HAWASSA UNIVERSITY- INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

(PROCESS ENGINEERING STREAM)

WASTE HEAT RECOVERY FOR POWER GENERATION FROM CEMENT KILN

SYSTEM: A CASE STUDY IN MUGHER CEMENT FACTORY

Thesis submitted to Hawassa Institute of Technology Hawassa University in partial fulfillment of the
Bachelor of Science Degree in Chemical Engineering (Process Engineering Stream).

By:
Mengsteab Nugusse
Haftamu Hassen

June 17, 2016

HAWASSA UNIVERSITY - INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
(PROCESS ENGINEERING STREAM)

WASTE HEAT RECOVERY FOR POWER GENERATION FROM CEMENT KILN

SYSTEM: A CASE STUDY IN MUGHER CEMENT FACTORY

By:
Mengsteab Nugusse
Haftamu Hassen

Approved by the Examining Board:

_______________________________________
Chairman, Department's Graduate Committee

_______________

_______________________________________
Advisor

_______________

_______________________________________
Examiner

_______________

Declaration
We declare that the thesis for the B.Sc. degree at Hawassa University, hereby submitted by us titled
waste heat recovery for power generation from cement kiln system, is our original work and has not
previously been submitted for a degree at this or any other university, and that all reference materials
contained therein have been duly acknowledged.

____________________

___________

_____________

____________________

___________

_____________

Name

Sign

Date

ii

ABSTRACT
The aim of this case study was generating power by utilizing waste heat from the dual sources
(preheater outlet hot gas and cooler out let hot gas) using Steam Rankine Cycle. In the present work
a waste heat recovery for power generation (WHRPG) system is designed to recover waste heat for
power generation purpose in the cement manufacturing process. In this case study Mugher cement
factory is considered. Waste gas from the pre-heater with amount of 440,673 kg/hr at 335C
temperature and clinker cooler waste gas with amount of 298,667 kg/hr at 305C temperature are
exists. Those sources of waste heat have a lot of sensible heat and can be used for steam generation
and this superheated steam which is produced in both boilers are used to rotate impulse steam turbine
shows that the proposed technology can produce 8.3MW which yields considerable impact on the
turnover.

iii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We are deeply grateful to our project advisors Mr. Solomon S. and Mr. Emiru for their sustainable
and appreciable guidance, tireless advising, for sharing their knowledge, skill, experience and finetuning up to the successful completion of this project work.
We would like to thank also all Mugher Cement factory workers who insisted us to collect the
necessary data for our project work; particularly Ing. Dagnie, shift engineer at the factory.

We would like to thank all teaching staffs and our class colleagues in chemical engineering
department for the assistance they provided at all levels of the project work. Finally we would like to
thank our families for their moral and financial support to accomplish this project.

iv

Table of Content
ABSTRACT......................................................................................................................................... iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ....................................................................................................................iv
Table of content ................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
List of Tables ........................................................................................................................................vi
List of Figures .................................................................................................................................... viii
List of Acronyms and Abbreviations ....................................................................................................ix
CHAPTER ONE:INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 1
1.1. Background ................................................................................................................................. 1
1.1.1 Background of Mugher cement factory ................................................................................ 2
1.2. Problem of statement .................................................................................................................. 3
1.3. Objective ..................................................................................................................................... 4
1.3.1. General objective ................................................................................................................. 4
1.3.2. Specific objectives ............................................................................................................... 4
1.4. Significance of the project .......................................................................................................... 5
CHAPTER TWO: LITRATURE REVIEW .......................................................................................... 6
2.1. Process Description of Cement Production in case of MCF....................................................... 6
2.2. Types of energy used in cement production process .................................................................. 8
2.2.1................................................................................................................................................ 8
2.2.2. Energy requirement in cement production process .............................................................. 8
2.3. Introduction to industrial waste heat recovery .......................................................................... 11
2.3.1. Sustainable development through waste heat recovery ..................................................... 11
2.3.2. Factors affecting the waste heat recovery .......................................................................... 12
2.3.3. Benefits of waste heat recovery ......................................................................................... 13
2.4. Industrial waste heat recovery for power generation typical kiln system ................................. 15
2.4.1. Applicable Technologies of industrial waste heat recovery for power generation ............ 15
2.4.2. Selection of waste heat recovery technology for power generation from cement kiln ...... 19
2.5. Waste heat recovery for power generation from cement pyroprocessing unit ......................... 20
2.5.1. Source of waste heat in cement kiln system ...................................................................... 20
2.5.2. Technical consideration for power generation ................................................................... 21
2.5.3. Major Equipments of waste heat recovery system ............................................................ 22
2.6. Process description of power generation from waste heat of cement kiln ................................ 26
CHAPTER THREE:METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................. 28
CHAPTER FOUR: ENERGY BALANCE ......................................................................................... 29
4.1 Quantifying amount heat loss from kiln .................................................................................... 29
4.2 Energy balance on AQC boiler .................................................................................................. 29
4.3 Energy balance on PH-boiler ..................................................................................................... 31

