Essential formulae

f (x)
(ax 2 + bx + c)(x + d)

Number and Algebra

Laws of indices:
a m a n = a m+n
m

an =

am

am
an

= a mn (a m )n = a mn

a n =

1
an

a0 = 1

Denition of a logarithm:
If y = a x then x = loga y

Quadratic formula:
If ax 2 + bx + c = 0 then x =

C
Ax + B
+
+ c) (x + d)

(ax 2 + bx

Laws of logarithms:

b2 4ac
2a

log(A B) = log A + log B

 
A
log
= log A log B
B

Factor theorem:

log An = n log A

If x = a is a root of the equation f (x) = 0, then (x a)

is a factor of f (x).

Exponential series:
Remainder theorem:
If (ax 2 + bx + c) is divided by (x p), the
remainder will be: ap 2 + bp +c.

ex = 1 + x +

or if (ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d) is divided by (x p), the

remainder will be: ap3 + bp2 + cp + d.

x2 x3
+
+
2! 3!
(valid for all values of x)

Hyperbolic functions:
Partial fractions:
Provided that the numerator f (x) is of less degree than
the relevant denominator, the following identities are
typical examples of the form of partial fractions used:
f (x)
(x + a)(x + b)(x + c)
B
C
A
+
+

(x + a) (x + b) (x + c)
f (x)
(x + a)3 (x + b)
A
C
D
B

+
+
+
2
3
(x + a) (x + a)
(x + a)
(x + b)

sinh x =

e x ex
2

cosech x =

1
2
= x
sinh x
e ex

cosh x =

e x + ex
2

sech x =

1
2
= x
cosh x
e + ex

tanh x =

e x ex
e x + ex

coth x =

e x + ex
1
= x
tanh x
e ex

cosh2 x sinh2 = 1 1 tanh 2 x = sech2 x

coth2 x 1 = cosech2 x

660 Higher Engineering Mathematics

Arithmetic progression:

Boolean algebra:

If a = rst term and d = common difference, then the

arithmetic progression is: a, a + d, a + 2d, . . .

Laws and rules of Boolean algebra

The nth term is: a + (n 1)d

n
Sum of n terms, Sn = [2a + (n 1)d]
2

Geometric progression:
If a = rst term and r = common ratio, then the geometric progression is: a, ar, ar 2 , . . .
The nth term is: ar n1
a(1 r n )
a(r n 1)
or
(1 r)
(r 1)
a
If 1 <r < 1, S =
(1 r)

Sum of n terms, Sn =

Binomial series:
(a + b)n = a n + na n1 b +
+

n(n 1) n2 2
a b
2!

Commutative Laws: A + B = B + A
A B = B A
Associative Laws:
A + B + C = (A + B) + C
A B C = (A B) C
Distributive Laws: A (B + C) = A B + A C
A + (B C) = (A + B) (A+C)
Sum rules:
A+ A =1
A+1=1
A+0= A
A+ A = A
Product rules:
A A =0
A0=0
A1= A
A A = A
Absorption rules:
A+ A B = A
A (A + B) = A
A+ A B = A+ B
A+ B = A B
De Morgans Laws:
A B = A+ B

n(n 1)(n 2) n3 3
a b +
3!

(1 + x)n = 1 + nx +
+

n(n 1) 2
x
2!

n(n 1)(n 2) 3
x +
3!

Geometry and Trigonometry

Theorem of Pythagoras:
b 2 = a 2 + c2
A

Maclaurins series:
x 2 
f (x) = f (0) + x f  (0) +
f (0)
2!
x 3 
+
f (0) +
3!

