Energy Conversion and Management 116 (2016) 1831

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Energy Conversion and Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/enconman

Redesign of steam turbine rotor blades and rotor

packages Environmental analysis within systematic
eco-design approach
Jolanta Baran
Silesian University of Technology, Institute of Production Engineering, ul. Roosevelta 26, 41-800 Zabrze, Poland

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 9 September 2015
Accepted 23 February 2016
Available online 7 March 2016
Keywords:
Eco-design
Redesign
Steam turbine
Rotor blades
Life Cycle Assessment
Environmental analysis

a b s t r a c t
Eco-design of steam turbine blades could be one of the possibilities of decreasing the environmental
impact of energy systems based on turbines. The paper investigates the eco-design approach to elaboration of the rotor blades and packages. The purpose is to present the course of eco-design of the rotor
blades and the rotor packages taking account of eco-design assumptions, solutions and the concept itself.
The following eco-design variants of the rotor blades and the rotor packages are considered: elements of
the rotor blades made separately (baseline variant of the rotor blades); elements of the rotor blades made
of one piece of material; blades in packages made separately and welded (baseline variant of the rotor
packages); packages milled as integral elements. At the stage of detailed design, the Life Cycle
Assessment (LCA) is performed in relation to a functional unit the rotor blades and packages ready
for installation in a steam turbine, which is the stage of the turbine. The obtained results indicate that
eco-innovative solutions for the turbine blades and packages could be achieved through structural and
technological changes. Applying new solutions of the rotor blades may produce the following main benefits: 3.3% lower use of materials, 29.4% decrease in energy consumption at the manufacturing stage, 7.7%
decrease in the environmental impact in the life cycle. In relation to the rotor packages, the following
main benefits may be achieved: 20.5% lower use of materials, 25.0% decrease in energy consumption
at the production stage, 16.2% decrease in the environmental impact in the life cycle.
2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
1.1. Reasons for research and the solution novelty
Existing power plants are equipped with old, even 50-year-old
turbines, whose parts need to be repaired and/or replaced. The significance of the problem is illustrated by the quantitative scale
steam turbine plants remain the most common type of systems
used for combined production of electricity and heat [13], which
is often justified economically. It also has to be remembered that
steam turbines generally have a complex nature comprising multistage steam expansion to increase thermal efficiency [4].
This creates a potential for research aiming not only to achieve
higher efficiency but also to reduce the environmental impact of
energy generation systems [5,6]. In this context, this study fits in
sustainable power generation research related to analyses of
environmental aspects in numerous Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)

E-mail address: jolanta.baran@polsl.pl

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2016.02.067
0196-8904/ 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

studies that have been conducted for electricity generation systems, e.g. [710].
Blades are critical components of steam turbines and they are
susceptible to failure due to stresses arising primarily from centrifugal loads and bending forces related to the steam mass flow
[11]. Moreover, corrosion, leading to crack initiation and propagation, is an important failure mechanism in blades [12]. This means
a need to replace them during repair or overhaul works and may
necessitate redesign of the elements.
According to Shimoyama et al. [13], in order to design a highly
efficient steam turbine, it is essential to consider many design
objective functions regarding the fluid dynamic performance
(energy loss reduction, smooth guidance of working steam, etc.)
simultaneously. In addition, the steam turbine has a number of
geometric and topological variables (blade shape, number of
blades, number of stages, etc.) that also have to be taken into
account at the design stage at the same time [13].
This set of variables is extended in the eco-design approach
aiming to find eco-innovative solutions due to the application of
eco-design rules. Such an approach concerns the production,

J. Baran / Energy Conversion and Management 116 (2016) 1831

19

Nomenclature
AISI
CAD
CED
CNC
DALY
DUPLEX

American iron and steel institute

computer-aided design
Cumulative Energy Demand
computerized numerical control
Disability Adjusted Life Years
steels with a >16% content of chromium, a nickel
content of 46% and a molybdenum content of 1.53%
Ecoinvent Life Cycle Inventory database developed by the Swiss
Center for Life Cycle Inventories
ELCD
European reference Life Cycle Database established by
the European Commissions Joint Research Center
eq
equivalent
EUROFER European steel association
GHG
greenhouse gas
Idemat
database developed by the section for environmental
product development of the faculty of industrial design

assimilation or exploitation of a product, the production process,

service, management or business method that is novel to the
organization (developing or adopting it) and results, throughout
the product life cycle, in a reduction in the environmental risk,
pollution and other negative impacts of the use of resources
(including energy consumption) compared to relevant alternatives
[14,15].
The novelty of the solution proposed herein lies in the inclusion
of environmental aspects in the steam turbine blades design. This
is a challenge both to individual companies and to the power sector in general. On the organization scale, the search for and development of new design solutions is therefore supplemented with an
analysis of environmental parameters, which may be of interest to
customers. When it comes to issues related to power generation, it
has to be stated that many studies are undertaken to improve the
performance as well as the structural and technological parameters of the energy generation system components. This paper proposes a view of the power engineering system as a structure where
the life cycle characteristics may have an effective influence on the
improvement in the system environmental parameters. Such an
attitude of a systematic inclusion of environmental aspects in the
design of the turbine components such as the rotor blades and
packages is unique against the background of other research trends
and may contribute to an improvement in environmental parameters along the supply chain and better communication between the
chain links.
1.2. Eco-design implementation issues in the company
Eco-innovation is a function of many factors. It seems that the
decisive ones are the business aspects [15], but in practice the
design office efficiency is also very important. This concerns
methodological issues of the inclusion of environmental aspects
at different stages of the design process, the selection of ecodesign assistance tools and their use. This is the area where the
knowledge gap is identified. The gap may be eliminated through
a systematic approach to the analysis of environmental aspects
within eco-design. At the same time, it is necessary to overcome
a number of problems related to eco-design implementation.
First, Kaebernick et al. [16] state that adding environmental
aspects to the product design and development in terms of the life

engineering at the Delft University of Technology in the

Netherlands
IMPACT 2002+ IMPact assessment of chemical toxics impact
assessment methodology developed by the Swiss
Federal Institute of Technology
ISSF
International Stainless Steel Forum
LCA
Life Cycle Assessment
LCI
Life Cycle Inventory
LCIA
Life Cycle Impact Assessment
PDF
Potentially Disappeared Fraction
pers  y unit of normalized impact generated by a given number of persons during 1 year
PM2.5
particulate matter with a diameter of 2.5 lm or less
TEG
triethylene glycol
TIG
tungsten inert gas
v
version