4.4 Energy balance on steam turbine ............................................................................................... 32

4.5 Energy balance on condenser..................................................................................................... 33
CHAPTER FIVE:EQUIPMENT DESIGN ......................................................................................... 35
5.1 AQC Boiler Design .................................................................................................................... 35
5.2. PH-Boiler Design ...................................................................................................................... 38
5.3 Turbine Design........................................................................................................................... 39
5.4. Condenser Design ..................................................................................................................... 40
CHAPTER SIX: COST ESTIMATION AND PROFITABILITY ANALYSIS ................................. 49
6.1. Purchased equipment cost estimation ....................................................................................... 49
6.2. Fixed capital investment estimation (FCI) ................................................................................ 49
6.3 Total capital investment cost estimation (TCI) .......................................................................... 50
6.4. Total Production cost estimation (TPC) ................................................................................... 51
6.5. PROFITABILITY ANALYSIS ................................................................................................ 52
6.5.1. GROSS PROFIT (profit before tax) .................................................................................. 52
6.5.2. NET PROFIT (profit after tax) .......................................................................................... 52
6.5.3. Rate of return (ROR) ......................................................................................................... 53
6.5.4 Payback Period.................................................................................................................... 53
6.5.5 NET PRESENT VALUE (NPV) ........................................................................................ 53
6.5.6 Profitability index (PI) ........................................................................................................ 55
CHAPTER SEVEN: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................ 56
7.1. CONCLUSIONS....................................................................................................................... 56
7.2. RECOMMENDATIONS .......................................................................................................... 57
References ............................................................................................................................................ 58
Appendices ........................................................................................................................................... 59

vi

List of Tables
Table 1: The main Parameter factors that affect waste heat recovery ................................................. 12
Table 2 : summary of waste heat recovery power generation technologies ........................................ 19
Table 3 : the necessary quantity and temperature of the heat stream in kiln system .......................... 28
Table 4: composition of hot air leaving air quenching cooler ............................................................ 29
Table 5: composition of exhaust gas leaving from pre-heater ............................................................ 31
Table 6: operating temperature condition of fluids in AQC Boiler ..................................................... 35
Table 7: operating temperature condition of fluids.............................................................................. 39
Table 8: operating temperature condition of fluids in condenser ........................................................ 40
Table 9: cost of Equipments and machineries ..................................................................................... 49
Table 10: fixed capital cost estimation ................................................................................................ 50
Table 11: summary of utility cost ........................................................................................................ 51
Table 12: summary of total production cost ........................................................................................ 52

vii

List of Figures
Figure 1: PFD for Cement production in MCF ...................................................................................... 7
Figure 2: The use of electrical and thermal energy in cement production ........................................... 10
Figure 3: Waste heat recovery through Steam Rankine Cycle ............................................................ 16
Figure 4: WHR through Organic Cycle system
Figure 5: Kalina Cycle Waste heat recovery system
Figure 6:( a) AQC boiler and (b) PH-boiler
Figure 7: expansion chamber for dust removal subsystem

............................................. 18
. ...... 19
......................... 23
...................... 25

Figure 8: process flow of power generation from waste heat .............................................................. 27

