Soil & Tillage Research 48 (1998) 2135

Axle load and tillage effects on soil physical properties and soybean
grain yield on a mollic ochraqualf in northwest Ohio
M.D. Flowers, R. Lal*
School of Natural Resources, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
Received 3 July 1997; accepted 4 February 1998

Abstract
Soil compaction due to vehicular trafc causes severe yield reductions on poorly-drained heavy-textured soils in northwest
Ohio. Therefore, effects of harvest trafc and tillage methods were studied on soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merc.] growth and
yield and soil physical properties of a clayey soil during the 1996 growing season. Three axle load treatments were imposed
with a single axle grain cart loaded with dry corn (Zea mays L.) grain to achieve a control (0 Mg), a half full cart (10 Mg) and
a full cart (20 Mg). Three tillage methods imposed as sub-plot treatments, consisted of no-till, chisel plow, and moldboard
plow. Temporal changes in soil water content, soil bulk density, aeration porosity, and oxygen diffusion rate were measured for
axle load and tillage treatments during the growing season and related to soybean yield. There were signicant temporal
changes in soil bulk density. Throughout the growing season, the soil bulk density values ranged from 1.21.6 Mg/m3
measured by the radiation method, and 1.61.75 Mg/m3 by the clod method. Soybean grain yield for the control treatment was
2.5 Mg/ha and was signicantly reduced by 9 and 19% for axle loads of 10 and 20 Mg, respectively. The highest yield of
2.5 Mg/ha was obtained for the no-till treatment, and chisel and moldboard plowing signicantly reduced soybean grain yield
by 9 and 14%, respectively. Soybean grain yield was signicantly correlated with soil bulk density, aeration porosity, the
interaction of oxygen diffusion rate (ODR) with aeration porosity and soil bulk density. # 1998 Elsevier Science B.V. All
rights reserved.
Keywords: Soil compaction; Soil physical properties; Axle load; Crop yield; Soil bulk density; Oxygen diffusion rate; Soil water content;
Aeration porosity; Soil degradation

1. Introduction
Compactioninduced soil degradation affects about
68 million hectares of land globally (Oldeman et al.,
1991). While the majority of this land is located in
Europe (33 million), Africa (18 million), and Asia (10
million), some areas of North America and other
*Corresponding author. Fax: 001 6142927432; e-mail:
rlal@magnus.acs.ohio-state.edu
0167-1987/98/$19.00 # 1998 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII S0167-1987(98)00095-6

continents are also prone to compaction and related

soil physical degradation (Soane and Van Ouwerkerk,
1994). The vast majority of soil compaction in modern
agriculture is due to vehicular trafc.
The trend in modern agriculture shows increase in
both the size and power of equipment, which allows
for more economical crop production by reducing
labor costs and increasing farm size (Oskoui and
Voorhees, 1991). Increase in size and capacity of
agricultural equipment have led to the development

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M.D. Flowers, R. Lal / Soil & Tillage Research 48 (1998) 2135

