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Training manual on land and water management

technologies
Technical Report January 2014
DOI: 10.13140/2.1.3076.3846

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Muhammad Ramzan Anser
Ayub Agricultural Research Institute
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Retrieved on: 11 September 2016

TRAINING MANUAL ON LAND &

WATER MANAGEMENT
TECHNOLOGIES
Muhammad Ramzan Anser, Bashir Hussain, Shahid Munir,
Syed Zia ul Hassan, M. Rafique Sajjad and Malik Ajmal Khan

Soil and Water Conservation Research Institute, Chakwal

13 km, Talagang Road, Chakwal, Punjab, Pakistan

Science for farmers & by the farmers

CONTENTS

Foreword
1.

Farm runoff harvesting structures/check dams for erosion

control and water harvesting on terraces

2.

Micro-catchment rainwater harvesting techniques for

profitable use of sloping/gullied lands to grow high value

crops
3.

High efficiency irrigation systems (drip and bubbler) to

ensure

water

saving

and

enhance

crop

12

water

productivity.
4.

Moisture conservation and crop yield improvement

through gypsum and green manuring

18

Science for farmers & by the farmers

Foreword
Land degradation is a serious constraint to increasing agricultural productivity in
rainfed areas of Punjab, Pakistan. Water erosion, the major cause of land degradation,
has already affected 1.9 m ha area in Punjab; major part of which lies in Pothwar tract.
The region mainly depends on rainfall for crop production, which is erratic resulting in
low crop yields. The runoff harvesting potential has been estimated to be around 3
MAF, part of which has been harvested in the form of small dams, mini dams and
ponds; but not being utilized efficiently. The eroded areas need sustainable
rehabilitation to ensure food security in the region. The long-term international
collaboration of SAWCRI with ICARDA (International Center for Agricultural
Research in the Dry Areas, Syria) has resulted in development of some environmental
friendly and cost-effective resource conservation technologies. The long-term research
data indicates that adoption of such technologies by farming communities can help to
achieve food security in the region and improve livelihood of rural communities on
sustainable basis.
Ensuring adequate food and water to all and achieving sustainable rural
development and livelihoods for current and future generations all hinge upon the
responsible management of natural resources. Resource conservation technologies are
tools empower farmers to increase crop water productivity and thus attain higher
incomes. I hope this manual which contains detailed methodologies and salient
features of conservation technologies would be useful for use by professionals of line
departments, NGOs and other field units in private and public sector and would
facilitate dissemination of the technologies to the end users.

Malik Ajmal Khan

January 19, 2014

Director,
SAWCRI, Chakwal

Science for farmers & by the farmers

1. FARM RUNOFF STRUCTURES/CHECK DAMS FOR EROSION CONTROL &

WATER HARVESTING ON TERRACES:
In Pothwar, the fields are usually not flat but various field terraces are situated at different elevation
levels (Fig 1). The major land use of such terraces is usually field crop production. Usually farmers
make earthen contour embankments to retain rainwater and conserve soil as the region receives
70% of annual rainfall during short monsoon season (July-Sep) as torrential showers which produce

substantial runoff.

Fig.1 Terraced cultivated lands in Pothwar

However, farmers reported that the runoff while moving from higher to lower fields causes
breaching of field embankments/bunds (Fig 2).

Fig.2 Breached terrace bund/embankment

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Science for farmers & by the farmers

The moving water not only takes with it top fertile soil but also essential nutrients and organic
carbon thereby reduces productive capacity of soils. The sediments are often deposited in
water reservoirs at downstream and greatly reduce their capacity and life. If the breached
bund is not repaired before next rainy season, it leads to formation of gullies and rendering
area out of plough, a great national loss. Crop yield on such eroded lands are poor and
livelihood of resource-poor farmers is affected adversely.
Conventional rehabilitation measures:
I.

Using tractor to repair breached bund:

The breached bund is repaired using tractor front blade. This involves cost (minimum
one tractor hour). It has been observed that the repaired bund point remains prone to
breaching during successive rainy seasons. In this way, farmers have to bear repair
cost continuously after each rainy season. On the average, seasonal cost varies from
1-3 tractor hours (Rs. 1300-3900).

II.