viii

List of Acronyms and Abbreviations

AQC

-Air quenching cooler

CCR

-Central control room

CF

-Cash flow

CHP

-Combined heat and power

EEPCO

-Ethiopian electric power corporation

FCI

- Fixed capital investment

LMTD

- Logarithmic mean temperature difference

MCF

Mugher cement factory

NPV

- Net present value

ORC

- Organic Rankine Cycle

PFD

- Process flow diagram

PH

-Pre-heater

PV

- Present value

ROR

- Rate of return

TCI

-Total capital investment

WHRPG

-Waste heat recovery power generation

WHR

-Waste heat recovery

USD

-united states dollar

ix

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background
Cogeneration systems have been successfully operating in cement plants in India, China and Southeast Asian countries. Waste heat recovery for power generation (WHRPG) technology started from
the late 1960s in Europe and the United States, it was put into practical utility in the mid-1970s and
the application of this technology reached a climax in the early 1980s and has become popular since
then. The technology of WHRPG technology is utilizing the low-grade steam (low pressure, low
temperature) generated by industrial waste heat temperature between 120 oC and 400 o C, to push the
specially designed low - parameter- steam turbine generator unit to generate electricity.
Japan is much more mature in the research a nd development of this technology. Since the world oil
crisis in 1973, the government of Japan has paid closer attention to energy conservation and began to
promote the outside pre-clinker kiln (up to 90%) and waste heat power generation. In February,
1981, Japan Sumitomo Cement Company put a set of two 1320 kw heat generators, which were the
first sets of heat generating units in Japan, into operation. China has been engaged in waste heat
utilization technology for a long time. The first low temperature WHRPG project in China was a
6,480kW waste heat generator which is provided by Kawasaki for 4000t/d clinker production. The
first case of the national production of the waste heat power generation project was constructed to
produce 3000kW by Shanghai Triumph and Nanjing Cement Design Institute.
Now a days, in various countries throughout the world it is becoming more common for combined
heat and power (CHP) plant to be installed by recovering the waste heat, which can also produce hot
water for domestic heating as a means of utilizing low grade heat and improving the overall
efficiency of the CHP. It is less common to install heat recovery systems on existing process plant
for use in domestic heating systems. In Ethiopia, the Technology of waste heat power generation in
cement industries has not been developed. Till recent times, energy generation from waste heat
recovery technique was an alien idea to local industry. Now a day as the country is transforming
from agriculture based economy to industry based economy, the number of industries is increasing
all over the country resulting in huge energy utilization. This further leads to the need of energy
efficiency and waste heat recovery activities. This can help the country to reduce its fossil fuel
consumption, thus improving energy security and improving the countrys balance of payments.

Cement production is one of the most energy intensive industrial processes. A considerable amount
of energy input is lost through different parts of the processing units such as preheater stack, rotary
kiln shell and clinker cooler stack. The recovery and utilization of waste heat not only conserves
fuel, usually fossil fuel, but also reduces the amount of waste heat and greenhouse gases dumped to
the environment. The priority in the cement industry is to minimize the increase in energy
expenditure, to be more efficient and good competitor both internally and internationally. Also in
current circumstances, both the availability and cost of energy is becoming challenge to local
industrial hubs.
In many countries, energy costs represent the largest component of direct production cost for cement.
Energy cost represents as much as 40% to 60% of cement direct production cost. Energy cost is
incurred due to the need for large quantities of thermal heat for the clinkerization, calcination and
drying processes and electrical energy for operation of motors for grinding mills, fans, conveyers and
other motor driven equipment. Although the fuel use and energy use will depend on the type of
process, equipment, system efficiency and fuel heating value, typical requirements for coal use is in
the range of 150-250 kg per metric tons of cement and typical requirements for electrical energy use
is in the range of 80-125 kWhr per metric tons of cement.
1.1.1 Background of Mugher cement factory
Mugher cement factory is a state owned enterprise established with a purpose of producing and
supplying cement and carrying out related activities that are important for the attainment of its
objective. Initially it was established with an authorized capital of birr 334,716,000 of which birr
257,516,000 is paid up in cash and in kind, is formed in 1999 through amalgamation of two formerly
independent factory; i.e., Mugher cement factory and Adiss Ababa cement factory.
The factory is located about 90km North West of the capital city Adiss Ababa on the elevation of
2450 meters above the sea level. The mother plan of the factor has three production lines with
production capacity of 5000 tons of clinker per day. The first, second and third lines started
operations 1984, 1990 and 2011 respectively.
The first and second line plants were established with long term loan secured from the development
bank of Ethiopia and former east Germen government plus a financial outlay from treasury of
Ethiopian government. The third line plant total capital outlay is USD 138.37 million out of which
USD 90.98 million was a loan secured by commercial bank of Ethiopia and from EX-IM (ExportImport) bank of China and loaned out to the factory.

1.2. Problem of statement

The cement production process is highly energy intensive and the substantial energy contained in the
waste heat is not utilized but lost. This substantial energy loss occurs at the pre-heater stage (where
exhaust gasses from the heaters are cooled and waste heat is vented into the atmosphere) and during
the cooling of clinker product at the air quenching coolers (AQC) stage. In the dry process cement
plants nearly 40 percent of the total heat input is rejected as waste heat from exit gases of preheater
and grate cooler. Even for an optimized cement process, significant heat loss, mainly caused by the
heat of the waste gases, still occurs. In most of the plants part of the waste heat is utilized for drying
of raw material and coal, but even after covering the need for drying energy in most of the cases, the
remaining waste heat is rejected to the environment resulting in energy lose, air pollution and acid
rain to the surrounding environment. Up to now all Ethiopian cements, have not introduced any
waste heat recovery systems. A large portion of the Waste heat can be recovered and used for power
generation.

