
that at York
annals
military
run Britain
made
in the
town.
good;
long
However,
a
made
trium?
General
Maude
in
March,
1917,
for, early
in British

surrender

phant entry into Bagdad and saved that part of the world
from Turkish
also

We

influence.
the

attacked

we

Turks

to have

attacked

ought
Probably
at Alexandretta;
by a landing
that
step was not taken.
obscure,
Palestine
when
line
wait
the
front

an awkward

there was

was
Allenby
and captured
Allenby
line
Turkish

was

north

Allenby,
the Jordan

of

their

Palestine

their

communications

front.

for reasons
that
but,
In the direct advance
failure

are
on

at Gaza;

but, finally,
the Turkish
through
a long
Then
there ensued
a
to
deal
at
final
blow
preparing

appointed,
Jerusalem.

while

on

we

defense.

broke

on

The

Turks,
tenacious

50-mile

but
offered
of Nablus,
resistance;
on
as
to
attack
skilful
though
going
feints,
near
his
main
attack
the
coast.
made
side, finally

after

That attack, being helped by British and French gunboats

and

destroyers,

was

an

entire

success.

was able
Allenby
surprise.
and Indian
cavalry;
which,
the Turkish
almost
destroyed

The

taken by
Australian

to pour

men,

army.

along

Turks

were
his

through
the
with

air?

It made

no

AND THE EASTERN

GREAT BRITAIN

315

QUESTION

or Aleppo.
We
are, therefore,
near
of Allenby
that
in saying
the victory
warranted
the most
in September,
amongst
1918, was
Armageddon
it
the
broke
because
forever
of the world's
decisive
battles,
at Damascus

either

stand

Turkish

in Syria

power

Problems

Post-War

V.

and Asia Minor.

Eastern

the

and

of

Future

the

Question

What
is the upshot of the immense change brought
about by the Turkish collapse? In brief, it is this: The
bound?
have now received
of the Balkans
people
to their
in general,
aries which,
just claims.
correspond
do not content
them.
No
Of course,
the new boundaries

Christian

content

would

learn

that

you
to be

conceived

geographical
of a thorough
migrations,

to

left
a

take

neighbors,
to what
and

ethnic

the French

because
apparently,
there,
view.
somewhat
pro-Turkish

in Constantinople,
from the civilized
should

the

fact,

that

world,

to be good
satisfaction

that the Turk was left in Constantinople;

some British ministers

of Asia

interior

In

claims.

just

settle?
any
races have
to

do not admit
of those peoples
entanglements
from an extensive
series of
settlement
apart
or
I
think
it
voluntary
compulsory.
Again,

is a mistake
he was

get everything
down and try
not
received
have

to settle

that

in this

cannot

you

it is necessary
even
though
are

ever expected
history
Those
the Balkans.

of Balkan

student
ment

powers
Minor.

be more
who

Those

left

to argument
into the
driven

amenable

if he was

than

to use

not

began
is said,

that if the Turk was

thought

he would

it

Also,

but

if force

use

that

becomes

argument

necessary.
at Paris or at

scruple
force,
see signs of any action,
either
I do not myself
to
of
such an argument.
the
result
which
be
ought
London,
of abomi?
since the armistice,
The Turks
have been guilty,
nable
have
no

cruelties
not

yet

pressure

towards
received
has

been

the Greeks
punishment;
exercised.

and Armenians.
so far as we

and,
Discredit

ought

They
know,
to rest

J. HOLLAND ROSE

316

that argument,
after framing
who,
it.
upon
yet have
As regards Bulgaria,
and Rumania,
Serbia
they are in?
are on
in various
frontier
The
Greeks
volved
disputes.
those

upon

in authority
to act
failed

there is fighting going on there,

bad terms with Albania;

as also

in the parts
must
disputes

These

they will
that the

time,
view
will

assume

of Thrace

ceded

to Greece.

by Turkey

in course of
and, perhaps,
isolated,
for the
There
is some ground
down.
Balkan
elements
the
among
peoples

be

simmer
better

this to a certain

and rectify

the leadership

degree.