of combine harvesters that have up to 16 Mg load on

the front axle, tractors that weigh over 14 Mg, and
single axle grain carts that can carry 36 Mg of grain
load (Wood et al., 1993). Reichenberger (1990) stated
that a single axle grain cart may traverse 1380% of a
eld surface depending on the combine and cart size.
Field layout and harvesting procedure also inuence
the trafc pattern of a eld, which may include multiple passes of a single axle cart (Wood et al., 1993). A
consequence of the heavy equipment is the risk of soil
compaction with attendant effects on root growth,
crop yields, and environmental quality.
The measurement of soil bulk density (b) is an
important strategy when quantifying changes in soil
compactness due to vehicle trafc (Campbell, 1994).
Gameda et al. (1987) reported that axle loads of both
10 and 20 Mg signicantly increased b at depths
between 10 and 35 cm. Stewart and Vyn (1994)
showed that b at 510 cm depth increased by 0.09,
0.06, and 0.07 Mg/m3 for compacted chisel plow,
moldboard plow, and no-till treatments, respectively.
The increase in b may persist for many years after the
compaction event (Gameda et al., 1994). Etana and
Hakansson (1994) reported that a 10 Mg axle load
caused compaction to a depth of 50 cm and no alleviation was observed for layers deeper than 35 cm
even after 11 years without a high axle load treatment.
In a similar study Blake et al. (1976) reported that
compaction with a 2250 kg static wheel increased b
to 60 cm, and b remained signicantly high even 9
years after imposing the treatment.
Several researchers have reported that high axle
load treatments inuence crop yields. Riley (1994)
found that barley (Hordeum vulgare) yield was signicantly affected by an axle load of 26 Mg. Gameda
et al. (1994) reported that a 20 Mg axle load reduced
crop yield for 7 consecutive years. While several
researchers have shown a relationship between
changes in soil physical properties (including b)
induced by the axle load treatments, other scientists
did not observe a denite causeeffect relationship
(Gameda et al., 1994; Lal, 1996).
An experiment conducted by Lal (1996) showed
that high axle loads (10 and 20 Mg) on a single axle
grain cart signicantly decreased crop yields on a
heavy-textured Hoytville series soil in northwest
Ohio. Despite severe reductions in crop yield, b
monitored during the following summer did not

change signicantly due to the fall harvest trafc

(Lal, 1996). He hypothesized that the high axle loads
may have created poor soil aeration at critical stages of
crop growth which adversely affected grain yields.
The increase in b is often associated with a
decrease in crop yield (Lipiec et al., 1991; Riley,
1994; Schjonning and Rasmussen, 1994). Crops
grown in dense soils tend to have thick and shallow
root systems (Lipiec et al., 1991; Atwell, 1993).
Shallow rooting depth, thicker roots, and the restriction of air and water movement due to high b restrict
the plant's ability to absorb needed nutrients, water
and oxygen (Hillel, 1982).
The effects of soil compaction on aeration and crop
yield have been well documented (Asady and
Smucker, 1989; Stepniewski and Przywara, 1992;
Aust et al., 1995; Lal, 1996). Compacted soils have
reduced macropore space and low hydraulic conductivity, which lead to anaerobiosis and inuence seedling emergence, nutrient uptake, disease resistance,
and crop yield (Hanks and Thorp, 1956; Rothrock,
1992; Stepniewski and Przywara, 1992; and Aust et
al., 1995). Crop yields are reduced by soil compaction
due to increased resistance to root growth, and
decreases in water and nutrient use efciencies (Voorhees et al., 1985; Gameda et al., 1994; Riley, 1994;
Lal, 1996).
Several researchers have shown that ODR is correlated with crop growth (Lemon and Erickson, 1952).
Letey et al. (1964) reported that corn root growth was
possible only at ODR values equal to or greater than
17 mg/m2/s. They reported that an ODR value of
33 mg/m2/s was the critical value for optimal root
growth of most crops (Letey et al., 1964). Seedling
emergence of several crops is limited by ODR values
of less than 40 mg/m2/s. However, seedlings emergence of some crops may occur even at ODR values
as low as 8 mg/m2/s. Glinski and Stepniewski (1985)
reported that ODR lesser than 20 mg/m2/s decreased
yield of corn, and values lesser than 40 mg/m2/s may
inuence the yield of soybean. However, short periods
of low ODR or transient anaerobiosis may retard the
growth rate of some plants without negatively impacting grain or economic yield.
The quantication of soil physical properties (such
as b, aeration porosity, shrinkage rate, etc.) is often
difcult for clayey soils. The cracking that occurs in
these soils poses a major challenge to understanding