1.3. Objective
1.3.1. General objective:

Waste heat recovery from cement kiln

1.3.2. Specific objectives:
To design power generation system from waste heat of cement kiln
To design major Equipments
To identify the energy inputs, losses, generations
To quantify the energy flow
To perform economic analysis of the project

1.4. Significance of the project

By adopting advanced technology from developed countries, the project activity will promote
important transfer of technical knowhow to Ethiopia and can act as a pioneer in promoting the spread
of this technology to other processing plants. The successful completion of the project will make the
plant more profitable by recovering waste heat, which otherwise would lost to the environment and
generating power. At the same time the project, will make the industry more environmentally
friendly by reducing thermal pollution and pollutant emissions. The advantages and barriers in terms
of installation of waste heat recovery power generation system can be a role model for other third
world countries like Ethiopia, for sustainable development.

CHAPTER TWO
LITRATURE REVIEW
2.1. Process Description of Cement Production in case of MCF
Cement is manufactured by intimately mixing together calcareous and argillaceous and silica
alumina or iron oxide bearing materials, burning them at clinkering temperature and grinding the
resultant clinker so as to produce cement. To manufacture 1 ton of Portland cement about 1.5 to 1.7
tons raw materials, 0.13 ton coal and 1 ton clinker must be ground to dust fineness. The production
process of cement has three major stages. The first stage is mixing and crushing stage which is
responsible to mix certain proportion of clay and limestone and to crush them to powder form. The
second and the most important stage is pyro processing which consumes more than 90% of total
energy. This stage includes pre-heater, calciner, kiln and cooler. Clinker as nodular and well mixed
form is the main product of this stage which then is sent to final grinding and crushing stage of the
cement mill. During third stage, clinker is crushed and grinded to tiny grinds in powder form, mixed
with additives and then is sent to packaging stage. As mentioned before, pyro processing is the most
important stage in terms of energy and pollution management in cement plant. In this stage, raw
materials which are mixture of clay and limestone is crushed and mixed in the first crushing stage
reaching to 90p sieve grain size. This solid mixture enters to the pre-heater at 50C. The pre-heater
stages consist of 5 stages of double string cyclones which are used to preheat raw materials and
separate them from the pre-heater gas. In this stage, feed stream with 50C is heated up to 950C by
heat exchange with flue gases entering at 1100C from calciner. Flue gases then leave the pre-heater
stage at 300C and 3500C from each preheater stack and discharged to the environment. Such a high
temperature is a valuable source of thermal heat. Solid stream at 950C leaves pre-heater stage and is
fed to calciner where two reactions occur to convert 95% of CaCO3 and all amount of MgCO3 to
CaO and MgO respectively. These endothermic reactions which are the major source of CO 2
production in cement plant require too much thermal energy.
The preheated solid stream enters to the kiln at 1100C, where C2S, C3S, C3A and C4AF are
produced as four major components of clinker under several chemical and physical (phase
change) reactions. The required thermal heat is provided by combustion of coal fuel and hot air
sent from coolers. The clinker enters the cooler at 1450C and is cooled down to 80C - 100C.
Ambient air which is sent to hot clinker is separated to three streams and different temperatures
by ducts. One stream at 1100C is sent to the kiln, another one at 1000C is launched to calciner
and the last one at 305C is discharged to the environment as the second major source of
thermal heat loss in cement plant. Then, clinker is transported to the finish mill by a conveyor
belt to be ground into fine powder cement. A small amount of gypsum is added during grinding

to control the set properties of the produced cement. The schematic PFD of MCF plant is shown
in Figure 1 below.