cycle shows a new way of thinking that needs new tools and methods at each step of eco-design. In this context, a major challenge is
posed by the need to construct a structural framework that will be
used effectively in eco-design in a specific research area.
Moreover, in the selection of alternative design variants, environmental requirements should be considered as equal to other
criteria. The reason for that are the rising concerns over escalating
emissions, resource depletion and other environmental issues that
lead to an increased emphasis on the design and manufacture of
environmentally benign products [17,18].
As indicated by Stevels [19], there is disagreement between the
academic and practical approach to eco-design. A lot of eco-design
procedures and tools, in spite of their number and range of applications, are developed as theoretical methods not verified in industrial practice. Very often, due to their extreme complexity, lack of
knowledge and the fact that they are rather time-consuming, the
methods are not used by companies systematically [20].
Lofthouse [21] points to the role of industrial designers in
implementing eco-design assumptions because they have a real
influence on the product development in the early stages. That is
why their decisions are so significant. According to Lofthouse
[21], designers involved in eco-design look for information about
supporting the operational area of eco-design to help them to turn
ideas into reality.
Additionally, Vallet et al. [22] claim that environmental assessment, solution finding and strategy definition are the activities
which differentiate eco-design from design, and that environmental initial assessment and strategy definition are more heavily
influenced by eco-designers expertise than support from tools.
Confirmation of these claims can be found in the findings presented herein. The need to resolve the eco-design paradox is also
taken into account. According to the paradox, the chance of
improving a product in terms of its environmental impact
decreases as the eco-design process proceeds, i.e. the later the
analysis of environmental aspects is undertaken, the smaller the
chance to introduce essential changes in the environmental profile
[23].
The analysis presented in this paper takes account of the
aspects mentioned above. They are therefore the inspiration for a
systematic inclusion of environmental aspects in the steam turbine
blades design.

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J. Baran / Energy Conversion and Management 116 (2016) 1831

1.3. Eco-design in close-up

Eco-design of the rotor blades and the rotor packages was carried out using the procedure based on the phase-based model
according to the recommendations specified in the ISO/TR 14062
standard and presented in literature sources [2430].
The phase-based design model, according to its authors, may be
described using 4 phases [24,25]: (1) planning and clarifying the
task, (2) conceptual design, (3) embodiment design, and (4) detail
design. The phase of the task planning and clarifying relates to producing ideas that take account of the market needs, the company
itself, and the specification of requirements and relevant assumptions. In the conceptual design phase, the problems to solve are
identified, the functionality as well as the work and structure principles are determined and also the problem of technical and economic limitations is discussed. In the embodiment design phase,
the look of the product and its parts are initially determined and
the manufacture and assembly documentation is made. In the
detail design phase, the technical and the engineering process documentation is made. A similar division is made in the general
model of the process of the product design and development
including environmental aspects ISO/TR 14062 [26], but it is
extended to include the phase of testing the prototype, making it
on a commercial scale and launching into the market (considering
possible environmental declarations). The phase also includes
making a survey on the product.
A detailed morphology of eco-design phases based on the model
mentioned above is presented by Lewandowska and Kurczewski
[27]. The authors define an information flow where in the planning
phase requirements are formulated; in the conceptual design
phase tasks and variants are defined; in the detailed design phase
the activities specifying the eco-design object are carried out and
in the test phase the LCA is performed among other things.
Drawing on the phase-based approach model, Baran et al. [28]
propose an inclusion of the eco-design process in the structure to
create and elaborate eco-innovations. The following stages are distinguished within the model: (1) analysis of the market and competition, and assessment of the organization eco-innovative
potential, (2) planning of the eco-design process, (3) searching
for eco-innovative solutions, (4) development of the initial design,
(5) development of the detailed design, (6) design validation, (7a)
production of the eco-innovative product, (7b) launching the ecoinnovative product into the market, and (8) improvement of the
eco-innovation and searching for ideas for new solutions.
Summing up, it may be stated that the comprehensive character
of actions undertaken within the eco-design procedure is a factor
that makes it possible to achieve required improvements and
remove many barriers in eco-design implementation in industrial
practice.
As it has been shown, improvements are possible to achieve if
eco-design concerns the steam turbine rotor elements such as
the rotor blades and packages.
The significance of the proposed improvements depends on the
level of the eco-design process sophistication.
Stevels [19] describes four levels of sophistication of the ecodesign, from simple design modifications to a radical rethinking
of the product: (1) environmental improvement of the current product by making changes to the product specifications; (2) radical
redesign of the product in order to meet the same global functionality with similar technologies; (3) radical redesign using greener
technologies; and (4) radical rethinking of the product concept
and functionality.
In this study, redesign of the rotor blades and packages is
undertaken in relation to structural and technological aspects,
taking account of environmental criteria and based on the model

proposed in [28]. The activities related to individual stages are presented in Section 4.

1.4. Aim and scope of research

The aim of this paper is systematic identification and analysis of
eco-design solutions concerning the rotor blades and packages.
Based on specific technical requirements concerning redesign of
the rotor blades and packages, design variants are identified within
a systematic eco-design procedure. The environmental impact of
the variants is evaluated using the LCA. The eco-design procedure
elaboration draws on the phase-based model. All these elements
constitute an attempt to assist the process of eco-design of the
rotor blades and packages. The inclusion of environmental aspects
in the design process is the core of the study.
The aim will be achieved mainly through:
A systematic analysis of environmental determinants of the
design of the rotor blades and packages.
Determination of baseline variants and possible design
approaches.
Elaboration of eco-innovative solutions for the rotor blades and
rotor packages, taking account of their life cycle environmental
impact.
The Life Cycle Assessment of variants of the rotor blades and
packages.

2. Steam turbine rotor blades and packages

A turbine consists of expansive parts (nozzles and stators),
which are structurally connected to a stationary turbine casing
(the working medium thermal energy is converted to kinetic
energy), and the rotor blades, which take part in the conversion
of kinetic energy to mechanical energy [31].
The blade system consists mostly of the turbine stages set in a
series of subsequent units containing rings of expansive devices
and of the rotor blades. The turbine stage correct operation
depends on kinematics determining the direction and velocity of
the working medium flow through the blade cascade.
The rotor blades and packages are used in all types of turbines
in electric power stations and commercial and industrial heat and
power plants.
A typical turbine blade consists of an airfoil, a spacer and a
shroud (Fig. 1). The airfoil is a streamlined part guiding the steam
flow. The spacer, mounted on the turbine rotor, provides a proper
anchor to the blade and transmits the blade kinetic energy to the
rotor. The shroud is dampening element which reduces the vibrations occurring in the blade due to steam flowing through the
blades at a high pressure [32].
In the case of the rotor most loaded stages, blades are often
joined in packages. A package is understood as two blades joined
in the area of the shroud and the spacer. The package is integral
in structure with the shroud and the spacer.
This work compares structural solutions distinguishing
between blades with or without a spacer as well as between
welded or integral packages taking technological aspects into
account.
Because matters connected with the blade stage operation character do not affect the results of the research, it is not determined if
the blades are impulse- or reaction-type ones (this division is connected with the turbine type and does not have any influence on
the structure or the choice of material).

J. Baran / Energy Conversion and Management 116 (2016) 1831

Fig. 1. Blade elements (Autodesk Inventor 2013 model).