M.D. Flowers, R. Lal / Soil & Tillage Research 48 (1998) 2135

the dynamics of soil physical properties in relation to

crop growth throughout the growing season. Consequently, establishing the causeeffect relationship
between soil physical properties and crop growth
and yield remains a challenge. Therefore, this study
was conducted to identify soil physical factors responsible for low yields following high axle load trafc on
clayey soils.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Site
The experimental site is located at the Northwestern
Branch of the Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center (OARDC), near Hoytville, Ohio. The
soil at the site is Hoytville series (ne, illitic, mesic
Mollic Ochraqualf). The soil surface is clayey in
texture and contains 18.7, 42.4 and 38.9% sand, silt,
and clay respectively (Lal et al., 1989). The clay
fraction comprises 29% ne and 71% coarse clay
(Lal, 1996). The soil exhibits a high shrinkswell
capacity and low inltration rate. The soil develops
24 cm wide and 5080 cm deep cracks. The experimental site has a gentle slope of less than 1%.
Three axle load treatments were imposed on the
experimental plots using a single axle grain cart,
loaded with dry corn grain to achieve three axle load
treatments consisting of a control (0 Mg), a half full
cart (10 Mg), and a full cart (20 Mg). Three tillage
methods were imposed on the plots as sub-plot treatments, and included: no-till (NT), chisel plow (CP),
and moldboard plow (MP). The eld layout consisted
of a randomized complete block design with three
replications and with a sub-plot size of 46.5 m2
(15.253.05 m).
Axle load experiments at the site were initiated in
1987, and imposed every year in the fall from 1987
through 1989, and were again imposed at the site
during the fall of 1995 for this study. A soybean
wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) rotation was established
in 1989 on the plots. Soil moisture content was
monitored at the time of compaction and ranged from
3035%, slightly below the eld moisture capacity.
However, the soil showed trafc signs and wheel ruts
(24 cm deep) after the axle load treatments. To
ensure equal coverage the entire surface of the plots

23

was passed over with the grain cart in the fall during
early November.
Moldboard and chisel plowing were done for the
MP and CP treatments about one week after the axle
loads were applied. However, secondary tillage was
applied to these plots in the spring before planting. As
no primary or secondary tillage was needed, all NT
plots received no trafc related to any tillage operation. Measurements reported herein were made during
the spring and summer of 1996 while axle load treatments were imposed during the fall of 1995. Plots
were drilled (19 cm row spacing) with Conrad 94
soybean on June 1, 1996 at a rate of 350 000 seeds/
ha. Burndown for the NT plots was accomplished
using 2.4 l/ha of Roundup [(Glyphosphate N-(Phosophonomethyl) glycine)], 0.5% by volume non-ionic
surfactant, and 7.7 kg/11.8 l of ammonium sulfate.
Weed control for all plots was achieved by the use
of the post emergence herbicide Pursuit (2-[4,5-dihydro-4-methyl-4-(1-methylethyl)-5-oxo-1H-imidazol2-yl-5-ethyl-3-pyridinecarboxylic acid]), at a concentration of 0.3 l/ha, mixed with 2.4 l/ha of crop oil and
4.7 l/ha of 28% UAN (ureaammonium nitrate solution).
The mean monthly rainfall received during the
growing season was similar to the 40-year monthly
averages. However, sowing was delayed due to concentrated rainfall in late April and early May. Wet
conditions also existed at the site during the early
part of June. The month of August was extremely
dry with only 20 mm rainfall occurring in 4 storm
events (normal monthly average is 77 mm). The wet
conditions during the early growing season, and the
dry conditions during the later season may have
inuenced crop growth and yield, which were below
normal.
2.2. Soil physical properties
Soil water content measurements were made
throughout the growing season at random intervals.
The samples were taken randomly from the plots, and
analyzed using the gravimetric method and converted
to volumetric water contents by multiplying with the
specic gravity of the soil (Gardner, 1986). In addition, moisture measurements were taken by a neutron
thermalization technique once every month during
the growing season (Gardner, 1986) using a CPN

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M.D. Flowers, R. Lal / Soil & Tillage Research 48 (1998) 2135