I heard an intelligent Serbian speak as follows: "We Serbs

hate the Bulgars because they tried to blot out the Serbian
name

and

race

by

our

destroying

etc.,

libraries,

but,

still,

we have to live with them." That is the sensible attitude;

and if only the Serbians wil adopt it, and if the Bulgars
likewise, more
be long
however,
act

cordial

relations

before

the

of 1913 and 1915-18

and

counsels

prevail
see why M.

I do not

die down.

foretold

that

the

Nevertheless,

if better

if prudent
statesmen
de Laveleye's
ideal

the

of the

solution

It must,
wars

may
develop.
aroused
by

That Belgian publicist visited

ized.
and

hatred

come
should

to the front,
not be real?

the Balkans
eastern

in 1885,

question

was

that all these peoples should be liberated and should form a

Christian
policy
ment

on

federation

and

fair

and probably
should,
of that desirable
end.

will,

British
terms.
friendly
to the attain?
be directed

there is the Armenian

The Armenians
question.
Again,
are
are a gifted
in
and
trade
race; they
expert
they
finance,
are easily
is the chief
the superiors
which
of the Turks,
reason why
the Turks
hate
them.
live in scattered
They
from Cilicia

territories,
During

the recent war,

on Mount
Ararat.
bordering
amillion
and a third Armenians

to lands
about

have been done to death by the Turks, and that process is

going
point,

on.
partly

government.

The

The

Turkish

seem

at this
to be impotent
set up a semi-independent
hav
Nationalists'
government,

great powers
the Turk
because

has

AND THE EASTERN

GREAT BRITAIN

317

QUESTION

ing its capital at Angora, is a potent factor in the politics

of Asia Minor; for although the civilized powers have tried
not

on

influence

to exert

the

government
the Nationalists.

over
any control
have been
the Greeks

exert

ever,

against
occur
for

fully,
may

yet they do
Of late, how?

Sultan's

the

Nationalist

the

civilized

for a time

and
warring,
Turks.
to

powers

An
intervene

success?

opportunity
and it

is

clique will be suppressed.

to be hoped that this Nationalist

of the civilized
that the consciousness
to be hoped
on in
now
to
aroused
the
horrors
nations
be
may
going
race
remnants
that
be
of
and
that
the
saved.
may
Armenia,
and Syria the outlook
In Palestine
prom?
is, on the whole,
It is also

Most
of the
ising.
to settle down under
that

land

extensive
to

south

the

from

on

of Cilicia

borders

the

Arab

Four-fifths
of the more

Zionists

statement

Balfour's

Mr.
has

been

set

have
and

quoted,

Britain

a national

home

has

some
and, yet,
to pre?
forth claims
as to the future
of

sometimes

said that the Allies were determined

become

she has

for Palestine.

task

extreme

dominance.
Palestine
should

and

north,
Great

city, Damascus.
as mandatory
of acting
of the population
is non-Jewish

the
occupied
the thankless

He

seem
to be inclined
of Syria
for
She acts as mandatory
on the
of the Jordan
the sources

peoples
France.

misquoted.

that Palestine

for the Jews,

but

he added

the qualifying clause that due regard should be paid to the

races

rights
Arabs

of other

hand,
much

the Arabs

and

friction

there

the Christian

also

have

has

taken

arisen

friendly
annoyed

that

these

terms.
with

two peoples
The

the French

On

claims very
ill, and
two peoples.
Finally,
in bringing
has succeeded
and
there
between
them,

the Jewish

between

the British
it seems,
government
a truce
like
about
something
is hope

the
of course,
the other

settled?meaning,
communities.
the

will

agree

to settle

Arabs,
however,
for taking Damascus.

are

down

on

exceedingly
The Arabs

did not of themselves drive the Turks from Damascus;

but they had done good work of a guerrilla kind in Allenby's

J. HOLLAND ROSE

318
and
campaign,
sure prize.
It
them.
However

they
thought
that
is likely

they

had

as

Damascus

were

then made

to

cus; and their anger fell equally on the British with

the

were

the Arabs

promises
be, and the affair is still obscure,
of Damas?
the French
occupation

that may
furious at

can be peaceably
dispute
adjusted,
which,
that affairs
in
is doubtful,
there is a fair chance
In that case there
and Syria will
settle
down.