Figure 1: PFD for Cement production in MCF

2.2. Types of energy used in cement production process

For each of the process steps within the boundary, the major energy use at that step of clinker
production the combustion of fuel to generate the heat required, not the electricity used to rotate
the kiln. Fuel coal and electricity are the main sources of energy in the cement production.
Generally, energy use is classified in three categories:
Electricity use for raw material preparation
Fossil fuel use for clinker production, and
Electricity use for cement grinding (or finish grinding).
1. Electrical Energy:
The major electrical energy consumption areas are mill drives, fans and conveying systems.
About 30% of electric power is consumed for finish grinding, and a little 30% each is consumed
by the clinker burning process.
2. Thermal Energy:
Thermal energy accounts for almost half the energy costs incurred in cement manufacture. A
variety of fuels such as coal and heavy fuel oil are used in the cement plant. The major use of
thermal energy is in the kiln and pre calciner. In plants using coal, an external coal or oil fired
furnace is used for generation of hot air required for coal mills.
2.2.1 Fuel used in cement kiln system
Fuels that have been used for primary firing include coal and heavy fuel oil. High carbon fuels
such as coal are preferred for kiln firing, because they yield a high luminous flame. The clinker
is brought to its peak temperature mainly by radiant heat transfer and hot flame is essential for
this.
2.2.2. Energy requirement in cement production process
The cement industry is essentially a chemical process industry entailing various engineering unit
operations. Thus raw meal grinding, mixing, burning and cement grinding are the main operations
entailed in the manufacture of cement. There are different types of equipment available for
transportation of materials, crushing and grinding of materials, mixing of materials. The thermal
efficiency of the pre-heater depends on the number of the stages in the pre-heater and the capacity of
the flow ratio of the gas and the kiln feed of materials.

The fed entering to the calciner is 95% calcined before it enters the rotary kiln. The hot
combustion air for the calciner arrives in a tertiary duct directly from the cooler, bypassing the
kiln. In clinker burning, the raw meal is fed to the kiln system where it is dried, preheated,
calcined and sintered to produce cement clinker. Thermal energy mainly coal, is consumed in the
kiln for the pyro processing of limestone to produce clinker. Theoretically only 430Kcal/ Kg
clinker of heat is required for burning 1 Kg of clinker, but in practice twice or more times this is
necessary. The shell heat loses from the rotary kiln can represent a considerable proportion of
the total energy loss, specially, in kiln plants with small throughout the heat loss through the
shell of rotating the kiln lies in the range of 200-600 KJ/kg of clinker depending on the
productivity of the kiln and if the kiln system have with or without tertiary air duct.

Figure 2: The use of electrical and thermal energy in cement production

10

2.3. Introduction to industrial waste heat recovery

Waste heat is heat, which is generated in a process by way of fuel combustion or chemical
reaction, and then dumped into the environment even though it could still be reused for some
useful and economic purpose. Waste heat recovery refers to the recuperation of heat that is
discharged as a byproduct from one process to provide supplemental energy needed by another
process. Captured and reused waste heat is an emission free substitute for costly purchased fuels
or electricity. Heat recovery options can be broadly classified into three strategies:
1)

Recycling energy back into the process

2)

Recovering energy for other on-site uses

3)

Using it to generate electricity in combined heat and power

systems.

2.3.1. Sustainable development through waste heat recovery

Industrial waste heat refers to energy that is generated in industrial processes without being put
to practical use. Many industrial processes require large quantities of thermal energy, much of
which is eventually exhausted to the environment, either to the atmosphere or water. Recovering
this waste heat represents the largest opportunity for reducing industrial energy consumption.
The exact quantity of industrial waste heat is poorly quantified, but various studies have
estimated that as much as 20 to 50% of industrial energy consumption is ultimately discharged
as waste heat. Waste heat reduces losses by improving equipment efficiency or installing waste
heat recovery technologies. Waste heat recovery entails capturing and reusing the waste heat in
industrial processes for heating or for generating mechanical or electrical work.
A sustainable energy system is one which balances energy production and consumption with
minimal negative impact on the environment. The multi-criteria decision-making procedure for
any sustainable energy system includes: technology (primary energy ratio), economy
(investment

cost),

environment

(CO2

emission)

and

society

(job

creation).

11

2.3.2. Factors affecting the waste heat recovery

The amount of heat in the waste gases that can be utilized or recovered depends primarily on the
waste gas mass flow rate, temperature of the waste heat gas and thermal capacity of the waste
gas. Evaluating the feasibility of waste heat recovery requires characterizing the waste heat
source and the stream to which the heat will be transferred. Depending on the above parameters,
for a 5,000 t/d kiln, it is expected to be in the range of 6 MW to 14 MW net electricity
generations through a WHRPG technologies. Factors that influence these parameters or
otherwise affect the design capacity of the power plant include the following:

Table 1: The main Parameter factors that affect waste heat recovery
No.

Parameter

Heat quantity and Heat temperature / quality

Minimum allowed temperature.