Installing masonry structures:

The department of Soil Conservation helps farmers by installing masonry structures
for soil conservation, however, these have been found costly and beyond the reach of
poor farmers.

After long-term research at farmers fields in Pothwar, multidisciplinary teams of

SAWCRI has standardized and evaluated loose stone structures as alternate solutions
adopting principal approach of Catch water where it drops and only allow surplus water
to dispose off safely. Design parameters and other detail is given below:
A. Design parameters:
a. Determination of discharge (Q): The discharge is calculated using Rational Formula

Q=CIA

[Eq.# 1]

Where
Q = Discharge (cfs)
[cfs = cubic foot per second]
C = Coefficient of runoff. [0.3=Light soil & slight slope; 0.4= Medium soil & medium slope;
0.5=Heavy soil and steep slope].

I = Intensity of rain fall (inches per hour)

A= Area in acres.
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Science for farmers & by the farmers

SAWCRI assumed Coefficient of runoff (C) as 0.4 and Rainfall intensity (I) as 4
inches per hour in designing loose stone structures in Pothwar as these figures were
considered representative for the area.
By putting these value in Rational Formula (Eq.# 1) we get:
Q = 0.4 x 4 x A

Q = 1.6A

(Eq. # 2)

With the help of Eq. # 2, one can easily determine discharge by knowing catchment
area of a structure.
For Example: If catchment area of a structure is 10 acres, Then, Q will be = 1.6 10 = 16 cfs.

b. Calculating breadth ( )of a structure

The breadth of structure can be determined using Weir Formula

Q=3.33BH1.5

or

B=Q/3.33H1.5

(Eq. # 3)

Where
B = Breadth/width of a structure (ft)
Q = Discharge (cfs). [ already calculated using Eq. # 2]
H = Height of side walls of a structure (ft)
Box 1.1: How to decide height of side walls (H) of a structure:
Height of side walls of a structure should be equal to height of field bund/embankment where
structure is to be installed. H normally ranges from 1.02.5 ft.
For different values of H, the H1.5 will be as under:
If H=1.0,
the value of H1.5 will be = (1.0)1.5 = 1.00
If H=1.5,
the value of H1.5 will be = (1.5)1.5 = 1.84
If H=2.0,
the value of H1.5 will be = (2.0)1.5 = 2.83
If H=2.5
the value of H1.5 will be = (2.5)1.5 = 3.95
We can also assume the breadth of a structure in Eq. #3 and determine height of side walls but field
experience shows that this practice is un-economical. To avoid calculations, field supervisors normally keep
breadth of a structure equal to the breadth of broken embankment, more quantity of dry stone is used, which

After deciding the height of side walls of a structure (Box 1.1), we can easily determine the

increases cost of a structure. This practice should be avoided.

Science for farmers & by the farmers

Example to calculate breadth of a structure using Eq. No.3:

If
Q = 16 cfs
[calculated using Eq. # 2, keeping area=10 acres]
H = 1.5 ft
[Equal to field embankment/bund]
Then,
Breadth of structure will be:

B=Q/3.33H1.5
B= 16/{3.33 (1.5)1.5}
B= 16/(3.33 1.84)
B= 2.6 feet

[from Box 1.1]

It means, the breadth of structure will be 2.6 ft

One can avoid above calculations and use graph (Fig 3), to determine breadth/width
of structure by knowing discharge (from Eq. # 2, (Q = 1.6 A), and assuming height of
walls of structure equal to height of his field bund.

Fig 3. Diagram to determine width of structure and height of wall

Examples to Elaborate Graph Usage:
Example 1:
Suppose using simplified formula (Q = 1.6A), you have determined Q = 20 cfs
Height (h) of walls will be 1.5 ft
The width of structure will be 4 ft;
Example 2:
Suppose you have determined Q = 60 cfs
The width of structure = 8.0 ft

Height (h) of walls will be 2.0 ft

Example 3:
Suppose you have determined: Q = 100 cfs Height (h) of walls will be 2.5 f
The width of structure will be 9 ft
t
4

Science for farmers & by the farmers

Fig 4 Cross-section of a loose stone structure

BOX 1.2: How to decide the type of structure: (Whether stone protection or cascade)
Stone protection is normally installed when natural slope exists and field to field drop either
does not exist or is lower. We need only to protect slope and allow safe disposal of surplus
runoff.