Newton Raphson iterative method:

If r1 is the approximate value for a real root of the equation f (x) = 0, then a closer approximation to the root,
r2 , is given by:
r2 = r1

f (r1 )
f  (r1 )

cosec =

1
sin

Figure FA1

Identities:
sec =

1
cos

1
sin
tan =
tan
cos
cos2 + sin2 = 1 1 + tan2 = sec2

cot =

cot 2 + 1 = cosec2

Essential formulae
Triangle formulae:

Products of sines and cosines into sums or

differences:

With reference to Fig. FA2:

Sine rule

a
b
c
=
=
sin A sin B
sin C

sin A cos B = 12 [sin(A + B) + sin(A B)]

cos A sin B = 12 [sin(A + B) sin(A B)]

a 2 = b2 + c2 2bc cos A

Cosine rule

661

cos A cos B = 12 [cos(A + B) + cos(A B)]

A

sin A sin B = 12 [cos(A + B)cos(A B)]

c

Sums or differences of sines and cosines

into products:

Figure FA2

Area of any triangle

(i)
(ii)
(iii)

1
2

base perpendicular height

1
2 ab sin C

 

x+y
xy
cos
2
2
 


xy
x+y
sin
sin x sin y = 2 cos
2
2

 

x+y
xy
cos x + cos y = 2 cos
cos
2
2
 


xy
x+y
sin
cos x cos y = 2 sin
2
2
sin x + sin y = 2 sin

or 21 ac sin B or 12 bc sin A

[s(s a)(s b)(s c)] where s =

a +b+c
2

Compound angle formulae:

sin(A B) = sin A cos B cos A sin B
cos(A B) = cos A cos B sin A sin B
tan(A B) =

tan A tan B
1 tan A tan B

If R sin (t + ) = a sin t +b cos t,

then a = R cos , b = R sin ,

b
R = (a 2 + b2 ) and = tan 1
a

For a general sinusoidal function

y = A sin(t ), then:
A = amplitude
= angular velocity = 2 f rad/s
2
= periodic time T seconds

= frequency, f hertz
2
= angle of lead or lag (compared with
y = A sin t )

Double angles:
sin 2 A = 2 sin A cos A
cos 2 A = cos2 A sin 2 A = 2 cos2 A 1
= 1 2 sin A
2

tan 2 A =

2 tan A
1 tan2 A

Cartesian and polar co-ordinates:


If co-ordinate (x, y) = (r, ) then r = x 2 + y 2 and
y
= tan1
x
If co-ordinate (r, ) = (x, y) then x =r cos and
y =r sin .

662 Higher Engineering Mathematics

The circle:
With reference to Fig. FA3.
Area = r 2 Circumference = 2r
radians = 180

Equation of an ellipse, centre at origin, semi-axes a

x 2 y2
and b:
+ =1
a 2 b2
Equation of a hyperbola:

x 2 y2
=1
a 2 b2

Equation of a rectangular hyperbola: x y = c2

s

Irregular areas:

Trapezoidal rule

Area



 
width of 1 rst + last
interval
2 ordinates

Figure FA3

For sector of circle:

s = r ( in rad)
shaded area =

1 2
2r



sum of remaining
ordinates

Mid-ordinate rule



width of
sum of
Area
interval
mid-ordinates

( in rad)

Equation of a circle, centre at (a, b), radius r:

(x a)2 + (y b)2 = r 2

Linear and angular velocity:

Simpsons rule

 

1 width of
rst + last
Area
ordinate
3 interval

If v = linear velocity (m/s), s = displacement (m),

t = time (s), n =speed of revolution (rev/s),
= angle (rad), = angular velocity (rad/s),
r = radius of circle (m) then:
v=

s
= = 2n v = r
t
t

centripetal force =

mv 2
r

where m = mass of rotating object.

Graphs
Equations of functions:
Equation of a straight line: y = mx + c
Equation of a parabola:
y = ax 2 + bx + c
Circle, centre (a, b), radius r:
(x a)2 + (y b)2 =r 2

+4



sum of even
ordinates

+2



sum of remaining
odd ordinates

Vector Geometry
If a = a1i + a2 j + a3 k and b = b1 i + b2 j + b3 k
a b = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3

ab
|a | = a12 + a22 + a32 cos =
|a| |b|


 i
j k 

a b =  a1 a2 a3 
 b1 b2 b3 

|a b | = [(a a)(b b) (a b)2 ]

Essential formulae
Determinants:

Complex Numbers
z = a + j b =r(cos + j sin ) = r =re j where
j 2 = 1

Modulus r = |z| = (a 2 + b2)
Argument = arg z =tan1

b
a



a b 


 c d  = ad bc







a1 b1 c1 






a2 b2 c2  = a1 b2 c2  b1 a2 c2 
b3 c3 
a3 c3 


a3 b3 c3 


a b 
+ c1  2 2 
a3 b3

Addition: (a + j b) +(c + j d) =(a + c) + j (b +d)

Subtraction: (a + j b) (c + j d) =(a c) + j (b d)
Complex equations: If m + j n = p + j q then m = p
and n = q

Differential Calculus
Standard derivatives:

Multiplication: z 1 z 2 =r1 r2 (1 + 2 )
Division:

y or f (x)

dy
or f  (x)
dx

ax n

anx n1

sin ax

a cos ax

cos ax

a sin ax

tan ax

a sec2 ax

sec ax

a sec ax tan ax

cosec ax

a cosec ax cot ax

cot ax

a cosec 2 ax

eax

aeax



a +e b+ f
A+ B =
c+g d +h

ln ax

1
x

sinh ax

a cosh ax



a e b f
A B =
cg d h

cosh ax

a sinh ax

tanh ax

a sech 2 ax



ae + bg a f + bh
A B =
ce + dg c f + dh

sech ax

a sech ax tanh ax

cosech ax

a cosech ax coth ax

coth ax

a cosech 2 ax

z 1 r1
= (1 2 )
z 2 r2

De Moivres theorem:
[r]n =r n n =r n (cos n + j sin n) =re j

Matrices and Determinants

Matrices:




a b
e f
If A =
and B =
then
c d
g h

A1 =

d b
1
ad bc c a

sin1

2
a x2

f  (x)
sin1 f (x) 
1 [ f (x)]2

a1 b1 c1
BT

If A = a2 b2 c2 then A1 =
|A|
a3 b3 c3
B T = transpose of cofactors of matrix A

x
a

where
cos1

x
a

a2 x 2

663

664 Higher Engineering Mathematics

y or f (x)

dy
or f  (x)
dx

cos1 f (x)

tan1

x
a

x
a

cosec1 f (x)
x
a

cot 1 f (x)
x
a

sinh1 f (x)
cosh1

x
a

f  (x)

f (x) [ f (x)]2 1
a

x x 2 a2

a
a2 + x 2
f  (x)

1 + [ f (x)]2

1
x2

+ a2
f  (x)

[ f (x)]2 + 1

1
x 2 a2
f  (x)

x
tanh 1
a

a
2
a x2

tanh 1 f (x)

f  (x)
1 [ f (x)]2

x
a

sech 1 f (x)

x
a

[ f (x)]2 1

coth1

x x 2 + a2

cosech 1 f (x)
x
a

f  (x)

f (x) [ f (x)]2 + 1
a
a2 x 2
f  (x)
1 [ f (x)]2

coth1 f (x)

Product rule:
When y = uv and u and v are functions of x then:
dy
dv
du
=u +v
dx
dx
dx

f  (x)

f (x) [ f (x)]2 1

cosh1 f (x)

sech 1

cosech 1

x x 2 a2

x
cosec1

sinh1

f  (x)
1 + [ f (x)]2

sec1 f (x)

cot 1

1 [ f (x)]2

a2 + x 2

tan1 f (x)
sec1

f  (x)

dy
or f  (x)
dx

y or f (x)

Quotient rule:
When y =

u
and u and v are functions of x then:
v
du
dv
dy v dx u dx
=
dx
v2

Function of a function:
If u is a function of x then:
dy dy du
=

dx du dx

Parametric differentiation:
If x and y are both functions of , then:
 
d dy
dy
dy
d2 y
d dx
=
= d and
dx
dx
dx
dx2
d
d

x a2 x 2
f  (x)

f (x) 1 [ f (x)]2

Implicit function:
d
d
dy
[ f (y)] = [ f (y)]
dx
dy
dx

Essential formulae
Maximum and minimum values:
dy
= 0 for stationary points.
dx
dy
Let a solution of
= 0 be x = a; if the value of
dx
2
d y
when x = a is: positive, the point is a minimum,
dx 2
negative, the point is a maximum.
If y = f (x) then