MC-S-24 Stratigage.1 The b measurements were

obtained every month for June through September
1996 for four depths (010, 1020, 2030, and 30
40 cm) using a CPN MC-S-24 Stratigage. In addition,
b measurements were made on soil clods taken
randomly for 010, 1020, and 2030 cm depths
(Blake and Hartage, 1986). Aeration porosity ( fa)
was calculated by subtracting volumetric water content (g) from total porosity ( ft).
The ODR measurements were taken at three dates
(12th, 19th, and 25th of June) using a Jensen Instruments Oxygen Diffusion Ratemeter (Model # 90). The
data from 10 platinum microelectrodes were averaged
to determine the ODR for each plot. In addition, a
laboratory experiment was conducted to determine the
ODR under controlled soil moisture conditions. The
laboratory experiment included three replications of
soil cores (15.25 cm in diameter and 7.62 cm deep),
specically prepared using air-dried surface soil,
ground and passed through a 2.0 mm sieve. The cores
were then pressed to a b of 1.1 Mg/m3 using a
hydraulic press, and were saturated overnight by
wetting under tension. Soil cores were drained at
specic soil water suction using a combination of
tension table and pressure plate extractors (Klute,
1986). The ODR values were obtained for a range
of soil moisture contents and matric potentials.
2.3. Crop growth and yield
Crop stand was counted soon after emergence, and
grain yield was measured at harvest. A combine was
used to harvest the center rows of each plot. The grain
yield was calculated by dividing the grain weight by
the harvested area, and reported at 13% moisture
content.
All data were analyzed statistically using a randomized complete block design with three replications
using SAS software (SAS Institute, 1990). Regression
equations relating soil physical properties to grain
yield were generated using Minitab ver. 8.2 (Minitab
Inc., 1991), and signicance level was determined
using a procedure outlined by Steel and Torrie
(1980).
1

The use of this model is not an endorsement of the equipment,

but is listed to provide specific scientific details of the procedure
used.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Soil water content
Soil water content of the control treatment (0 Mg)
was signicantly higher than that of the axle load
treatments (10 and 20 Mg) during late June and early
July (Figs. 1 and 2). An axle load of 10 Mg reduced
soil water content by 13 and 6%, and an axle load of
20 Mg reduced soil water content by 10% for both
30th June and 16th July. These results are in contrast to
those of Sommer and Zach (1992) who reported for
another soil type that compacted soils had greater soil
water contents than uncompacted soils. Although
tillage plays an important role in the soil water regime
of some light-textured soils (Mielke et al., 1986;
Unger and Fulton, 1990), tillage methods did not
affect soil water content of this heavy-textured soil.
3.2. Soil bulk density
The magnitude of b was technique-dependent, and
ranged from 1.21.6 Mg/m3 by the radiation method
and 1.61.75 Mg/m3 by the clod method (Fig. 3). The
radiation technique, being an in situ method covering a
large volume including cracks, registered lower b
than that measured on clods which were obtained from
in between the cracks. The radiation-determined eld
b is important for assessing engineering uses of soil,
and the clod-determined b is important for assesing
agricultural uses. As plant roots also grow through the
soil matrix, the clod method gives a better assessment
of b that plant roots may experience.
The b measured by the radiation technique also
increased with time (LSD0.050.07), probably due to
soil shrinkage and consolidation (Fig. 3). The trend of
increasing b with time was also observed in the
subsoil horizons with the clod method (LSD0.05
0.07), possibly due to consolidation. The lack of
signicant temporal changes in the clod-determined
b in the surface layer, and the lower uctuations in b
of the subsoil are distinct advantages of the clod
method for this soil with a high shrinkswell capacity.
Temporal changes in b were also observed by Thurow
et al. (1993), who reported that b was signicantly
increased by vehicle trafc immediately after compaction, but did not observe any differences 6 months
later.

M.D. Flowers, R. Lal / Soil & Tillage Research 48 (1998) 2135

25

Fig. 1. Mean volumetric water contents and rainfall (upper) of the compaction treatments for 1996. Lower bars represent LSD values. NSnot
significant, *significant at the 5% level.