Cascade ( or ladder type) structure in generally installed when field to field drop
(fall) is higher and natural slope does not exits:

Other important considerations:

If facilities for topographic survey are not available, one can determine drainage point of
the area (where structure is to be installed) by observation and discussion with farmer.

The crest of structure is kept 6-9 inches raised from soil surface to encourage in situ
rainwater conservation.

While determining discharge for a downstream field, 3040% discharge from upstream
field should be added into it for effective performance.
5

Science for farmers & by the farmers

After completing installation of structure, the roots (along with soil) of grasses growing in
vicinity of structure should be planted or spread in the gaps between stones to encourage
grass growth. Natural grass acts as cementing agent.

Avoid installation of structure at the onset of monsoon season; dry stones require time to
settle. The Post-monsoon season is best time for installation of structures.

Advantages of loose stone structures:

1. Conserve land and retain rainwater in field for crop use.
2. Safely dispose off surplus rainwater to downstream fields (Runoff regulation).
3. Cheap, easy to construct and maintain. No cement or concrete is used. Naturally
growing grass acts as cementing agent. No repair cost. Structures are not fixed-type
rather flexible: automatic stone settlement on rodent burrows.
4. Crop yield improvement up to 20%.
5. Pay back period is 2-3 years.

Fig 5. Installation of a farm runoff structure in the field Fig 6. A loose stone structure in the field

Fig 7. Farm runoff harvesting loose stone structures installed to manage a

gully in a watershed. Note that structures are installed in zig zag pattern to
increase water flow path, reduce runoff velocity and encourage higher in situ
rainwater harvesting.
6

Science for farmers & by the farmers

2. MICRO-CATCHMENT RAINWATER HARVESTING:

In Pothwar, fruit plants such as olive, grapes, citrus etc. are being grown mostly in
round basins with supplemental irrigation employing different irrigations systems. The huge
cost of irrigation water and its application has been reported to reduce profitability of growing
such high value crops and considered a major constraint in their adoption by farmers with
limited water availability.
Micro-catchment rainwater harvesting techniques can help growers in this scenario. These
techniques harvest rainwater and make available to grow high value crops. Irrigation cost is
cut down to a great extent by adopting these techniques.
What is a micro-catchment?
Micro-catchment is a specially contoured area with slopes and berms designed to increase
runoff from rain, concentrate it in a planting area where it infiltrates and stored in the root
zone. The stored water remains available to plants for longer period and is protected from
evaporation.
What is water harvesting?
It is the process or technique of collecting and storing rainwater for future productive use.
Types:
Depending upon soil type, topography and slope of the land, different types of microcatchments are used: These may be
Rectangular or square shaped: This technique is used to harvest rainwater near
plant root zone on flat lands.

Fig 8: Rectangular microcatchments

Science for farmers & by the farmers

V-shaped or Negarim: This technique is used for rain water harvesting on sloping
lands with slope ranging from 0 to 5%.

Fig 9: V-Shaped micro-catchments

Semi-circle or half-moon terrace: This technique is used to harvest rainwater on

sloping lands with slope ranging between 5-10%.
Catch the water where it drops

Fig 10: Semi-circle microcatchments showing rainwater harvest

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Science for farmers & by the farmers

Designing of micro-catchments:
Micro-catchment works best on gentle slopes (ideally <5%). The catchment area (C) to
cultivated area (CA) area ratio should be 3:1. This ratio generally varies from 1:1 to 3:1.
Following formula may be used to calculate C/CA ratio:

( )

.
Runoff coefficient (Kc): it is the ratio between rainfall and runoff:
Kc =

All the rain is not converted into runoff, therefore, Runoff (mm) = kc Rainfall (mm).
Kc depends on catchment characteristics such as soil type, slope, vegetative cover/nature,
rainfall intensity, rainfall duration etc.
Runoff coefficient varies from 0.11.0, however, generally values from 0.1 0.5 are
adopted (as not ideal conditions, some leaching etc).
The canopy of a plant is normally assumed as the cultivated area.
The efficiency factor (K) takes into account the inefficiency of uneven distribution of
water within field as well as losses due to evaporation and deep percolation. Where the
cultivated/catchment area is leveled and smooth, the efficiency is higher. The efficiency
factor normally varies from 0.5 to 0.7.
Example to calculate C/CA:
Crop water requirement

= 525 mm

Design rainfall

= 350 mm

Runoff coefficient

= 0.4

Efficiency factor

= 0.6

Putting the values in above equation, we get

. .