Velocity and acceleration:

If distance x = f (t ), then
velocity

v = f  (t ) or

acceleration a = f  (t ) or

d2 x
dt 2

Tangents and normals:

Equation of tangent to curve y = f (x) at the point
(x 1 , y1) is:
y y1 = m(x x 1 )
where m = gradient of curve at (x 1, y1 ).
Equation of normal to curve y = f (x) at the point
(x 1 , y1) is:
1
y y1 = (x x 1 )
m

Partial differentiation:
Total differential
If z = f (u, v, . . .), then the total differential,
dz =

Small changes
If z = f (u, v, . . .) and x, y, denote small changes
in x, y, respectively, then the corresponding change,

z
z
du + dv + . . . .
u
v

Rate of change
du dv
If z = f (u, v, . . .) and
,
, denote the rate of
dt dt
change of u, v, respectively, then the rate of change
of z,
dz
z du z dv
=

+ ...
dt
u dt
v dt

z
z
x + y + . . . .
x
y

To determine maxima, minima and saddle points for

functions of two variables: Given z = f (x, y),
(i) determine

dx
and
dt

665

z
z
and
x
y

(ii) for stationary points,

z
z
= 0 and
= 0,
x
y

z
= 0 and
(iii) solve the simultaneous equations
x
z
= 0 for x and y, which gives the co-ordinates
y
of the stationary points,
(iv) determine

2z
2z 2 z
,
and
x 2 y 2
x y

(v) for each of the co-ordinates of the stationary points, substitute values of x and y into
2z
2 z 2z
,
and
and evaluate each,
x 2 y 2
x y

(vi) evaluate

2z
x y

2
for each stationary point,

2 z 2z
2z
(vii) substitute the values of 2 , 2 and
into
x y
x y
 2 2  2   2 
z
z
z

the equation  =
x y
x 2
y2
and evaluate,
(viii) (a) if  > 0 then the stationary point is a saddle
point
2z
< 0, then the stationary
x2
point is a maximum point, and

(b) if  < 0 and

2z
(c) if  < 0 and
> 0, then the stationary
x2
point is a minimum point

666 Higher Engineering Mathematics

1
(a 2 + x 2 )

Standard integrals:


y dx

1
sin ax + c
a

sin ax

1
cos ax + c
a

sec2 ax

1
tan ax + c
a

cosec 2 ax

1
cot ax + c
a

ln


1
sec ax + c
a

eax

1 ax
e +c
a

1
x

ln x + c

tan ax
cos2 x
sin2 x

1
ln(sec ax) + c
a


sin 2x
1
x+
+c
2
2


sin 2x
1
x
+c
2
2

tan 2 x

tan x x + c

cot 2 x

cot x x + c

1
(a 2 x 2 )

(a 2 x 2 )

sin1

x
+c
a

a 2 1 x x  2
(a x 2 ) + c
sin
+
2
a 2

cosh1

ln

1
cosec ax cot ax cosec ax + c
a
sec ax tan ax

1
(x 2 a 2 )

x+


(x 2 + a 2 )
+c
a

a2
x x 2
(x + a 2 ) + c
sinh1 +
2
a 2

(x 2 + a 2 )

x
+ c or
a

sinh1

(x 2 + a 2 )

cos ax

y dx

1 1 x
tan
+c
a
a

x n+1
+c
n +1
(except where n = 1)

ax n

Integral Calculus

x
+ c or
a

x+


(x 2 a 2 )
+c
a

x 2
x
a2
(x a 2 ) cosh1 + c
2
1
a

(x 2 a 2 )

t = tan substitution
2
To determine

sin =
d =

1
d let
a cos + b sin + c
1 t2
2t
and
cos

=
(1 + t 2 )
1 + t2
2 dt
(1 + t 2 )