The fa computed from the radiation-determined b

showed that it was lesser than 0.10 at depths greater
than 20 cm during June and July (data not shown). As
one would expect, fa calculated from the clod-determined b showed a trend different that from the
radiation-determined values (Fig. 4). The fa values
were lower than those calculated using the radiation
technique, and were lesser than 10% during both June
and July for depths greater than 10 cm. Therefore,

poor aeration could have signicantly impacted crop

growth during this period in all treatments (Hillel,
1982). Also there were signicant temporal changes in
fa (LSD0.050.086) computed by both methods, probably due to uctuations in ft and soil water content.
When the soil was moist during June and July, poor
aeration may have limited root growth. Aeration was
apparently not a problem when soil water content was
low during August and September.

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M.D. Flowers, R. Lal / Soil & Tillage Research 48 (1998) 2135

Fig. 2. Mean volumetric water contents and rainfall (upper) of the tillage treatments for 1996. Lower bars represent LSD values. NSnot
significant, *significant at the 5% level.

3.3. Oxygen diffusion rate

The ODR values were generally low, and decreased
during periods of frequent rains in early June (Fig. 5),
because of its extreme sensitivity to soil water content
(Glinski and Stepniewski, 1985). The ODR ranged
from a low of 5 mg/m2/s at 15 cm depth to a high of
25 mg/m2/s at 5 cm depth. Compared to a threshold
value of 33 mg/m2/s for seedling emergence and
a limiting value of 40 mg/m2/s for soybean yield
(Glinski and Stepniewski, 1985), the ODR values
obtained in this soil were low for all treatments.

The ODR was not signicantly affected by the axle

load or tillage treatments except for June 12 at the
15 cm depth. An axle load of 0 Mg and the NT
treatments had signicantly higher ODR values than
the 10 and 20 Mg axle loads and the CP or MP
treatments. The ODR was signicantly correlated with
fa, and the fa required to maintain any ODR value
increased with increasing axle load (Figs. 6 and 7).
For example, the fa corresponding to an ODR of 20 mg/
m2/s at 5 cm depth was 0.15, 0.18, and 0.23 for 0, 10,
and 20 Mg axle loads respectively. Similarly, fa corresponding with an ODR of 20 mg/m2/s at 5 cm depth

M.D. Flowers, R. Lal / Soil & Tillage Research 48 (1998) 2135

27

Fig. 3. Mean soil bulk density values for the radiation method (stratigage) and the clod method (clod) at 010, 1020, and 2030 cm. Bars
represent LSD values. **Significant at the 1% level.

was 0.25, 0.18, and 0.11 for NT, CP, and MP treatments, respectively (Fig. 6).
The relationship between ODR and fa was different
at 15 cm than 5 cm depth (Figs. 6 and 7). The fa to
maintain an ODR of 20 mg/m2/s at 15 cm depth was
0.09, 0.10, and 0.14 for 0, 10, and 20 Mg axle loads,
respectively. In comparison the fa corresponding with
an ODR of 20 mg/m2/s at 15 cm depth was 0.11, 0.10,
and 0.14 for NT, CP, and MP treatments, respectively

(Fig. 7). These differences in fa required to maintain a

specic ODR among axle load and tillage treatments
are indicative of differences in soil structure.
3.4. Laboratory oxygen diffusion rate evaluation
The laboratory measurements showed that the ODR
at saturation (0.57) was 20 mg/m2/s (Fig. 8), compared with the eld ODR of 25 mg/m2/s corresponding

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M.D. Flowers, R. Lal / Soil & Tillage Research 48 (1998) 2135

Fig. 4. Mean aeration porosity at 010 cm depth for compaction (top) and tillage (bottom) treatments calculated using the clod method. Bars
represent LSD values. NSnot significant, *significant at the 5% level.

with 0.41. These contrasting ODRs in laboratory

versus eld measurements are probably due to differences in b. Soil cores had a b of 1.1 Mg/m3 compared with eld b ranging from 1.41.6 Mg/m3. In
general, ODR decreased exponentially with an increase in  from 0.320.58. Mean ODR was 80 mg/
m2/s at  of 0.35 and only 25 mg/m2/s at  of 0.55.