=2

Therefore, catchment area should be double than cultivated area.

9

Science for farmers & by the farmers

Calculation of total catchment area:

After knowing C/CA ratio, next step is to calculate total catchment area. We need to know
canopy diameter or radius for this calculation.
Example:
a) Calculation of canopy or cultivated area:
C/CA
=2
Dia of canopy or cultivated area = 8ft [Radius =diameter/2 or 8/2 = 4ft]
Canopy or cultivated area of a = r2
circle
= 3.14 42
= 50 ft2
b) Calculation of total catchment area
Total Catchment area
= Canopy or cultivated area C/CA
= 50 2
= 100 ft2
Measurement of Micro catchment area and percent slope:
Use following formulae to calculate areas of different geometrical shapes:
1. Rectangular shape:

(Length x width )

L
W

2. Square shape:
(Length)2
b
3. Triangular shape
=1/2 ab
a
(a= length of perpendicular; b= base length) and then multiply with 2 to get area of V
shaped triangle.

Circular

Square

Rectangular

10

Square (with basin at center)

Science for farmers & by the farmers

Procedure to be followed in the field

Material: measuring tape, scale/ruler, note book, pencil, calculator, leveler
Step 1: Use measuring tap to measure the length and width of micro-catchment i.e.
square/rectangular/V-shaped.
Step 2: Measure the radius (r) or diameter (d) of canopy area.
Step 3: Measure slope by using following formula:

% Slope

x 100

Where:
H1: Lowest elevation point (base of plant)
H2: Highest elevation point (bottom of bund)
First take measurements of rectangular shaped catchment:
Length of catchment (L) in ft or m
Width of catchment (W) in ft or m
Suppose:
L = 20 ft; W = 20ft; r = 5 ft
Then: Total area of the catchment = L x W = 20 x 20 = 400 ft2
And canopy or cultivated area (CA) = r2 = 3.14 x 52 = 79 ft2
Therefore, catchment area (C) = Total area canopy or cultivated area (CA)
= 400 79 = 321 ft2
Therefore, C/CA = 321/79 = 4
That means catchment area is 4 times than the cultivated area

Slope:
Suppose
Elevation difference

= 4 inches

Distance between plant and bund

Putting these values in above equation, we get:
% Slope=

% Slope= 3.33

= 10 ft (or 120 inches)

x 100
[It means the developed micro-catchment with 3.33% slope].

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Science for farmers & by the farmers

3. HIGH EFFICIENCY IRRIGATION SYSTESMS:

Government of the Punjab have spent billions of rupees on development of numerous water
resources such as dug wells, surface ponds, mini dams and small dams in Pothwar to ensure
food security and uplift of agriculture in these areas. The stored rainwater is very precious
commodity as compared to irrigated areas and must be used for growing high value crops to
justify its investment instead of using it for wheat and other arable crops.
The long-term field experimentation in rainfed areas has identified Drip and Bubbler
techniques as high efficiency irrigation systems (more water saving) with better adoption
potential for these areas. Water saving through these techniques can help bring more area
under irrigation. The challenge is to demonstrate these techniques to interested growers and
facilitate them in adoption.
In drip irrigation system water is supplied to plant, drop by drop, through emitters
attached with drip pipe. The system is mainly used for newly planted fruit plants &
vegetables.

Fig 11: Drip line installed for supplemental irrigation to Guava plants.
In Bubbler irrigation system (Fig 12), bubbler showers water in plant basin in the form of
an umbrella. Bubbler irrigation is mostly used for mature fruit plants and for plant species
whose water requirement is higher.
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Science for farmers & by the farmers

Fig 12: Bubbler system installed for supplemental irrigation to olive plants.
Benefits:
No land leveling is required for water application through drip and bubbler.
Saves 60-70% of irrigation water. This can help bring more area under irrigated
agriculture.
Minimize fertilizer losses due to localized application and reduced leaching.
Lowers labor cost. Conventional irrigation system for fruit plants involves irrigation
through labour using plastic pipe, which is very costly.