Integration by parts:
If u and v are both functions of x then:


dv
du
u dx = uv v
dx
dx
dx

Reduction formulae:


x n ex dx = In = x n ex n In1

x n cos x dx = In = x n sin x + nx n1 cos x
n(n 1)In2

Essential formulae



x n cos x dx = In = n n1 n(n 1)In2

667

Centroids:
With reference to Fig. FA5:

x sin x dx = In = x cos x + nx

n1

sin x

n(n 1)In2

x y dx

1
n 1
sinn x dx = In = sinn1 x cos x +
In2
n
n

1
n 1
cosn x dx = In = cosn1 sin x +
In2
n
n
 /2
 /2
n 1
sinn x dx =
cosn x dx = In =
In2
n
0
0

tann1 x
tann x dx = In =
In2
n 1

(ln x)n dx = In = x(ln x)n n In1

x = 

y 2 dx

a
 b

y dx

y dx

y
y 5 f(x)
Area A
C

x
0

With reference to Fig. FA4.

and y =

1
2

y
x5a

x5b

Figure FA5

Theorem of Pappus:

y 5 f(x)

With reference to Fig. FA5, when the curve is rotated one

revolution about the x-axis between the limits x = a and
x = b, the volume V generated is given by: V = 2Ay.

x5a

x5b

Parallel axis theorem:

If C is the centroid of area A in Fig. FA6 then

Figure FA4

Area under a curve:

2
2
+ Ad 2 or k 2B B = kGG
+ d2
Ak 2B B = AkGG

area A =

y dx
a

Mean value:
mean value =

1
ba

y dx
a

R.m.s. value:

Area A


r.m.s. value =

1
ba

y 2 dx
a

Volume of solid of revolution:



volume =
a

y 2 dx about the x-axis

Figure FA6

668 Higher Engineering Mathematics

Second moment of area and radius of gyration:
Shape

Position of axis

Rectangle
length l
breadth b

(1) Coinciding with b

Second moment
of area, I

(2) Coinciding with l

(3) Through centroid,
parallel to b
(4) Through centroid,
parallel to l

Triangle
(1) Coinciding with b
Perpendicular
height h
(2) Through centroid,
base b
parallel to base
(3) Through vertex,
parallel to base

Circle
radius r

(1) Through centre,

perpendicular to plane
(i.e. polar axis)
(2) Coinciding with diameter
(3) About a tangent

Semicircle

Coinciding with

radius r

diameter

Perpendicular axis theorem:

then

Ak 2O X

Ak 2OY

or

k 2O Z

bl 3
3
lb 3
3
bl 3
12

3
b

3
1

12

lb 3
12

12

bh 3
12
bh 3
36

6
h

18

bh 3
4

r 4
2

r 4
4
5r 4
4

r
2
5
r
2

r 4
8

r
2

Numerical integration:

If OX and OY lie in the plane of area A in Fig. FA7,

Ak 2O Z

Radius of
gyration, k

k 2O X

+ k 2OY

Trapezoidal rule



  rst + last

1
width of
ydx
interval
2 ordinates

Area A

+
O

ordinates

Mid-ordinate rule

X
Y

Figure FA7

sum of remaining




width of
sum of
ydx
interval
mid-ordinates

Essential formulae
Linear rst order:

Simpsons rule


669


 

1 width of
rst + last
ydx
ordinate
3 interval


sum of even
+4
ordinates


sum of remaining
+2
odd ordinates

dy
If
+ P y = Q, where P and Q are functions of x
dx
only (i.e. a linear rst order differential equation), then


(i) determine the integrating factor, e

P dx

(ii) substitute the integrating factor (I.F.) into

the equation

y (I.F.) = (I.F.) Q dx

(iii) determine the integral (I.F.) Q dx

Differential Equations
Numerical solutions of rst order
differential equations:

First order differential equations:

Separation of variables

dy
If
= f (x) then y =
f (x) dx
dx


dy
dy
= f (y) then
dx =
If
dx
f (y)
If

dy
= f (x) f (y) then
dx

dy
=
f (y)

