See

discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286451547

Cognitive and metacognitive predictors of

flexibility in mental calculations
CONFERENCE PAPER JANUARY 2015

READS

4 AUTHORS, INCLUDING:
Charalambos Babis Lemonidis
University of Western Macedonia
111 PUBLICATIONS 35 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE

Available from: Charalambos Babis Lemonidis

Retrieved on: 09 February 2016

Cognitive and metacognitive predictors of flexibility in mental calculations

Lemonidis, Ch., Pnevmatikos, D., Liguras, G.

Abstract
Flexibility in mental calculation requires knowledge of a variety of strategies that
could be used to solve computational problems as well as the ability to choose the
strategy that is most efficient for the specific problem and particular individual.
However, subjects strategy flexibility is also constrained by their individual working
memory capacity, their inhibition control competencies and their metacognitive
awareness. Therefore, we analyzed childrens flexibility in mentally solving multidigit additions and subtractions in relation to their metacognitive awareness, working
memory and inhibition skills. Two hundred twenty three sixth graders were asked to
mentally calculate multi-digit additions and subtractions, and to reflect on their
strategy choices on each trial. Moreover, they solved two working memory tasks and
three Stroop-type tasks. The flexibility score for each individual child was calculated
using the choice/no-choice method. Path model analyses showed that metacognitive
awareness, working memory and inhibition skills predict 18.6% and 12% of the
flexibility score on respectively multi-digit additions and subtractions. The theoretical
and educational significance and implications of these findings will be discussed.
Summary
Flexibility in mentally solving arithmetic problems is not only crucial for the
everyday use of mathematics, but also difficult for many elementary school children
and even adults. Flexible mental calculators can be defined as individuals who adapt
their strategy choices to the requirements of each specific calculation (Lemaire &
Siegler, 1995). In order to do this, individuals should have a repertoire of different
strategies available and also should have the required knowledge and skills to
adaptively choose the strategy that each time is most suitable for the particular
calculation. To analyze the flexibility of individual strategy choices, Siegler and
Lemaire (1997) developed the choice/no-choice method. The choice/no-choice
method involves two types of conditions: a choice condition in which individuals can
use their preferential on each problem, and one or more no-choice conditions in which
they have to answer all problems with a specific strategy indicated by the researcher.
The comparison of individuals strategy choices in the choice condition with the
efficiency data from the no-choice conditions allows to determine the flexibility of
individual strategy choices, i.e., do they select the strategy (in the choice condition)
that leads fastest to an accurate answer, as indicated by the efficiency data from the
no-choice conditions?

Although strategy flexibility in performing mental calculation tasks is currently an

important curricular topic (Verschaffel et al., 2007), only a minority of elementary
school children demonstrate strategy flexibility in the sense mentioned above. These
results might be due to the complexity of the strategy choice process, which can be
described as a cumbersome mental activity that also relies on childrens working
memory and inhibition capacities. Children need to keep the efficiency information
about the different strategies that can be used to answer the problem in their working
memory during the strategy selection process, and also inhibit their standard usually applied but less efficient - strategies to select the most efficient strategy for
the problem. Assuming that the selection of strategies is a conscious process, children
also need the necessary metacognitive skills to reflect on the efficiency of the
available strategies for the particular problem (and the individual). Taking into
account the assumed involvement of working memory, inhibition skills and
metacognitive awareness in childrens strategy choice process, we analyzed the
flexibility of childrens strategy choices on multi-digit additions and subtractions in
relation to their cognitive (i.e., working memory and inhibitory control) and
metacognitive (i.e., strategy awareness) competencies.
Method
Participants were 223 sixth-graders (116 boys; age range 11-12-years). They were
offered a mental calculation task in both choice and no-choice conditions, as well as
three tasks addressing metacognitive awareness, working memory and inhibition skill:
Mental calculation task. Children were offered 5 multi-digit additions (i.e. 48+19,
39+27, 69+56, 88+45,147+58) and 5 multi-digit subtractions (i.e. 42-25, 71-59, 8028, 93-37, 167-99) in both choice and no-choice conditions, and were instructed to
solve these problems as accurately and fast as possible with respectively their
preferential and the required strategy, with verbal strategy report immediately after
solving each problem.
Metacognitive awareness. Immediately following the strategy report on each problem
(in the choice condition of the mental calculation task), children were asked three
questions: (a) Why did you choose this strategy?, (b) Under which conditions do you
choose this strategy?, and (c) Under which conditions would you choose a different
strategy? Answers were tape-recorded and classified by two different raters
(interrater-agreement 92%) in three categories.
Working memory tasks. Two tasks measuring verbal and numerical working memory
(Demetriou & Kazi, 2001) were addressed, resulting in a working memory capacity
score of 2 to 7; childrens working memory capacity was expressed in a mean score
(alpha=.53).
Inhibition. Three (verbal, numerical, and imaginal) Stroop-like tasks consisting of 50
(10 incongruent) trials each were used. We calculated the mean score for correct

answers on incongruent trials per child (alpha=.72) as indicator of childrens

inhibitory skills.
Results
A mixed model with repeated measures analyses of variances (2: gender x 2: strategy,
suitable non suitable) showed that children in the choice condition did not select the
most efficient strategy, neither for the additions (p<.001) nor for the subtractions
(p<.001). In other words, they did not flexibly fit their mental calculation strategy
choices in the choice condition to their strategy efficiency competencies.
We calculated a strategy flexibility score for each participant as well as two
aggregated scores for the additions respectively subtractions (range 0-5, number of
flexible strategy choices per domain). A path-analytic model tested the possible
contribution of childrens cognitive skills (i.e., working memory and inhibition) as
well as their metacognitive awareness to their flexibility score for additions and
subtractions. The target model specified direct relationships of the cognitive and
metacognitive factors to the two flexibility scores. Moreover, correlations between the
three cognitive and metacognitive factors were allowed. The model demonstrated a
very strong fit, Sattora-Bentler Scaled x2(1)=4.41, p=.036, CFI=.974, MFI=.992,
RMSEA=.124 (90% CI .026-.251). Both the cognitive and metacognitive factors thus
contributed significantly to the flexibility score, explaining respectively 18.6% and
12% of the total variance of the flexibility score for additions and subtractions.
Discussion
The current study did not provide empirical support for sixth-graders strategy
flexibility when mentally computing multi-digit additions and subtractions: as
discussed above, they did not flexibly fit their strategy choices to their individual
strategy efficiency competencies. These results might be due to the instructional
practices during childrens math classes, not supporting strategy flexibility on mental
computation problems. Additionally, childrens limited cognitive and metacognitive
competencies, i.e., their working memory capacity, inhibitory control skills and their
metacognitive awareness, might account for these results, as our results indicate clear
relations between these (meta)cognitive skills and childrens strategy flexibility.
Future intervention studies focusing on the stimulation of childrens cognitive and
metacognitive skills involved in the strategy selection process are needed to further
our understanding of the structures and processes involved in childrens strategy
choice process as well as effective ways to improve this important mathematical skill.