Measurement of discharge:
Emitters/Drippers which are used in drip irrigation system have discharge of water 4-8 liters per
hour (lph) while bubblers have 4-10 liters per minute (lpm). The discharge can be increased or
decreased through drip emitter or bubbler. The discharge can be measured by placing a beaker or
bucket under an emitter/bubbler for one minute. It will give us the discharge per minute.
Multiply it by 60, to have discharge per hour. If more number of emitters is installed on drip line,
then multiply discharge by number of emitters to have total discharge for one plant.

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Science for farmers & by the farmers

How to calculate the material required to install drip in a given area:

a) How to calculate number of plants?

No. of plants =

Suppose area of field

Spacing between rows
Spacing between plants
Then

= 198 ft 220 ft = 43560 Sq.ft

= 20ft
= 20 ft

Number of plants

Determine length and

width of field, where
drip irrigation is to be
installed, using
measuring tape

= 109 plants

b) How to determine length of main line (2-3 inch dia)?

The length of main line will be equal to the distance between field and water source.
c) How to determine total length of drip line (13mm, 16mm) required for given
area:
First calculate the number of drip lines. If your main line is installed along length of
the field, then the calculation will be as under
Number of drip lines =

Number of drip lines =

= 11

The number of drip lines can also be determined in the same manner if main line is
installed along the width of the field
We know that length of one drip line is = 198 ft [width of field]
Number of drip lines
= 11
So the total length of drip line will be = 198 x 11 = 2178ft
d) How to determine number of drippers?
We know that total number of plants
= 109 (calculated above}
Total number of dripper required

= 109 x 2 = 218

14

Each plant requires two

drippers

Science for farmers & by the farmers

Parts of drip and bubbler irrigation system

Water source, overhead tank. Electric motor and diesel engine with pump.
Main line
Sub mainline
Fittings
Drip line 13mm,16mm
Drippers/emitters
Bubbler
GTO and GTO washel
Bubbler filter
Control valve for zoning

Fig 13: Main parts of drip and bubbler irrigation systems

Installation Procedure:
I.
II.
III.
IV.

Laydown the main line and connect with water source.

Connect drip lines with main line using clamp or GTO with washel with control valve
(1/2-3/4).
Two drippers should be fitted on drip line at each plant location in such a manner that one
dripper is fitted to the right and other to the left at of planta distance of 1ft.
Plug the end of each drip line.
The procedure for installation of bubbler system is similar as described for drip systesm
except that bubbler system requires installation of sub-mainline between two plant rows
as shown in Fig 16.
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Science for farmers & by the farmers

OPEN MAIN LINE

MAKE HOLE FOR GTO

FIT DRIP PIPE

FIT SANATERY FITTINGS

MAIN LINE ND SUB MAIN LINE

FIT GTO WASHEL

MAKE HOLE WITH NEEDLE

DRILL IN PIPE

FIT GTO

FIT DRIPPER

Fig 14: Step-wise procedure for installation of drip and bubbler irrigation systems

Field layout of drip and bubbler irrigation systems

Fig 15: Field layout for drip irrigation system

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Science for farmers & by the farmers

Fig 16: Field layout for bubbler irrigation system

System Cost:
Cost of the drip or bubbler irrigation system depends upon the plant to plant and row to row
distance and pumping source. On the average, cost of these systems varies from Rs 50,000
150,000 per acre. The payback period is around 2 years. The systems at farmers fields are
performing perfectly since last two years without filters. No chocking has been reported.
Other detail:
A. How to determine head loss:
The head loss may be calculated
using Hazzen William formula given below:

Where:
Hf is the frictional head loss (m)
K = 1.21 x 1010
Q is the pipeline discharge (lps)
C is the friction coefficient for pipe sections
D is the inside diameter (mm)
L is the pipeline length (m)
Le is the equivalent length of pipe and accessories

17

B. How to select a pump:

Select suitable pump using following
equation:
HP = Q x H/ (76 x Pump efficiency)
Where:
Q = Discharge/Flow rate (lph)
H = Total head required (m)

Science for farmers & by the farmers

4. MOISTURE CONSERVATION AND CROP YIELD IMPROVEMENT THROUGH

GYPSUM & GREEN MANURING
In rainfed areas, crop yields are low due to moisture stress. The successful crop
production depends on conservation of moisture. SAWCRI evaluated the role of gypsum and
green manuring for moisture conservation & crop yield improvement on normal/non-saline
rainfed areas and found 19 to 46% increase in crop yield. The salient features of these
technologies are narrated below:
a) Gypsum application methodology:
i.
Deep ploughing of field with Moldboard plough (Raja hal)
ii.