3. Methodology
The research works were carried out according to the procedure
described in the introduction section, comprising subsequent
stages of developing new solutions and taking account of environmental criteria: planning of the eco-design process, searching for
eco-innovative solutions, development of the initial design, development of the detailed design.
The following tools assisting eco-design were used checklist
and LCA.

21

3.2.2. Functional unit and reference flow

The functional unit was determined taking account of the fact
that blades are not autonomous but they are incorporated into
the turbine structure and operate as a part of the entire complex
system.
Based on that, a functional unit, referred to as a stage of the turbine, constitutes a series of the rotor blades and packages ready to
be installed in a steam turbine.
The reference flow, i.e. the measure of outputs from the processes in the product system necessary to fulfill the function
expressed by the functional unit, is in this analysis a quantitative
reference the average number of the rotor blades and packages
in a single turbine stage is 100 and 60, respectively.
All analyzed options relate to the functional unit defined above.
The blades, being structural variants, have the same dimensions.
The dimensions of an integral blade are the same as those of a
blade with a spacer (if made separately) 0.25  0.35  0.65 m.
The dimensions of welded packages are the same as those of milled
packages 0.59  0.73  0.93 m. The blades are characterized by
the same scope of use. Moreover, it is assumed that the variants
of blades and packages are characterized by the same time of operation within the steam turbine structure 100 thousand hours
(12 years) for the rotor blades and up to 40 thousand hours
(5 years) for the rotor packages. It should be noted that the
assumption about an identical life span of the presented variants
of the rotor blades and packages operating within the steam turbine structure is a simplification. Actually, welding blades by
means of the TIG method may cause local overheating of the material, which is especially unfavorable for the thin outlet edges of the
blade airfoil. Moreover, welding leads to permissible, sometimes
undetected, welding defects that later on may trigger cracking. It
may therefore be supposed that the variant that involves welding
will be characterized by a shorter life compared to the one where
welding is not applied.

3.1. Checklist
At the stage of identification of eco-design variants and of the
variants preliminary analysis related to the eco-design concept
specification, a checklist was used, where the eco-design variants
were assessed with respect to criteria representing eco-design targets. The assessment was made using a five-point scale, where the
lowest and the highest marks mean the least and the most desired
results, respectively. The assessment has a qualitative nature and is
based on rating points derived from the designers experience.
3.2. LCA methodology
In relation to the use of the Life Cycle Assessment to estimate
the environmental impact of the eco-design solution, certain
assumptions are presented. The assessment is made using the
SimaPro Analyst 8.0.2 package, developed by PR Sustainability,
the Netherlands, with embedded databases.
The Life Cycle Assessment was carried out according to the recommendations specified in the PN-EN ISO 14040:2009 [33] and the
PN-EN ISO 14044:2009 [34] standards. The analysis was conducted
according to four standard steps: the goal and scope definition, Life
Cycle Inventory (LCI), Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA),
interpretation.
3.2.1. Goal of analysis
The Life Cycle Assessment goal is to determine the environmental impact of analyzed design variants of the rotor blades and the
rotor packages for their comparison.
The results of the analysis are used in eco-design of the rotor
blades and packages.

3.2.3. System boundaries

In the presented research, a cradle-to-grave analysis is performed, i.e. the analysis concerns all stages of the life cycle, ranging
from steel production using raw materials through the making of
blades and their assembly in the turbine, disassembly, to waste
management.
The LCA offers a chance to identify the best variant in the context of adopted assumptions and the research aim.
The range is common for all analyzed variants. Fig. 2 shows the
system boundary with determination of its steps of the life cycle
considered in the research.
3.2.4. Sources of data
For the design variants the Life Cycle Inventory was developed.
The site-specific data (primary data) were used referring to used
materials, energy consumption, water consumption, other materials consumption as well as airborne and waterborne emissions.
They relate to the manufacturing phase as well as to assembly
and disassembly. Secondary data come from the Ecoinvent v3
and ELCD databases. This concerns the data associated with the
raw materials acquisition and steel manufacturing, as well as the
data on waste management.
3.2.5. LCIA methodology
The analysis was performed using the LCIA method IMPACT
2002+ providing a combined midpoint and damage approach, linking all types of the Life Cycle Inventory results (elementary flows
and other interventions) via midpoint categories to four damage
categories: human health, ecosystem quality, climate change, and
resources [35].

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J. Baran / Energy Conversion and Management 116 (2016) 1831

Table 1
Normalization factors for IMPACT 2002+ (version 2.1) [36].
Damage categories

Normalization factor

Unit

Human health
Ecosystem quality
Climate change
Resources

0.0071
13,700
9950
152,000

DALY/point
PDF  m2  y/point
kg CO2 into air/point
MJ/point

ecosystem quality, climate change and resources. Estimating the

impact on human health, results expressed in Disability Adjusted
Life Years (DALY) are obtained. In relation to Ecosystem Quality
the Potentially Disappeared Fraction (PDF) of species over a certain
amount of m2 during a certain year is used. Climate Change is
expressed in kg of CO2. With regard to the resources depletion
quantitative measurement is used MJ of surplus energy. The normalization is performed by dividing the impact (at damage categories) by respective normalization factors (see Table 1) [37].
The unit of all normalized characterization factors is the impact
caused by emission that is equivalent to the impact generated by a
given number of persons during 1 year [pers  y] [36].
Cumulative Energy Demand CED is an impact-assessment
method used for steel comparison as a measure of consumption
of non-renewable fossil resources, non-renewable nuclear
resources, renewable biomass, renewable wind, solar and geothermal resources and renewable water resources; it is expressed in MJ
[35].

4. Results and discussion

E energy, RM raw materials, M materials,

Em emissions, W waste
Fig. 2. System boundaries.

The characterization results at the midpoint level and normalized results at the damage level are presented. The midpoint categories considered in the study are as follows [36]:
Human toxicity that represents effects on human health carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic. As the reference substance is
chloroethylene the midpoint characterization factors are
expressed in kg of chloroethylene (kg C2H3Cl eq) emitted into
air.
Respiratory effects caused by inorganic substances expressed in
kg of PM2.5 eq.
Terrestrial ecotoxicity expressed in kg of triethylene glycol TEG
emitted into the soil.
Global warming expressed in kg of CO2 eq.
Non-renewable energy expressed in MJ of total primary nonrenewable energy per unit extracted (kg or m3) nonrenewable resources.
Mineral extraction expressed in MJ of surplus energy per kg of
extracted minerals.
In order to compare the characterization results obtained for
individual design variants, normalization is used in this work. It
is carried out in relation to the damage categories representing
all midpoint categories divided into four groups: human health,

The potential for inclusion of environmental aspects in design is

the highest at the initial stages of eco-design [38], so most opportunities to include environmental aspects arise during the planning
of the eco-design process, searching for eco-innovative solutions
and developing the initial design, when the initial draft and solution models are created. Table 2 shows eco-design stages whose
results determine successive stages of design the constructional
process taking environmental aspects into account.
Table 2 also shows the results of subsequent steps and main
activities undertaken in eco-design of the rotor blades and
packages.
4.1. Eco-design assumptions
4.1.1. Definition of technical requirements
The aim of eco-design of the rotor blades and the rotor packages
is to elaborate design solutions taking environmental aspects in
the design approach into account.
Formulating design assumptions, basic technical requirements
concerning work parameters, geometric and structural parameters,
material selection, technology, assembly and also environmental
parameters were defined.
Work parameters:
Eco-design of the rotor blades and packages is carried out,
which creates rotating cascades of the turbine rims. Energy conversion at individual stages of the turbine is conditioned by the
kinematics of each stage, and that depends among others on
geometric parameters of blades.
The turbine rotor is a unit where blades are assembled on its
rim so they are parts connected to each other, which must be
taken into account during construction.
The rotor operates at a high speed, in high temperature, and in a
high-pressure environment. Thermal stress must be considered
in the steam turbine fatigue design and life prediction [39].