Cement production capacity and Plant layout

Efficiency of cement production process

Water-cooled or air-cooled condensers

Design ambient temperature and humidity

Diversions of waste heat for coal and limestone drying

Chemical composition of the waste gases

Source: Waste Heat Recovery Technology and Opportunities in U.S. Industry

These parameters allow for analysis of the quality and quantity of the stream and also provide
insight into possible materials and design limitations.
i). Heat Quantity and heat Quality: The quantity or heat content is a measure of how much
energy is contained in a waste heat stream. The quantity of waste heat contained in a waste
stream is a function of both the temperature and the mass flow rate of the stream:
E = m*Cp* T
Where E is the waste heat loss (KJ/hr); m is the waste stream mass flow rate (Kg/hr)

12

ii) Waste stream composition

Although chemical compositions do not directly influence the quality or quantity of the available
heat, the composition of the stream affects the recovery process and material selection. The
composition and phase of waste heat streams will determine factors such as thermal conductivity
and heat capacity, which will impact heat exchanger effectiveness. Meanwhile, the process
specific chemical makeup of off gases will have an important impact on heat exchanger designs,
material constraints, and costs.
iii) Minimum allowable temperature

The minimum allowable temperature for waste streams is often closely connected with material
corrosion problems. Depending on the fuel used, combustion related flue gases contain varying
concentrations of carbon dioxide, water vapor, NOX, SOX, un oxidized organics, and minerals.
If exhaust gases are cooled below the dew point temperature, the water vapor in the gas will
condense and deposit corrosive substances on the heat exchanger surface. The most common
method for preventing chemical corrosion is designing heat exchangers with exhaust
temperatures well above the dew point temperature.
2.3.3. Benefits of waste heat recovery
Benefits of waste heat recovery can be broadly classified in two categories:
1. Direct benefits:

Recovery of waste heat has a direct effect on the efficiency of the process. This is includes:
Reduces purchased power consumption (or reduces reliance on fossil-fuel-based captive
power plants)
Mitigates the impact of future electric price increases
Enhances plant power reliability
Improves plant competitive position in the market
2. Indirect benefits:

Reduction in pollution: A number of toxic combustible wastes such as CO gas, sour gas, carbon
black off gases, Acrylonitrile and other plastic chemicals releasing to atmosphere if/when burnt in
the incinerators serves dual purpose i.e. recovers heat and reduces the environmental pollution levels.

13

Reduction in equipment sizes: Waste heat recovery reduces the fuel consumption, which leads to
reduction in the flue gas produced, results in reduction in equipment sizes of all flue gas handling
equipments such as fans, stacks, ducts, burners, etc.
Reduction in auxiliary energy consumption: Reduction in equipment sizes gives additional
benefits in the form of reduction in auxiliary energy consumption like electricity for fans, pumps etc.

14

2.4. Industrial waste heat recovery for power generation typical kiln system
Generating power from waste heat typically involves using the waste heat from cement kiln system
to create mechanical energy that then drives an electric generator. When considering power
generation options for waste heat recovery, an important factor to keep in mind is the
thermodynamic limitations on power generation at different temperatures. The efficiency of power
generation is heavily dependent on the temperature of the waste heat source. In general, power
generation from waste heat has been limited to only medium- to high temperature waste heat
sources. However, advances in alternate power cycles may increase the feasibility of generation at
low temperatures. While maximum efficiency at these temperatures is lower, these systems can still
be economical in recovering large quantities of energy from waste heat.
2.4.1. Applicable Technologies of industrial waste heat recovery for power generation
Three primary waste heat recovery power generation systems are available,
1. Steam (Conventional) Rankine cycle:
The most commonly used system for power generation from waste heat involves using the heat to
generate steam in a waste heat boiler, which then drives a steam turbine. Steam turbines are one of
the oldest and most versatile prime mover technologies. Heat recovery boiler and steam turbine
systems operate thermodynamically as a Rankine Cycle, as shown in Figure 3. In the steam Rankine
cycle; the working fluid water is first pumped to elevated pressure before entering a heat recovery
boiler. The pressurized water is vaporized by the hot exhaust and then expanded to lower
temperature and pressure in a turbine, generating mechanical power that can drive an electric
generator. The low-pressure steam is then exhausted to a condenser at vacuum conditions, where
heat is removed by condensing the vapor back into a liquid. The condensate from the condenser is
then returned to the pump and the cycle continues.

15

Figure 3: Waste heat recovery through Steam Rankine Cycle

Source: Rahbord Engineering Services Co,. Introduction of low-temperature Waste heat
recovery power generation (WHRPG) technology in Cement Kiln, 2010-11-19

16

2. Organic Rankine Cycle:

It is one of the methods to convert thermal energy to electrical energy. It is a closed loop system
filled with an organic liquid having a low boiling temperature. The Organic Rankine cycle (ORC) is
named for its use of an organic, high molecular mass fluid with a liquid-vapor phase change, or
boiling point, occurring at a lower temperature than the water - steam phase change. The fluid allows
Rankine cycle heat recovery from lower temperature sources such as biomass combustion, industrial
waste heat, geothermal heat, solar ponds etc. The low - temperature heat is converted into useful
work that can itself be converted into electricity. The working principle of the organic Rankine cycle
is the same as that of the Rankine cycle: the working fluid is pumped to a boiler where it is
evaporated, passes through a turbine and is finally re- condensed. In the ideal cycle, the expansion is
isentropic and the evaporation and condensation processes are isobaric. In the real cycle, the
presence of irreversibility lowers the cycle efficiency.