3.5. Crop performance

The highest crop stand of 37 plants/m2 was
observed for 0 and 10 Mg axle load treatments. The
20 Mg axle load signicantly decreased the crop
stand of soybean by 12%. Tillage methods had no
signicant effect on crop stand. In general, however,

M.D. Flowers, R. Lal / Soil & Tillage Research 48 (1998) 2135

29

Fig. 5. Compaction (top) and tillage (bottom) treatment effects on mean oxygen diffusion rate at 15 cm depth. Bars indicate LSD values.
NSnot significant, *significant at the 5% level.

NT treatment had lower stand than MP and CP treatments. The highest stand of 38 plants/m2 was observed
for the CP treatment. The reduction in crop stand by
the 20 Mg axle load may be due to poor aeration or
unfavorable water content at the soil surface that
delayed emergence.

Soybean grain yield was also signicantly affected

by the axle load and tillage treatments (Table 1). The
highest grain yield of 2.5 Mg/ha was obtained for
0 Mg axle load with NT and CP treatments. In comparison with the 0 Mg axle load, the axle loads of
10 and 20 Mg reduced grain yield by 9 and 19%,

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M.D. Flowers, R. Lal / Soil & Tillage Research 48 (1998) 2135

Fig. 6. Regressions for compaction (top) and tillage (bottom) mean aeration porosity and oxygen diffusion rate values at 5 cm depth.

respectively. In comparison with NT, the CP and MP

treatments reduced grain yields by 9 and 14%, respectively. Similar observations of a signicant reduction
in crop yield due to high axle loads have been reported
by others (Gameda et al., 1994; Riley, 1994; Lal,
1996). For the same soil, Lal (1996) reported soybean
grain yield reduction of 9 and 20% for axle loads of 10
and 20 Mg, respectively.

Soybean grain yield was signicantly and positively

correlated with ODR (Table 2). Similar observations
were reported by Glinski and Stepniewski (1985).
While several measurements for ODR were taken
over the growing cycle, the fact that ODR measured
on only one date was signicantly correlated with
grain yield indicates that it is only during critical
stages of crop growth that differences between axle

M.D. Flowers, R. Lal / Soil & Tillage Research 48 (1998) 2135

31

Fig. 7. Regressions for compaction (top) and tillage (bottom) mean aeration porosity and oxygen diffusion rate values at 15 cm depth.

load and tillage treatments affect crop yield through

reductions in ODR.
Regression equations in Table 2 show signicant
negative relationships between b (measured by both
techniques) and soybean grain yield. The magnitude
of correlation, however differed among measurement
techniques and soil depth. Further, correlation coefcients were signicant only during two time periods of

b measurements but for varying soil depths. These

data indicate that it was mainly during the seedling
stage of crop growth that b affected the crop yield.
There also existed a signicant correlation between
fa measured at 15 cm depth in June and soybean grain
yield (Table 2). In general, the soybean grain yield
decreased with an increase in fa, probably due to
drought stress and soil water decit. A signicant

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M.D. Flowers, R. Lal / Soil & Tillage Research 48 (1998) 2135

Fig. 8. Oxygen diffusion rates for 15 cm pressed cores.

M.D. Flowers, R. Lal / Soil & Tillage Research 48 (1998) 2135

33

Table 1
Soybean grain yield (13% moisture) and plant stand for 1996
Axle load (Mg)

0
10
20
Mean
LSD0.05
Compaction
Tillage
Compaction*tillage

Plant stand (plants/m2)

Soybean grain yield (Mg/ha)

NT

CP

MP

Mean

NT

CP

MP

Mean

36
42
30
34

40
37
36
38

36
39
32
36

37
37
33

2.6
2.4
2.4
2.5

2.6
2.2
2.1
2.3

2.3
2.2
2.0
2.2

2.5
2.3
2.1

4
NS
NS

0.2
0.2
NS

Table 2
Significant relationships between soybran grain yield and measured soil physical properties
Date

