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GAMETOGENESIS
a. The purposes of gametogenesis are three-fold:
i. Reducing the number of chromosomes (46) to half (23).
ii. Exchange of genetic material, which is achieved during prophase I.
iii. Alteration of the shape of germ cells.
b. Primordial germ cells (PGCs) are formed in the epiblast during second
week and move to the yolk sac. In the 4th week migrate from the yolk sac to
the developing ovaries and testes where they arrive at the end of the fifth
week and differentiate there as oogonia and spermatogonia.
Please review yourself mitosis and meiosis from pages 11-13 in Langmans Twelfth Ed.
c. Oogenesis, the sequence of events by which oogonia are transformed into
ova is as follows:
i. Oogonia undergo many mitotic divisions. By the end of the 3rd
month oogonia differentiate into primary oocytes. The primary
oocytes now enter the prophase I, and then almost immediately
become dormant (dictyotene stage or diplotene).
1. By 5th intrauterine month primary oocyte peaks 7 million. At
this time cell death begins, and becomes atretic.
2. By 7th intrauterine month all surviving primary oocytes have
entered prophase of meiosis I, and most are individually
surrounded by a layer of flat follicular epithelial cells Primordial follicle.
3. At Birth only 600,000 - 800,000 - primary oocytes remain
due to degeneration.
4. At puberty there are 40,000 primary oocytes. Many follicles
(15-20) start to mature each month, as result of hormonal
stimulation, but only one reaches maturity (if fertilization
occurs). Fewer than 500 will be ovulated.
5. This arrested state is produced by oocyte maturation
inhibitor (OMI) a small peptide secreted by follicular cells.
ii. Primary oocytes meiotic division is finally completed a few hours
before ovulation. These first meiotic division results in a large
secondary oocyte and a small first polar body (both cells are
haploid but 2n).
iii. The secondary oocyte immediately undergoes the second meiotic
division but about 3 hours before ovulation enters meiotic arrest
(metaphase II).
iv. The second maturation division is completed only if the oocyte is
fertilized; otherwise the cell degenerates approximately 24 hours
after ovulation.
v. Development of the follicle:
1. While the primary oocyte increases in size, the surrounding
follicular cells change to produce a stratified cuboidal
epithelium of granulosa cells and are called the primary
follicle.
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II.
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egg completes the second meiotic division and the remaining nuclear
material form the female pronucleus.
d. When the male and female pronuclei join and their chromosomes become
organized for a mitotic division, fertilization is complete, and the fertilized
egg is properly called a zygote.
e. The main results of fertilization are:
i. Restoration of the diploid number of chromosomes.
ii. Determination of the sex of the new individual.
iii. Initiation of cleavage.
III.
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CLINICAL CORRELATES:
Review the teal boxes and the problems to solve at the end of each chapter in your
textbook.
Teratoma tumors of disputed origin that often contains a variety of tissues, such as
bone, hair muscle, gut epithelia and others. Some evidence suggests that PGCs
(primordial germ cells) that have strayed from their normal migratory paths could be
responsible for some of these tumors. Epiblast cells may be responsible
Abnormal gametes.
Ovarian follicles occasionally contain two or three primary oocytes. Although these
oocytes may give rise to twins or triplets, they usually degenerate before reaching
maturity.
Abnormal spermatozoa are seen frequently, and up to 10% of all spermatozoa have
observable defects. Sperm with morphological abnormalities lack normal motility and
probably do not fertilize oocytes.
Chromosomal abnormalities (numerical or structural)
50% of conceptions end in spontaneous abortion and 50% of these abortuses have major
chromosomal abnormalities. Thus 25% of conceptuses have a major chromosomal
defect.
45,X (Turner syndrome), triploidy and trisomy 16 are the most common chromosomal
abnormalities in aboruses.
10% of major birth defects are accounted to chromosomal abnormalities. 8% are
accounted to gene mutations.
Numerical abnormalities
Diploid (2n), haploid (n)
Euploid, Aneuploid
Trisomy, Monosomy
Nondisjunction
Mitotic nondisjunction, mosaicism
Translocations (balanced or unbalanced)
Deletion
Microdeletions
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Mittelschmerz (middledpain), occurs near the middle of the menstrual cycle. Slight pain
felled by some women during ovulation. Basal temperature generally accompanies
ovulation, monitored to help couples in becoming pregnant or preventing pregnancy.
Contraceptive Methods
Barrier methods: male condom, female condom, diaphragm, cervical cap and the
contraceptive sponge.
Hormonal methods: birth control pills, two types: the first is combination of
estrogen and the progesterone analogue progestin; the second is comprised of
progestin alone. This hormones inhibits ovulation, changes the lining of the uterus
and thickening cervical mucus, making it difficult for sperm to enter the uterus.
Male pill, contains synthetic androgen that prevent both LH and FSH secretion and
either stops sperm production to a level of infertility.
Intrauterine device (IUD), two types: hormonal and copper. The hormonal device
releases progestin. The copper device releases copper that prevents fertilization or
implantation. It also prevents sperm from entering the uterine tubes.
Emergency contraceptive pills (ECPs), may prevent pregnancy if taken 120 hours
after sexual intercourse. May be administered as high doses of progestin alone or in
combination with estrogen, EXPs (mifepristone, RU-386) and ulipristal acetate (ella).
Are effective as antihormonal agents or abortifacient.
Sterilization, the method for men is vasectomy. For women is tubal sterilization.
Infertility is a problem for 15% to 30% of couples. Normally the ejaculate has a volume of
2 to 5 mL, 100 million sperm per milliliter or 50 million sperm per total ejaculate are usually
fertile. In women may be due to occluded uterine tubes, hostile cervical mucus, immunity to
spermatozoa, absence of ovulation, and others.
Assisted reproductive technology (ART), one percent of all pregnancies in USA.
Shows increases in prematurity (~37 weeks), low birth weight (~2,500 g); very low
birth weight ( -1,500 g) and higher rate of birth defects.
In vitro fertilization (IVF), Egg is placed in a simple culture medium, and
sperm are added immediately. Fertilized egg are monitored to the eight-cell
stage and then placed in the uterus to develop to term.
Success rate of IVF depends upon maternal age. 30% of couples will
conceive after one attempt if the woman is younger than 35 years of age.
25% for women age 35-37, 17% for those aged 38-40, and to less than 5% of
those over 40. The technique is also associated with higher rate of congenital
malformations. To increase chances of successful pregnancy, four or five
ova are collected, fertilized and placed in the uterus. This approach
sometimes leads to multiple births.
Intracytoplasmic sperm injection, a single sperm is injected into the
cytoplasm of the egg to cause fertilization. This technique carries an
increased risk for fetuses to have Y chromosome deletions but no other
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