17

Figure 4: WHR through Organic Cycle system

Source: Rahbord Engineering Services Co,. Introduction of low-temperature Waste heat recovery power
generation (WHRPG) technology in Cement Kiln, 2010-11-19

3. Kalina Cycle:
The Rankine cycle has also been improvised using binary fluid of ammonia and water as the working
fluid in place of only water for improving the overall efficiency of conventional systems. In this
system efficiency gains of up to 50% for low temperature heat sources (200-280oC) and up to 20%
for higher temperature heat sources have been claimed as compared to conventional Rankine cycle
based power plants. Kalina Cycle takes advantage of the ability of ammonia-water mixture at any
given pressure to boil or condense at a Variable temperature. Moreover, conventional axial flow
turbines can be used in these plants as molecular weights of ammonia and water are almost similar.
Further, the turbines used may be smaller in size and hence less costly as back pressure turbines can
be used as condensing turbines.

18

Figure 5: Kalina Cycle Waste heat recovery system

Source: The new Generation Kalina at ENGINE MWZ-Eng, 14.09.06 by Dr. Manfred Renz, Manfred
Engelhard.

Table 2 : summary of waste heat recovery power generation technologies

Sr. No Thermal
1

Conversion Technology
Steam Rankine Cycle

Temperature Typical Sources of Waste Heat

Range
Medium, high Exhaust from gas turbines, reciprocating
engines, furnaces and cement kiln.

Kalina Cycle

Low, medium Gas turbine exhaust, boiler exhaust, cement

Organic Rankine Cycle

kilns
Low, medium Gas turbine exhaust, boiler exhaust, heated

water, cement kilns

Thermoelectric Generation Medium- high Not yet demonstrated

in

industrial

Piezoelectric generation

in

industrial

Thermal Photovoltaic

in

industrial

Low

Not
yet demonstrated
applications
Medium- high Not
yet demonstrated
applications
Applications

Source: Heat Recovery Systems by D.A.Reay, E & F.N.Span, London, 1979

2.4.2. Selection of waste heat recovery technology for power generation from cement kiln
Several different medium temperature waste heat power generation technologies for cement
production have been developed in the past few years, including Steam Rankine Cycle, the Organic
Rankine Cycle and the Kalina Cycle. The Steam Rankine Cycle approach is the most common
approach that is used in existing on-site power plant because of the following advantages:

19

Based on proven technologies and generally simple to operate

Widely available from a variety of suppliers

Generally have lower installation costs than other Rankine cycle systems on a specific
cost basis (US$/kW)

Need higher-temperature waste heat to operate optimally (minimum >260 C (500

F))generation efficiencies fall significantly at lower temperatures, and lower
pressure and temperature steam conditions can result in partially condensed steam
exiting the turbine, causing blade erosion

Often recover heat from the middle of the air cooler exhaust flow to increase waste
gas temperatures to an acceptable level for the system, but at the expense of not
recovering a portion of cooler waste heat

Require feed water conditioning systems

Generally require a water-cooled condenser; air cooled condensers can be used but
create a performance penalty due to higher condenser vacuum pressures

In general, match well with large kilns and systems with low raw material water
content (resulting in higher waste gas temperatures)

2.5. Waste heat recovery for power generation from cement pyroprocessing unit
2.5.1. Source of waste heat in cement kiln system
In general 54% of the fuel energy consumption is required for the chemical reaction of the kiln fed to
produce clinker. About 16% of the fuel energy consumption is consumed for drying of the raw
materials in the raw mill. The total of this energy percent gas about 70% corresponded to the useful
energy. The remaining 30% of the energy is needed to cover energy losses, (wall heat loss, kiln
exhaust gas, cold clinker and other losses). There are a few major heat loss sources that would be
considered for heat recovery. These heat losses are:
i. Cement rotary kilns surface:

Whole section kilns Surface temperature can be up to 260-280 C when rotary kilns works, air cooled method is currently used and a lot of heat is directly distributed into the atmosphere, which
not only causes a waste of a lot of heat, but also causes high temperatures pollution around the kiln.
According to the needs of enterprises, waste heat recovery can be used to heat water or air, and hot
water can be used for life and refrigeration.