Depth (cm)

Equation

Correlation coefficient (R)

12 June
30 June
2 September
30 June
2 September
30 June
12 June
12 June
12 June
19 June
25 June
12 June
25 June

15
35
15
15
15
25
15
15
15
15
15
15
15

yield0.034(ODR)2.08
yield3.31(br)7.39
yield1.79(br)4.80
yield2.35(bc)6.22
yield1.53(bc)4.80
yield3.94(far)2.89
yield1.24(br)0.03(ODR)0.22
yield2.23(bc)0.04(ODR)1.69
yield2.87(far)0.03(ODR)2.56
yield3.74(far)0.01(ODR)2.80
yield3.83(far)0.01(ODR)2.77
yield2.69(fac)0.03(ODR)2.25
yield4.43(fac)0.01(ODR)2.31

0.51 b
0.42 a
0.43 a
0.40 a
0.38 a
0.50 b
0.55 a
0.56 b
0.61 b
0.50 a
0.52 a
0.59 a
0.51 a

ODROxygen diffusion rate, brsoil bulk density measured using the stratigage, bcsoil bulk density measured using the clod method,
faraeration porosity calculated from stratigage data, facaeration porosity calculated from cold data.
a
Significant at 5% level, b significant at 1% level.

correlation existed for only one sampling date and

depth, indicating once again the drastic effect of soil
physical properties only during critical stages of crop
growth.
Soybean grain yield was also affected by an interaction between fa and ODR (Table 2), and the magnitude of correlation differed among measurements
made at different growth stages (Table 2). Correlation
coefcients (r) between soil physical properties and
soybean grain yield were low: 0.50 with both ODR
and fa, and 0.41 with b. The multiple correlation (R2)
of grain yield with ODR and fa was 0.37. The fa
calculated from the radiation-determined b had a
relatively strong correlation with soybean grain yield
than ODR (due to its inclusion of air spaces between

soil clods), indicating that soil structure played an

important role in regulating soil air and water movement, and maybe was an important factor in determining the magnitude of soybean grain reduction due to
axle load and tillage treatments.
Due to the agronomic importance of these soils,
additional research is needed to address the following
issues:
1. A detailed study of the soil water balance,
especially during the early growing season.
2. Study of the dynamics of the pore size distribution
of the soil and its effect on the seedling growth, in
relation to axle load and tillage treatments.
3. Development of an index of soil structure and tilth.

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M.D. Flowers, R. Lal / Soil & Tillage Research 48 (1998) 2135

4. Frequent measurements of ODR to identify critical

limits during the seedling stage.
5. Establishment of a relationship between ODR and
aeration porosity for a wide range of soil bulk
density and soil water content values.
4. Conclusions
The data presented support the following conclusions:
1. The b, soil moisture retention, ODR, and fa of this
clayey soil measured during June through September were not signicantly affected by harvest
trafc load or tillage.
2. The fa and ODR may be appropriate indicators of
soil physical quality in relation to soybean grain
yield.
3. The clod method for determining b maybe more
appropriate for evaluating soil compaction on high
shrinkswell soils than other techniques.
4. Critical fa values for improving ODR increased
with axle load of harvest traffic.
5. Soybean grain yield was significantly reduced by 9
and 19% for axle loads of 10 and 20 Mg, respectively, compared with no axle load.
6. Soybean grain yield was significantly reduced by 9
and 14% for chisel and moldboard plowing respectively, compared to no-till.
7. Soybeans are extremely sensitive to suboptimal
soil physical conditions during the seedling stage
of growth.
Acknowledgements
Help received from Mr. P. Haudeshalt and staff of
the Northwestern Branch of OARDC in conducting
the eld experiment is gratefully acknowledged.
References
Asady, G.H., Smucker, A.J.M., 1989. Compaction and root
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