Broadcasting gypsum powder on soil surface @ 1 tonne per acre (20 bags). To
ensure uniform broadcasting 10 bags should be applied length wise and 10 bags
width wise.

iii.

Shallow cultivation using cultivator to mix gypsum into the soil and avoid blowing
with winds (Fig 17).

Fig: 17 A farmer mixing gypsum into the soil after broadcasting

The research data showed that gypsum should be applied at least two months before
sowing of winter and summer crops to allow it to improve soil structure and conserve
moisture in the soil profile for use by succeeding crop. On an average, the residual effect of
gypsum lasts for three years; therefore, gypsum should not be applied every year.

18

Science for farmers & by the farmers

Important considerations:

Gypsum is not applied as fertilizer; rather, fertilizer should be applied as per

recommendations of the agriculture department for each crop in the field where gypsum
was applied.

Gypsum is only recommended for normal soils and should not be applied in salt-affected
soils for moisture conservation.

b) GREEN MANURING
Any green/fresh plant material incorporated into the soil to improve its fertility &
consequently productivity is called as green manure. In long-term experiments, SAWCRI
evaluated the performance of various legume crops as green manure and found cowpea and
guar as suitable for rainfed areas. The experimental data indicated that guar was best cover
crop as well as green manure crop for low rainfall areas (<400 mm annual rainfall); and
cowpeas for medium and high rainfall areas.
Methodology:
After harvest of winter crop, sowing of guar/cowpeas should be completed up to
mid-June through broadcasting seed @ 20-24 kg per acre. In case of delay in monsoon
rains, dry sowing can be practiced and has been found effective.

Crop should be incorporated into the soil with moldboard plough (Fig 18) or rotavator by
mid-August to allow sufficient time (~2 months) for decomposition. Delay in
incorporation beyond mid-August leaves less moisture in the soil profile for succeeding
winter-season crop.

Fig:18 Incorporation of Cowpea crop with Moldboard plough

19

Science for farmers & by the farmers

Before sowing of winter crop, the green manure field should be given two shallow
cultivations with cultivator at early morning or evening to facilitate decomposition and
control weeds.

Sowing of winter crop should be done as per recommendations of the department.

Benefits:

Green manure crop completely covers soil surface (Fig 19) during summer season,
therefore, reduces the risk of water erosion during this period.

Fig: 19 Cowpea crop completely covering soil surface

Green manure crops fix N in the soil and therefore, improve soil fertility.

Green manuring improves infiltration rate in the soil and therefore, enhances in situ
rainwater harvesting.

The improvement in physical properties of soils helps conserve more soil moisture
which remains available to winter crop for relatively longer period of time and
results in good crop establishment. .

Green manuring helps to increases yield of succeeding crops up to 22%. The impact
of green manuring is mostly visible during 2nd year after incorporation.

20

Science for farmers & by the farmers

Ensuring adequate food and water to all and achieving sustainable rural development
and livelihoods for current and future generations all hinge upon the responsible
management of natural resources

PLEASE JOIN HANDS WITH SAWCRI

In empowering farming communities to rehabilitate watersheds &
improve livelihood in an eco-friendly manner through demonstration
and dissemination of resource conservation technologies

For queries and feedback, please feel free to contact:

Malik Ajmal Khan

Director,
Soil and Water Conservation
Research Institute, Chakwal
Phone: 0543 594488
Fax:
0543 594504
sawcri@gmail.com
www.facebook.com/sawcri
www.sawcri.org

Soil and Water Conservation Research Institute, Chakwal

13 km, Talagang Road, Chakwal, Punjab, Pakistan

21