Eulers method:
y1 = y0 + h(y  )0
Euler-Cauchy method: y P1 = y0 + h(y  )0


f (x) dx

Homogeneous equations:
dy
If P
= Q, where P and Q are functions of both x and
dx
y of the same degree throughout (i.e. a homogeneous
rst order differential equation) then:
(i) Rearrange P

1
yC1 = y0 + h[(y  )0 + f (x 1 , y p1 )]
2
Runge-Kutta method:
dy
To solve the differential equation
= f (x, y) given
dx
the initial condition y = y0 at x = x 0 for a range of
values of x = x 0(h)x n :
and

dy
dy Q
= Q into the form
=
dx
dx P

(ii) Make the substitution y = vx (where v is a function of x), from which, by the product rule,
dy
dv
= v(1) + x
dx
dx
dy
in the equation
(iii) Substitute for both y and
dx
dy Q
=
dx P
(iv) Simplify, by cancelling, and then separate the
dy
variables and solve using the
= f (x) f (y)
dx
method
y
(v) Substitute v = to solve in terms of the original
x
variables.

1. Identify x 0 , y0 and h, and values of x 1 , x 2 , x 3 , . . .

2. Evaluate k1 = f (x n , yn ) starting with n = 0


h
h
3. Evaluate k2 = f x n + , yn + k1
2
2


h
h
4. Evaluate k3 = f x n + , yn + k2
2
2
5. Evaluate k4 = f(x n + h, yn + hk3 )
6. Use the values determined from steps 2 to 5 to
evaluate:
h
yn+1 = yn + {k1 + 2k2 + 2k3 + k4 }
6
7. Repeat steps 2 to 6 for n = 1, 2, 3, . . .

Second order differential equations:

d2 y
dy
If a 2 + b
+ cy = 0 (where a, b and c are condx
dx
stants) then:
(i) rewrite the differential equation as
(aD2 + bD +c)y = 0
(ii) substitute m for D and solve the auxiliary equation
am 2 + bm + c = 0

670 Higher Engineering Mathematics

(iii) if the roots of the auxiliary equation are:
(a) real and different, say m = and m =
then the general solution is

y(n)

cos ax


n 
a n cos ax +
2

xa

a!
x an
(a n)!

y = Aex + Bex
(b) real and equal, say m = twice, then the
general solution is
y = (Ax + B) ex
(c)

sinh ax

complex, say m = j, then the general

solution is
y = ex (A cosx + B sin x)

cosh ax

(iv) given boundary conditions, constants A and B

can be determined and the particular solution
obtained.
ln ax
d2 y
dy
+ b + cy = f (x) then:
dx2
dx
(i) rewrite the differential equation as
(aD2 + bD +c)y = 0.


a n 
1 + (1)n sinh ax
2



+ 1 (1)n cosh ax

a n 
1 (1)n sinh ax
2



+ 1 + (1)n cosh ax
(1)n1

(n 1)!
xn

If a

(ii) substitute m for D and solve the auxiliary equation

am 2 + bm + c = 0.

Leibnizs theorem:
To nd the nth derivative of a product y = uv:
y (n) = (uv)(n) = u (n) v + nu (n1) v (1)

(iii) obtain the complimentary function (C.F.), u, as

per (iii) above.
(iv) to nd the particular integral, v, rst assume a particular integral which is suggested by f (x), but
which contains undetermined coefcients (See
Table 51.1, page 484 for guidance).
(v) substitute the suggested particular integral into
the original differential equation and equate
relevant coefcients to nd the constants
introduced.
(vi) the general solution is given by y = u +v.

n(n 1) (n2) (2)

v
u
2!

n(n 1)(n 2) (n3) (3)

v +
u
3!

Power series solutions of second order

differential equations:
(a)

Leibniz-Maclaurin method

(i) Differentiate the given equation n times,

using the Leibniz theorem,
(ii) rearrange the result to obtain the recurrence
relation at x = 0,

(vii) given boundary conditions, arbitrary constants in

the C.F. can be determined and the particular
solution obtained.