J. Baran / Energy Conversion and Management 116 (2016) 1831

23

Table 2
Eco-design stages.
Eco-design and development stage

Result

Planning of the eco-design process

Eco-design
assumptions

Searching for eco-innovative solutions and

development of the initial design

Eco-design
concept

Development of a detailed design

Eco-design
solution

Activities related to environmental aspects

Definition of technical requirements

Definition of unit processes of the baseline variants
Elaboration of models of the rotor blade and package
Identification of environmental aspects related to the blades manufacturing
Definition of eco-design approaches and ideas
Definition of eco-design targets
Definition of eco-design tasks and implications
Identification of eco-design variants and initial analysis of variants
Characteristics of B2 (elements of blades are made of one piece of material) and P2
(packages milled as integral elements) variants (see Sections 4.2.4 and 4.3.1)
LCI inventory development
Environmental analysis
Verification of eco-design assumptions and targets

Geometric and structural parameters:

Geometric parameters of the rotor blades and the rotor packages are overriding parameters of design.
As stated in Section 2, the rotor blade consists of three parts: the
airfoil, the spacer and the shroud. The shroud may be integral
with the blade or it may be a separate element mounted
between the blades [32].
In the described example, a package consists of two blades
joined in the area of the shroud and the spacer.
The structure of the rotor blade and the rotor package is determined by stresses, vibrations, and linear expansion appearing
during work at control stages of the turbine of medium and high
power.
During design, among others, engineering resistance parameters which affect the shape and face area of the airfoil are taken
into account. It is important to elaborate a blade profile for
which the smallest losses in the process of the working medium
energy conversion are generated.
A 3D-CAD model is made in the initial phase of structure and
technology elaboration.

Technology:
In defining the technological aspects taken into account in the
design process, the following processes are considered: milling,
welding, heat treatment, polishing, grinding and special processes (such as coating, edge hardening, stelliting, shot
peening).
Assembly in the turbine:
Selection of appropriate tolerances, assuming assembly allowances and a way of their removal are taken into account.
Environmental parameters:
A reduction in the environmental impact of the process of the
rotor blade and the rotor package production involves structural and technological aspects.
The search for solutions that may result in a decrease in the
environmental impact of blades depends primarily on whether
the conditions described above are met.

Material selection:
In the selection of materials, parameters such as mechanical
strength, heat resistance, impact strength, toughness, weldability and linear expansion are taken into account.
The main requirement for stainless steels is that they should be
corrosion-resistant for a specified application or environment.
The selection of a particular type and grade of stainless steel
must meet the corrosion-resistance requirements. Additional
mechanical or physical properties may also need to be considered to achieve the overall service performance requirements.

4.1.2. Definition of the unit processes of the baseline variants

According to the requirements specified in the ISO 14040 [33]
standard, the product life cycle is created as a product system consisting of unit processes. With respect to this requirement, unit
processes were determined in the range of the production process
of the rotor blades and packages in so far realized variants being
baseline options (blades and spacers are made as separate parts;
welded packages) (Table 3). The proposed new solutions will be
compared to them.

Table 3
Manufacturing processes of the baseline variants of the rotor blades and packages.
Rotor blades
Airfoil
Material preparation for milling on a CNC machine consisting in
bar cutting and milling for a specified dimension
Blade milling according to the model and technological and construction
documentation
Grinding of airfoils
Maintenance and packaging
Spacer
Material preparation for milling on a CNC machine consisting in
bar cutting and milling for a specified dimension
Spacer milling according to the model and technological and construction
documentation
Maintenance and packaging

Rotor packages
Material preparation for milling on a CNC machine consisting in bar
cutting and milling for a specified dimension
Blade milling according to the model and technological and construction
documentation
Grinding of airfoils
Additional processing, fitting and matching blades in preparation for welding
Welding including blade heating
Thermal treatment
Milling
Polishing
Maintenance and packaging

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J. Baran / Energy Conversion and Management 116 (2016) 1831

The main blade manufacturing process (for both elements the

airfoil and the spacer) is blade milling according to the model and
technological and construction documentation. In the case of the
rotor packages, the blade milling is also the main process, but additionally two blades originally made as integral elements must be
welded together.

4.1.3. Elaboration of models of the rotor blade and the rotor package
Fulfilling the conditions discussed above determines the structural form of the solution that may be presented as the model of
the rotor blade B1 (Fig. 3) and the rotor package P1 (Fig. 4).

4.1.4. Identification of environmental aspects related to the blade

manufacturing
Being aware that it is possible to improve the product life cycle
may provide essential motivation for eco-design implementation.
Table 4 shows the environmental aspects related to the production
of blades as environmental inputs and outputs. There are also real
and potential problems connected to the performance of manufacturing operations from the practitioners perspective. All these
aspects may be catalysts for the search for changes.
Designers report problems related to milling and welding processes as well as to thermal treatment. The problems can be minimized by limiting the operations or replacing them with other
treatment methods (e.g. electro erosion machining). The potential
of the novel 3D printing technology is worth mentioning, as it
marks a revolutionary change in the design and manufacture of
products, including turbine elements [40]. The method is not used
for the purposes of the analysis presented herein, but issues related
to 3D printing should definitely become the direction of future
research.
4.2. Eco-design concept

B1

4.2.1. Definition of eco-design approaches and ideas

The design concept elaboration was started with determination
of the relevant eco-design approaches and eco-design ideas for the
rotor blades and the rotor packages (Table 5).
The eco-design approaches and ideas can be assigned to two
groups: approaches that can be realized with the direct influence
of the manufacturer and approaches that require cooperation in
the supply chain. In this study the first group is selected for further
development.

B2

Fig. 3. 3D model of the rotor blade.

4.2.2. Definition of eco-design targets

The preliminary analysis of eco-design ideas in relation to the
eco-design object makes it possible to distinguish areas of
improvements which are specified by formulating four ecodesign general targets:
1.
2.
3.
4.

P1

P2

Fig. 4. 3D model of the rotor package.

A reduction in the consumption of input materials.

Use of steel with a high end-of-life recycling rate.
A decrease in energy consumption at the manufacturing stage.
A decrease in the environmental impact in the life cycle.