If that

French.

of course,
Palestine
will be a possibility
in the Near
East

of

the

revival
as

such

never

and prosperity
of peace
in
has
been
known

times.

civilized

is the

Equally
bright
forth to be known

officially
the Emir

as

known

formerly

for Mesopotamia,
hence?
new
the
if
only
king,
Irak,
in
Feisal
succeeds
of Hedjaz,

outlook
as

of
under
the suzerainty
his rule at Bagdad
establishing
Great
Bedouins
and
Britain.
His
task in curbing
unruly
and
Persians
Bolsheviks
the
of
thwarting
intrigues
Turks,

will be a hard one; but all friends of progress will

that

this

lished

at

of an Arab

experiment
seat of the Khalifs,

interesting
the ancient

trust
estab?

kingdom,
be crowned
may

with success. With the attainment of political stability

will come the opportunity for developing the irrigation
works

on

the Turks
had
the Tigris
and Euphrates,
which
to that
to go to ruin.
allowed
will bring
land
Irrigation
a prosperity
it has not known
which
centuries.
during many
Not
in Mesopotamia,
but also in Palestine,
only
Syria,

Asia

Minor
and the Balkan
condition
lands, the necessary
narrow
for healthy
and
is the dying
down
of the
progress
intolerant
which has been the bane of our age.
Nationalism,
to all peoples,
Alike
it has been the
and
cramping
irritating
cause
of the World War.
And
has
fundamental
nowhere
its

influence

been

as

so noxious

in the Near

often intensified by religidUs bigotry,

race
Until
no

and

been

Nationalism
sure peace,

fruitful

the

and
and,

mother

bigotry

are

therefore,

no

East.

There,

it has set race against

of strife
exorcized,
continuous

and massacre.
there will

be

advance

of

AND THE EASTERN

GREAT BRITAIN

industry and civilization;

of

hunting-ground

319

QUESTION

but those lands will remain the

intriguing

and

politicians

vendors

of

arms.

record of the civilized

in regard to the Near
powers
is a sorry one.
That
of Great Britain
is in parts,
far
creditable.
In 1876-78
the Beaconsfield
Govern?
sinned against morality,
good sense, and statesmanship

The
East
from
ment

and

the Turk;
by supporting
minister
secured control
of

conscience

the

the means

whereby
were odious.

over

Cyprus
revolted
against
crimes completed

nation

and Abdul Hamid's

policy;
As has been shown above,
to protect,
then to exploit,

the resolve

that prime
But the

his

pro-Turkish
the conversion.

of Kaiser

first
William,
a
to
about
helped
Turkey,
bring
in
the
relations
the
of
change
complete
great powers.
Along
with
other developments
of German
it served
to end
policy,
the long rivalries
of Great Britain,
and
and
Russia
France,
to group those powers
in the ententes
of 1904 and 1907.
The
of the oriental
of the two kaisers
development
policies
cemented

those

due

War,
new

agreements;
in the last resort
clinched

phase,
alliances
of all
in October,

proclivities

1914,

finally

Turkish

ended,

at Westminster,

policy under
Beaconsfield.
Britain

The

the younger
Thanks
stumbled
was

not

the outbreak

to the
in one

them

time.

and

of the World

eastern

in its
question
of the vastest
and firmest

aggressive
once
for

which

action
all,

the

of the

Porte

pro-Turkish

had marked
Palmerston

Pitt, Wellington,
to the Turks
themselves,
on the right conclusion?that

British
and
Great
the

as a barrier

to be regarded
neces?
Empire
of British
rule in India,
but that
sary to the continuance
was to be found in the loyalty
true protection
of India
and

in the friendship of the peoples of the Near East who had

under

Turkish
misrule. When
similar convic?
at Paris and Rome,
there can and will arise a
prevail
new
and wider
aim at securing
which
will
the
entente,
welfare
of that long stricken
of
the
quarter
globe.
long
tions

groaned