(iii) determine the values of the derivatives at

x = 0, i.e. nd (y)0 and (y  )0 ,

Higher derivatives:

(iv) substitute in the Maclaurin expansion for

y = f (x),

y(n)

eax

a n eax

n 
a n sin ax +
2

sin ax

(v) simplify the result where possible and apply

boundary condition (if given).
(b) Frobenius method
(i) Assume a trial solution of the form:
y = x c {a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + a3 x 3 + +
a0 = 0,
ar x r + }

671

Essential formulae
(ii) differentiate the trial series to nd y 
and y  ,
(iii) substitute the results in the given differential
equation,
(iv) equate coefcients of corresponding powers
of the variable on each side of the equation: this enables index c and coefcients
a1 , a2, a3, . . . from the trial solution, to be
determined.

and in particular:
 x n  1
 x 2
1

Jn (x) =
2
n! (n + 1)! 2

 x 4
1
+

(2! )(n + 2)! 2

J0 (x) = 1

x2
22 (1! )2

x4
24 (2! )2

Bessels equation:
The solution of x 2

y = Ax v 1
+

and J1 (x) =

d2 y
dy
+x
+ (x 2 v 2 )y = 0 is:
dx 2
dx

x
22 (v + 1)

or, in terms of Bessel functions and gamma functions:

+
+B

 x v 
2

x4

4
2 (2! )
(v + 4)

In general terms:

and Jv (x) =

k=0

is:


k(k + 1) 2
x
y = a0 1
2!
+

k(k + 1)(k 2)(k + 3) 4

x
4!


(k 1)(k + 2) 3
+ a1 x
x
3!

Rodrigues formula:
Pn (x) =

1 d n (x 2 1)n
2n n!
dxn

Statistics and Probability

Mean, median, mode and standard
deviation:

(1)k x 2k
22k (k! )
(v + k + 1)

 x v 

d2 y
dy
2x
+ k(k + 1)y = 0
dx 2
dx

1
x2
2

(1 v) 2 (1! )
(2 v)

 x v 

The solution of (1 x 2 )

(k 1)(k 3)(k + 2)(k + 4) 5

+
x
5!

x4
+ 4

2 (2! )
(3 v)

Jv (x) =

x7
+
27(3! )(4! )

Legendres equation:


x6
+
6
2 3! (v + 1)(v + 2)(v + 3)

x4
x2
+ Bx v 1 + 2
+ 4
2 (v 1) 2 2! (v 1)(v 2)

x6
+ 6
+
2 3! (v 1)(v 2)(v 3)

y = AJv (x) + B Jv (x)

 x v 
1
x2
2
=A
2

(v + 1) 2 (1! )
(v + 2)

x
x3
x5
3
+ 5
2 2 (1! )(2! ) 2 (2! )(3! )

x4
24 2! (v + 1)(v + 2)

x6
26 (3! )2

k=0

(1)k x 2k
22k (k! )
(k v + 1)

If x = variate and f = frequency then:


fx
mean x = 
f
The median is the middle term of a ranked set of data.

672 Higher Engineering Mathematics

The mode is the most commonly occurring value in a
set of data.

Standard deviation:

!  
!
f (x x)
2
"

for a population
=
f

Binomial probability distribution:

If n =number in sample, p =probability of the occurrence of an event and q = 1 p, then the probability of
0, 1, 2, 3, . . . occurrences is given by:
n(n 1) n2 2
p ,
q
2!
n(n 1)(n 2) n3 3
p ,...
q
3!

Normal approximation to a binomial

distribution:
Mean = np Standard deviation = (npq)

Poisson distribution:
If is the expectation of the occurrence of an event then
the probability of 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . occurrences is given by:
e
e
e , e , 2
, 3
,...
2!
3!

Product-moment formula for the linear

correlation coefcient:

x2

xy
$ #

Chi-square distribution:
Percentile values ( 2p ) for the Chi-square distribution
with degrees of freedomsee Table 76.1, page 60, on
the website.


 (o e)2
where o and e are the observed and
2 =
e
expected frequencies.

Population
number of members N p , mean , standard deviation .

(i.e. successive terms of the (q + p)n expansion).

Percentile values (t p ) for Students t distribution with

degrees of freedom see Table 74.2, page 38, on the
website.