Lower consumption of steel and energy and a reduction in the

environmental impact in the life cycle (targets 1, 3, 4) are related
to the process of manufacture determined at the stage of choosing
the way of treatment. At this stage, the knowledge about environmental aspects and the environmental influence of technological

Table 4
Characteristics of the manufacturing operations and environmental inputs and outputs of the baseline variants of the rotor blades and the rotor packages.
Process

Description

Milling

Obtaining proper shape of airfoil

and spacer of the input material
(steel bar)

Welding TIG

Welding of packages using

welding equipment

Thermal treatment

Unification the structure of the

material and elimination of
stresses
Purification after welding

Polishing

Real and potential problems practitioners

perspective
Need to use structurally advanced cutters
Increased electricity consumption during precision operations
Need to match two blades to each other
Need for additional instrumentation
Structural changes in material
Additional CNC machining in order to perform
welding phases deformations arising from
thermal stress
Need for allowances for finishing treatment
Deformations arising from thermal stress
Need for allowances for finishing treatment

Environmental inputs and outputs

Electricity consumption, coolant consumption
(cleaning, filtration, exchange), cutters, carbides for
tools, waste, dust

Welding wire, electricity consumption, welding gas

emission

Electricity consumption

Electricity consumption, dust

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J. Baran / Energy Conversion and Management 116 (2016) 1831

Table 5
Eco-design approaches and ideas for blades.
Eco-design approaches
Material efficiency improvement

Eco-design ideas for the rotor blades and rotor packages

Minimization of materials consumption
Use of materials with lower environmental impact

Durability increase

Use of recycled materials

Consideration of total energy consumption in the product entire life
cycle
Use of energy sources with low environmental impact
Use of energy from renewable sources
Avoiding the use of hazardous operating and auxiliary materials
Use of a systemic comprehensive approach in order to avoid making
decisions based on a single environmental criterion
Consideration of the product long lifetime

Design for reuse, recovery and

recycling

Consideration of environmental improvements resulting from new

technologies
Consideration of the possibility of easy disassembly
Use of recyclable materials

Energy efficiency improvement

Design for cleaner production

and use

Selection of structural variants with lower consumption of

steel
Use of steel with the lowest environmental impact
Cooperation with suppliers of materials in the reduction
in the environmental impact
Use of steel with a high end-of-life recycling rate
Minimization of energy consumption at different stages of
life cycle
Use of energy sources with less environmental impact
compared to other and conventional sources
Improvement in environmental parameters in the range
of production and using phases
Looking for the optimal structural solution taking into
account failures reduction
Looking for the optimal structural and technological
solution
Improving the product structure
Using recyclable steel as main raw material for steel
production

Table 6
Eco-design targets, tasks and implications.
Eco-design targets

Eco-design tasks

Tasks implications

Achieving lower consumption of input

materials
Use of steel with high end-of-life
recycling rate
Decrease in energy consumption at the
manufacturing stage
Decrease in environmental impact in
the life cycle

Selection of technology that guarantees lower

consumption of material
Taking recycling of blades into account

Possible to be taken into account at the stage of design

Selection of technology that guarantees lower

consumption of energy
Selection of technology that guarantees lower
environmental impact

Possible to be taken into account at the stage of design during determining

the way of treatment
Possible to be taken into account with quantitative determination of
inputs and outputs and application of LCA

operations connected with them are essential. In this case, a quantitative analysis, for example the LCA, is desirable.
It should be noted that the increase in the use of recycled materials and the use of steel with the lowest environmental impact, as
well as the use of steel with a high end-of-life recycling rate are
targets that could be considered on condition that the needed data
and information are available through the supply chain. The data
can be searched for in the LCI databases but the lack of primary
data is the reason for the comparative analysis limitation in this
respect. In this study, the 100% end-of-life recycling rate is
assumed and the remaining issues, as not directly connected with
the enterprise activities, are not taken into account. A similar situation concerns the reduction in failures at the use phase, which is
the effect of, for example, a more reliable structure verified at the
use phase.
4.2.3. Definition of eco-design tasks and implications
Taking eco-design targets into account, eco-design tasks and
implications that determine the possibility of undertaking further
activities were specified (Table 6).
Eco-design tasks determination implies further steps consisting
in eco-design variants identification and their environmental analysis by means of the LCA. The eco-design variants will be elaborated taking technological and structural aspects into account.
4.2.4. Identification of eco-design variants and their preliminary
analysis
The previously defined baseline variants are the basis for the
comparison aiming to establish if the assumed effects are achieved.

Possible to be taken into account in LCA

With the design team appointed, new solutions are determined

the eco-design variants as proposals of design solutions resulting
from the search for possible improvements taking environmental
aspects into account. Table 7 presents the eco-design variants of
the analyzed solutions. The new solution related to the rotor blades
is a blade made of one piece of material (B2), whereas the previous
solution depended on manufacturing the airfoil and the spacer separately (B1). The new solution related to the rotor packages is
milling the packages as an integral element (P2) in contrast to
the previous practice, where blades in packages were made separately and then welded (P1). The structural form of the solution
may be presented as the model of the rotor blade B2 (Fig. 3) and
the rotor package P2 (Fig. 4). The models were developed using
the Autodesk Inventor 2013 software.
All analyzed variants relate to similar parts of the steam turbine
rotor. Variant B1 is characterized by the fact that the assembly of
separately made parts is more complicated in comparison with
variant B2, which is reliable and easier to assemble in the turbine.
In the case of variant B2, it is necessary to have a special processing
center. Variant B1, with a bigger variety of production engineering

Table 7
Eco-design variants of analyzed solutions.
Variants for rotor
blades

Variant B1
Variant B2

Variants for rotor

packages

Variant P1
Variant P2

Elements of blades made separately

Elements of blades made of one piece
of material
Blades in packages made separately
and welded
Packages milled as integral elements

26

J. Baran / Energy Conversion and Management 116 (2016) 1831

Table 8
Checklist for preliminary assessment of eco-design variants.
Criteria

Unit

B1

B2

P1

P2

Lower consumption of materials

Reduction in energy consumption
at the production stage
Reduction in the environmental
impact in the life cycle

kg
kW h

2
2

3
4

2
2

4
4

pers  y

Rating scale: 1 increase; 2 no change; 3 decrease by 10%; 4 decrease by 20%;

and 5 decrease by over 20%.

operations, is realized on simpler machines. In the case of variant

P1, welding and heat treatment are used in addition to milling.
Variant P2 does not need welding because of the blades integrity
in the package.
The new solutions were first confronted with previous solutions
to identify the expectations and the motivation for making more
efforts and bearing more costs.
A preliminary analysis of the variants was performed using the
checklist (Table 8). At this stage, the result of the analysis is treated
as the expected result to be verified during further steps of the
procedure.
The design concept is based on introducing changes in the product structural and technological characteristics. An improvement
is expected in parameters concerning the consumption of materials and energy, and in the environmental impact in the life cycle.
The parameters are rated on a five-point scale, where 1 means an
increase in value, 2 no change; 3 a decrease by 10%; 4 a
decrease by 20%; and 5 a decrease by over 20%. The assessment
is made based on a preliminary qualitative analysis of the variants.
A 10% decrease is thus expected in the material consumption and
in the environmental impact in the case of the rotor blades. This
expectation results first of all from the smaller consumption of
material if treatment of an integral blade is applied. The expected
20% decrease in energy consumption at the production stage is the
effect of the fewer number of milling operations that have to be
performed on a smaller surface area. In the case of the rotor packages, the prognosis is more optimistic due to the expected reduction in material losses.

4.3. Design solution

At the detailed design stage, solutions were developed taking
account of environmental implications of the variants described
above. In relation to the possibility of obtaining accurate data, an
environmental analysis is made at this stage. Thus, the detailed
analysis of the eco-design variants includes the Life Cycle Assessment performed for the rotor blades and the rotor packages.
The effect of a systematic application of the eco-design procedure is identification of design solutions that, with due consideration of technical aspects, are characterized by a smaller
environmental impact throughout their life cycle. It should be
emphasized that the approach proposed herein results from the
fact that both theoretical and practical dimensions of the problem
are taken into consideration. On the one hand, sophisticated
model-based and procedure-oriented perspectives are available
together with a wide range of eco-design assistance tools. On the
other, there is the design office, where design tasks are often
undertaken in a manner which, although included in a certain
framework, does not follow a strictly predetermined plan. The
search for correct solutions has a dynamic nature and is characterized by multiple attempts, frequently intuitive and based on tacit
knowledge resources. This study constitutes an attempt to take
account of these factors in the theoretical model.

4.3.1. Characteristics of B2 and P2 variants

The individual processes of the production stage of the rotor
blades and rotor packages for variants B2 and P2 involve milling
and polishing. Milling results in a proper shape of the airfoil and
the spacer obtained from the input material (steel bar) and
involves consumption of electricity and coolant (cleaning, filtration, exchange), cutters, carbides for tools, waste and dust emission. Post-welding polishing involves electricity consumption and
dust emission. In contrast to welded packages, variant P2 is realized using processing by means of milling.
4.3.2. LCI inventory development
At this stage, the input data for the LCA-based environmental
analysis are collected to specify the eco-design variants. The global
inventory data are shown in Table 9. The table contains inputs
from the technosphere and the outputs related to them. The data
listed in Table 9 were made available by the company producing
blades WIROMET S.A.
The inventory data are averaged data obtained from the company producing blades. In the case of the rotor blades, in both variants the data were collected based on the course of the production
processes. As for the rotor packages, for welded variant P1 and
milled variant P2 inputs and outputs connected with welding
and milling, respectively, were taken into account.
The quantitative data come from the company, whereas the
analysis is performed based on additional assumptions described
below.
It is assumed that the rotor blades and the rotor packages are
made of stainless steel (hot-rolled coil, annealed & pickled, electric
arc furnace route, grade 304 (selection from the ELCD database
(derived from the EUROFER)) [41].
Recycling of blades after their removal from the turbine was
taken into account using the Ecoinvent v3 data, as the steel and
iron recycling process [42].
The data concerning steel production and electricity, heat and
water come from the Ecoinvent v3 [42] and ELCD databases [41].
Table 9
Global LCI input and output data for the rotor blades and packages.
Inputs/outputs

Units

B1

B2

P1

P2

Steel
Steel transport to the enterprise
Electrical energy
Thermal energy
Water
Coolant
Preservative agent
Steel waste
Cutters
Welding wire
Particulates (polishing)
Welding dust
CO
NOx
Iron
Manganese
Silicon dust
Argon
CO2
Oxygen
Cardboard

kg
km
kW h
GJ
m3
l
l
kg
kg
kg
kg
kg
kg
kg
kg
kg
kg
m3
kg
m3
kg

61
1000
698
0.3
0.17
3
0.18
45.75
0.008

0.48

0.15

59
1000
493
0.25
0.11
1.9
0.20
44.25
0.009

0.32

0.15

483.87
1000
484
0.21
0.20
3.48
0.24
392.66
0.0063
1.2
0.6496
0.1566
0.105
0.0043
0.08961
0.01877
0.0054
0.3
0.34
0.22
0.15

384.89
1000
363
0.19
0.18
6.96
0.24
294.06
0.01

0.6496

0.15

Assembly
Electrical energy
Dust
Steel waste

kW h
kg
kg

72
0.015
1

70
0.015
0.8

82
0.02
9.1

82
0.02
9.1

Disassembly
Electrical energy
Dust
Steel waste

kW h
kg
kg

50
0.001
14.25

50
0.001
13.95

73
0.001
81.4

73
0.001
81.4

27

J. Baran / Energy Conversion and Management 116 (2016) 1831

It should be noted that the lack of data concerning particular

steel grades is a real obstacle to eco-design of products made of
steel. In the case of the rotor blades, the X12Cr13 or the X20Cr13
steels are used in practice. This is not taken into account in the
LCA. The data concerning steel can be found in the LCI databases
[5], e.g. the data made available by the World Steel Association
(the LCI for 15 main finished products of the steel industry but
there is no data for engineering steel and stainless steel products),
by the EUROFER (European stainless steel study available for
grades 304, 316, 430 and 2205 Duplex) and by the International
Stainless Steel Forum ISSF (for grade 304). Another source of data
concerning steel are the Ecoinvent database (above 340 records
concerning steel, including stainless steel) and the European reference Life Cycle Database ELCD shared by the JRC (datasets also concerning stainless steel). Apart from the above mentioned data
sources, designers may also use data presented in scientific publications, e.g. [43,44]. More data can be obtained from the Idemat
database [45]. Analyzing these data (Table 10), it may be stated
that of the two common steel type options in the production of
blades, it is better to use the X12Cr13 steel grade (AISI 410)
because it is characterized by lower energy requirements and
lower GHG emissions related to the same functional unit [5].
It should be indicated that the lack of data concerning steel
grades used to manufacture the rotor packages (X22CrMoV12-1,
15H11MF and H17N13M2T) necessitates the use of averaged,
non-specific data, which makes it impossible to make a complete
comparison in this respect. Still, this imperfect comparison, as is
apparent in the Idemat database, has a meaning because the
results obtained for different steel grades demonstrate significant
differences (see [5]).
4.3.3. Environmental analysis
As mentioned in Section 3.2.2, in the case of blades the Life
Cycle Assessment was carried out for the functional unit equal to
100 rotor blades and 60 rotor packages.
The results of the LCA are presented in Table 11.
Figs. 5 and 6 present a comparison of characterization results
for the variants of the rotor blades and the rotor packages,
respectively.
Table 10
Cumulative Energy Demand and carbon footprint of selected steel grades [45].
Steel no.