Symbols:

q n , nq n1 p,

Coefcient of correlation r = #

Students t distribution:

y2

$

Sample
number of members N , mean x, standard deviation s.
Sampling distributions
mean of sampling distribution of means x
standard error of means x
standard error of the standard deviations s .

Standard error of the means:

Standard error of the means of a sample distribution, i.e.
the standard deviation of the means of samples, is:


Np N

x =
Np 1
N
for a nite population and/or for sampling without
replacement, and

x =
N

where x = X X and y = Y Y and (X 1 , Y1),

(X 2 , Y2 ), . . . denote a random sample from a bivariate
normal distribution and X and Y are the means of the
X and Y values respectively.

for an innite population and/or for sampling with

replacement.

Normal probability distribution:

The relationship between sample mean

and population mean:

Partial areas under the standardized normal curve see

Table 58.1 on page 564.

x = for all possible samples of size N are drawn

from a population of size N p .

Essential formulae
Estimating the mean of a population
( known):

page 33, on the website. The condence limits of a

population mean based on sample data is given by:
tc s
x
(N 1)

The condence coefcient for a large sample size,

(N 30) is z c where:
Condence Condence
level %
coefcient z c

Laplace Transforms

99

2.58

98

2.33

Function

96

2.05

f (t )

95

1.96

90

1.645

80

1.28

50

0.6745

for a nite population of size N p , and by

zc
x for an innite population
N

Laplace transforms

L{ f (t )} = 0 est f (t ) dt

1
s

k
s

eat
The condence limits of a population mean based on
sample data are given by:


Np N
zc
x
Np 1
N

1
sa

sin at

a
s 2 +a 2

cos at

s
s 2 +a 2

t
t n (n = positve integer)

1
s2
n!
s n+1

Estimating the mean of a population

( unknown):

cosh at

s
s 2 a 2

The condence limits of a population mean based on

sample data are given by: x z c x .

sinh at

a
s 2 a 2

eat t n

n!
(s+a)n+1

Estimating the standard deviation of a

population:
The condence limits of the standard deviation of a population based on sample data are given by:
s z c s .

Estimating the mean of a population based

on a small sample size:
The condence coefcient for a small sample size
(N < 30) is tc which can be determined using Table 74.1,

673

eat sin t

(s+a)2 + 2

eat cos t

s+a
(s+a)2 + 2

eat cosh t

s+a
(s+a)2 2

eat sinh t

(s+a)2 2

674 Higher Engineering Mathematics

The Laplace transforms of derivatives:
First derivative


dy
= sL{y} y(0)
L
dx


where y(0) is the value of y at x = 0.

If f (x) is a periodic function of period L then its Fourier

series is given by:
f (x) = a0 +

%



an cos

2 nx
L

+ bn sin

# 2nx $&
L

n=1

L
L
to + :
2
2

where for the range

Second derivative
 
dy
= s2 L{y} sy(0) y (0)
L
dx

a0 =

1
L

dy
where y  (0) is the value of
at x = 0.
dx

an =

2
L

bn =

2
L





L/2
L/2
L/2

L/2
L/2
L/2

f (x) dx
f (x) cos

# 2nx $
L

# 2nx $

f (x) sin

dx (n = 1, 2, 3, . . .)

dx (n = 1, 2, 3, . . .)

Fourier Series
If f (x) is a periodic function of period 2 then its
Fourier series is given by:
f (x) = a0 +

Complex or exponential Fourier series:

f (x) =

where, for the range to +:


1
a0 =
f (x) dx
2

1
f (x) cos nx dx (n = 1, 2, 3, . . .)
an =


1
f (x) sin nx dx (n = 1, 2, 3, . . .)
bn =

cn e j

2n x
L

n=

(an cos nx + bn sin nx)

n=1

1
where cn =
L

L
2

L2

f (x)e j

2n x
L

dx

For even symmetry,

2
cn =
L

L
2

f (x) cos

# 2nx $

dx

For odd symmetry,

cn = j

2
L

L
2

f (x) sin

# 2nx $
L

dx