AISI

Cumulative Energy
Demand CED (MJ/kg)

Carbon footprint
(kg CO2 eq/kg)

X12Cr13
X20Cr13

410
420

83.6
89.8

4.5
4.9

The impact assessment results were obtained for both variants

of the rotor blades and the rotor packages.
In all impact categories under consideration, a lower environmental impact of variants proposed in eco-design can be observed.
In the case of the rotor blades, the greatest benefits can be obtained
at the stage of manufacturing in such categories as carcinogens
(the result for B2 is by 18.72% better compared to variant B1),
non-carcinogens (the result is by 13.75% better), non-renewable
energy (B2 is by 12.23% better) and respiratory inorganics (the difference of 12.07%). It may be deducted that the choice of the rotor
blades in the variant made of one piece of material followed by
milling involves a reduction in the influence of the blade life cycle
on cancerous and non-cancerous diseases, as well as on diseases of
the respiratory system caused by inorganic compounds. Other benefits are related to saving non-renewable resources, as well as to
lower production-related emissions of carbon dioxide CO2 to the
atmosphere (the difference of 11.86%). Smaller benefits are also
achieved in the remaining impact categories mineral extraction
and terrestrial ecotoxicity less than 10%.
In the assembly, disassembly and in the end-of-life phases, the
results obtained for variant B2 show small environmental benefits.
This results from small differences in the processes between the
variants. They appear because of differences in assembly and disassembly of blades as integral parts, compared to the variant where
the spacer and the airfoil are made separately. The negative results
in the case of carcinogens and non-carcinogens in the assembly
and disassembly phases are connected with the positive influence
of the secondary use of recycled blade steel.
Benefits may be obtained if the rotor package variant in the
milling version P2 is selected. Better results are then obtained in
impact categories such as non-carcinogens, global warming, respiratory inorganics and non-renewable energy (over 10% and in the
case of non-renewable energy 9.67%). Results better by more
than 5% for variant P2 are related to the following impact categories carcinogens, terrestrial ecotoxicity and mineral extraction.
At the assembly and disassembly phases, the same aspects appear,
so no differences for the two variants are observed (the way of
making packages does not affect their assembly or disassembly).
The negative results, like for the rotor blades, are achieved in connection with the positive impact of the secondary use of recycled
blade steel. The waste management phase in the case of welded
packages is characterized by bigger losses of material, so the choice
of variant P2 also means benefits coming from using a smaller
amount of steel or processing of secondary materials in recycling.
Figs. 7 and 8 show a comparison of normalized results for the
rotor blades and the rotor packages in damage categories. They
were obtained within the normalization procedure in relation to

Table 11
Comparison of the LCIA (characterization, IMPACT 2002+) of eco-design variants of rotor blades and rotor packages (results related to 100 rotor blades and 60 rotor packages).
Carcinogens

Non-carcinogens

Respiratory
inorganics
kg PM2.5 eq

Terrestrial
ecotoxicity
kg TEG soil

Global
warming
kg CO2 eq

Non-renewable
energy
MJ primary

Mineral
extraction
MJ surplus

kg C2H3Cl eq

kg C2H3Cl eq

B1

Manufacturing
Assembly and disassembly
End of life

2.35
0.195
5.19

6.98
0.0457
7.11

0.903
0.0162
1.32

1.54  104
54.5
4.42  104

1.18  103
22.9
606

1.39  104
303
8.78  103

12.5
0.0543
1.56  103

B2

Manufacturing
Assembly and disassembly
End of life

1.91
0.189
5.02

6.02
0.0442
6.88

0.794
0.0157
1.28

1.47  104
52.7
4.28  104

1.04  103
22.1
586

1.22  104
293
8.49  103

11.7
0.0525
1.51  103

P1

Manufacturing
Assembly and disassembly
End of life

37.7
1.11
41.1

61.2
0.261
56.4

4.68
0.0924
10.5

1.04  105
311
3.51  105

5.59  103
130
4.81  103

6  104
1.72  103
6.96  104

79.9
0.309
1.23  104

P2

Manufacturing
Assembly and disassembly
End of life

34.6
1.11
32.7

53.8
0.261
44.9

4.19
0.0924
8.33

9.69  104
311
2.79  105

4.99  103
130
3.82  103

5.42  104
1.72  103
5.54  104

75.2
0.309
9.82  103

28

J. Baran / Energy Conversion and Management 116 (2016) 1831

Fig. 5. Comparison of characterization results for the rotor blade variants B1 and B2 (SimaPro graphs using the IMPACT 2002+ method in relation to 100 rotor blades).

Fig. 6. Comparison of characterization results for the rotor package variants P1 and P2 (SimaPro graphs using the IMPACT 2002+ method in relation to 60 rotor packages).

Fig. 7. Normalized LCA results for rotor blades (IMPACT 2002+).

Fig. 8. Normalized LCA results for rotor packages (IMPACT 2002+).

J. Baran / Energy Conversion and Management 116 (2016) 1831

damage categories using normalization factors for the IMPACT

2002+ method (version 2.1) (see Section 3.2.5).
In the case of the rotor blades, benefits can be observed due to
the selection of variant B2 in the climate change and human health
categories (difference of 8.88% and 6.88%, respectively, compared
to variant B1).
In the case of the rotor packages, choosing variant P2 produces
environmental benefits mainly in the following damage categories:
human health, climate change and resources (difference above 15%
compared to P1).
Based on the performed analysis, it may be stated that using the
Life Cycle Assessment to compare eco-design variants of blades
makes it possible to select options that are more beneficial to the
environment. B2 and P2 variants generate a lower environmental
impact in comparison to variants B1 and P1.
The eco-innovation of variants B2 and P2 is related not only to
the smaller environmental impact of new structural and technological solutions, but also to the potential scale of using the solution in practice. Power generation equipment is being
continuously modernized and new conventional facilities are being
built [46]. The solution may therefore be widely used to reduce the
environmental impact of energy production [47].
The conducted studies are significant in view of the requirements of great availability of generated power imposed on power
plants due to variations in the demand for electricity. Turbines
do not always operate at the nominal output, which contributes
to the shortening of the life of the turbine elements, including
blades, and necessitates more frequent overhauls of the machines.
It is essential in this case that the overhaul life should be shortened
as much as possible, which may become possible owing to new
structural solutions that make the assembly process easier. An
example of such a solution presented in this paper is the change
in the production method instead of making the blade and the
spacer separately, an integral one-piece structure is obtained from
the steel bar.
4.4. Verification of eco-design assumptions and targets
The eco-design targets were formulated in Section 4.2.2. The
analysis of obtained results aiming to verify the eco-design
assumptions is presented in Table 12.
At the stage of structural design, changes in the rotor blade
structure were taken into account. The changes were connected
with joining the spacer and the airfoil, which implies technological
changes involving a special treatment center, in distinction to the
production technology used till now that uses lathes, milling
machines and similar equipment. In the case of the rotor packages,
changes in structure were introduced, too. They were connected
with the integral making of the whole package. The change in
the production technology in this case results from the decrease
in the milling area. So far, packages have been made as two welded
blades. In both cases the changes cause a decrease in material consumption in the case of blades by 3.3%, in the case of packages
by 20.5%. A 10% lower consumption of material was assumed in the
preliminary analysis conducted for blades and a 20% reduction

Table 12
Verification of eco-design assumptions.
Eco-design targets

B2 in relation
to B1 (%)

P2 in relation
to P1 (%)

Achieving lower consumption of materials

Reduction in energy consumption at the
production stage
Reduction of environmental impact
in the life cycle

3.3
29.4

20.5
25.0

7.7

16.2

29

for packages (cf. Section 4.2.4). The goal was only achieved for
the rotor packages. Therefore, it is desirable that further efforts
should be made to reduce the consumption of materials in the case
of the rotor blades. Such efforts should be preceded by an analysis
of the potential in this area.
The selection of a specific technology milling the rotor blades
and packages on a CNC machine is also related to a decrease in
electricity consumption. In the case of the rotor blades, a decrease
was observed at the level of 29.4%, whereas for the rotor packages
the reduction in energy consumption was at the level of 25.0%.
This means that the assumed decrease in electricity consumption
at the level of 20% was achieved and even exceeded. The reduction
results from differences related to the element construction and
the way of treatment.
A reduction in the environmental impact in the life cycle was
achieved both for the rotor blades and packages. The change was
determined using normalized LCIA results. The total result concerning the environmental impact in the damage categories of
human health, ecosystem quality, climate change and resources
in the case of rotor blades is by 7.7% smaller for variant B2 compared to variant B1. A decrease in the impact was assumed at the
level of 10%, which means that for blades the value was not
achieved, although it is relatively close to the assumed value. In
the case of packages, the result is better by 6.2% in comparison
to the assumption.
4.5. Further steps
Taking account of the LCA results and the technical and economic conditions, the variants intended for implementation were
selected a blade with the spacer and the shroud integrated, and
a milled package.
Subsequently, the technology and guidelines for the manufacturing process were developed and the prototype was made and
tested to perform design validation.
Within the scope of production of the eco-innovative product,
the rotor blades and packages manufacturing process took place,
including quality control.
At the stage of launching the eco-innovative product into the
market, the product was distributed to customers using road
transport.
As a result of the undertaken steps, an eco-innovative product
was obtained, which is characterized by lower material consumption, lower energy consumption and a reduced environmental
impact during manufacture.
This approach may also be useful in B2B relationships. The
green attitude may be declared in contacts with customers of
blades and packages and it may also be used in perfecting the environment management system.
The essential part of the analysis of environmental aspects is
the Life Cycle Assessment. In the case under consideration, a decision based on the LCA results is made as to the selection of the
most favorable variants in terms of their environmental impact.
The LCA is here a bridge that connects all works devoted to the
evaluation of the environmental impact created by the power generation system life cycle. This concerns for example the studies
conducted by Strazza et al. [47], Kannan et al. [48], Ashley [49],
or Knight and Jenkins [50].
Additional benefits could be achieved due to the application of
the life cycle costing LCC [51].
Another stimulus and motivation for further studies in the field
of eco-design is the use of the CAD software containing an ecodesign module, e.g. the SolidWorks Sustainability, Autodesk, EcoDesigner (Siemens) or ecologiCAD software. This group of tools
also includes databases with data from the Life Cycle Inventory
(LCI) used for the purpose of the Life Cycle Assessment. Pahl

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J. Baran / Energy Conversion and Management 116 (2016) 1831

et al. [25] state that the most important impact in recent years on
the design process, and on the activities of designers, has come
from computer-based data processing. According to Pahl et al.
[25], computer-aided design (CAD) affects not only designing as
such, but also the organizational structure, the division of labour
and the creativity of individual designers. Moreover, employees
performing new functions (e.g. system managers, CAD specialists)
get involved in the design process. Consequently, many design
tasks are performed using CAD tools, which is also important in
the inclusion of environmental aspects in the design process.

5. Conclusions
This paper investigates eco-design inclusion in the search for
eco-innovative solutions to the rotor blades and the rotor packages
being parts of the steam turbine.
Eco-design is characterized by significant potential for ecoinnovation generation, which results from the use of a systematic
approach to finding new solutions, taking account of environmental aspects and of the possibility of including their environmental
evaluation into the procedure in the context of the life cycle. Such
a systematic approach was applied to eco-design of the rotor
blades and packages.
Based on a literature survey that highlighted the need to provide eco-design support to design teams and due to the methodological and procedural challenges, as well as owing to the wide
range of available tools, procedural aspects of eco-design based
on the phase-based model were described and applied.
Because environmental requirements should be considered as
equal to other criteria for the selection of alternative design variants, technical and environmental assumptions were made in the
first place. They cover basic technical requirements concerning
operating parameters, geometric and structural parameters, material selection, technology, assembly and environmental parameters.
The design concept was developed starting from determination
of eco-design approaches and eco-design ideas for the rotor blades
and packages. The preliminary analysis of eco-design ideas in relation to the eco-design objective made it possible to distinguish
areas for improvement, which are specified by formulating four
eco-design targets: achieving a 10% lower consumption of input
materials compared to blades made in the baseline version for
the rotor blades and a 20% reduction for the rotor packages; the
use of steel with a high recycling rate; a decrease in energy consumption at the production stage by about 20%; a decrease in the
environmental impact at the production stage by about 10%.
Taking the eco-design targets and tasks into account, the ecodesign implications determining the possibilities of further activities were specified and the eco-design variants for the rotor blades
and packages were determined: B1 elements of the rotor blades
made separately (baseline variant for the rotor blades); B2 elements of the rotor blades made of one piece of material; P1
blades in packages made separately and then welded (baseline
variant for the rotor packages); P2 packages milled as integral
elements. At the stage of detailed design, the Life Cycle Assessment
was performed in relation to a functional unit the rotor blades
and packages ready for installation in a steam turbine. The
obtained results indicate that eco-innovative solutions for the turbine blades could be found through structural and technological
changes.
It is concluded that the application of the new solution to the
rotor blades B2 may produce the following main benefits: a
3.3% lower consumption of materials, a 29.4% decrease in energy
consumption at the production stage, an 7.7% decrease in the environmental impact in the life cycle. In relation to the rotor packages,
the following benefits may be achieved using variant P2: a 20.5%

lower consumption of materials, a 25.0% decrease in energy consumption at the production stage, a 16.2% decrease in the environmental impact in the life cycle. The advantages are obtained due to
a change in the structure and the technology of production of
blades and packages.
The applied approach demonstrates implementation of ecodesign in the company practices that can be used in a systematic
way in future.
Acknowledgments
The research presented in this article was supported by grant
UMO-2011/01/D/HS4/03997 from the Polish National Science
Centre.
The author would like to thank Jerzy Jamontt, Chairman of the
Board of WIROMET S.A., for his support.
The author would like to thank the Reviewers for their very
helpful comments and suggestions.
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