20

ii. Grate cooler waste gas process:

Cold air is sent to grate cooler to cool the material 80 up to 100C, and cold air is heats to hot air of
305C, then excretes from grate cooler tail, then enters to kiln head dust collector, and finally
discharge into atmosphere by exhaust fan.
iii. Preheater waste gas process:

Waste gases of preheater outlet from the two double strings preheater, 320 and 350 0C lose
occur then discharged into atmosphere. The average temperature of the flue gas is 335 0C.
2.5.2. Technical consideration for power generation
The various considerations for the design of appropriate cogeneration scheme for a particular plant
will need in-depth study of the following technical details:
Availability of waste heat for power generation
The heat available for recovery entirely depends on the design of the cement plant and its
configuration. The pyro process system design itself plays a crucial role. The parameters that are
important are plant capacity, heat consumption, type of system such as preheater kiln or pre-calciner
kiln, either with one string or two strings of preheater, number of stages of preheater and type of
clinker cooler. Next aspect is the drying and grinding system utilized for raw materials and fuel.
Some of the crucial parameters are the quantity of material to be ground their moisture content, their
grind ability, type of grinding system etc.
Location of waste heat boiler
Another factor that could be important is the location of heat recovery unit in the process circuit,
namely before or after process fan, in the down-comer at an elevated position or at ground level, and
before or after the pollution control device such as electrostatic precipitator or a bag filter. These
could play a role in estimating the heat that could be recovered as well as in the design and layout of
plant.
Suitability of waste heat recovery boiler
The waste gases from preheater and cooler exhaust contain high dust concentrations. Accordingly
the waste heat recovery boiler should be able to withstand high dust loads. Moreover, the operating
conditions in cement plants require design of waste heat recovery boilers which should be able to

21

withstand the problems of heavy coating formation resulting in drastic reduction of capacity and the
wear of tubes due to coarse clinker particles. As such, the characterization of the dust in the waste
gases with regard to particle size, stickiness, abrasiveness should be studied in detail for evaluation
of the suitability/ design of the waste heat recovery boiler.
Maximum flue gas temperature
There is a limit at the upper scale of the temperature of the waste gases for cement plant application
as the flue gases contain dust comprising. These components make the dust sticky and aggressive at
temperatures more than 400oC which is considered as the highest gas temperature for steam
production. The material used for waste heat boiler tubes and plates is also not too expensive if the
gas temperature is less than 400oC.
Quantity of heat recovery
Ideally, higher the temperature of the gases, the better the heat transfer efficiency, as the gases at
higher temperatures can be cooled down to a much lower temperature in the waste heat recovery
boiler. The critical parameters such as steam flow rate, pressure and superheat gas outlet temperature
are to be optimized for each plant in order to achieve maximum power generation.
2.5.3. Major Equipments of waste heat recovery system
Air quenching cooler (AQC) and Preheater (PH) boilers
AQC boiler will be installed next to the kiln head of the cement line, producing superheated steam
and a dedusting chamber will be set up to alleviate the boiler abrasion . For AQC boiler, the heat
receiving surface of the boiler is divided into three stages: The first stages main superheated steam
stage, and the second stage is low pressure superheated steam stage, and the third stage is hot water
stage.
PH boiler will be connected to the pre-heater exit, producing a superheated steam. For PH boiler, the
heat-receiving surface of the boiler is divided into three stages: The first stage is main superheated
steam stage; second stage is low pressure superheated steam stage and the water after being
deaerated is pumped to AQC boiler second and third stage. Then, the outgoing hot water from AQC
third stage is used as feed water of AQC boiler second stage and PH boiler first stage. The
superheated steam produced in AQC boiler first stage and PH boiler second stage merge together and
then is introduced to the turbine main stream inlet. At the same time, the low pressure superheated
steam produced in AQC boiler second stage and SP boiler second stage merge together, and then is

22

introduced to the turbine supplement inlet. The main stream and low pressure steam is used to
promote the turbine for power generation. Exhaust steam of turbine after work is condensed to water,
and then pumped to a deaerator, thus a complete thermodynamic circulation system forms.

Figure 6:( a) AQC boiler and (b) PH-boiler

source: Basu Prabir, Kefa Cen, Jestin Louis, Boilers and Burners , Springer Verlag New York
2000

Turbine
The purpose of the turbine is to change the potential energy of pressurized gasses into rotational
kinetic energy. The stream of high-pressure vapor of organic fluid expands in the turbine, causing its
internal part to rotate. The rotor is connected by a shaft to the generator which changes rotational
kinetic energy into electricity. In a steam turbine, high-pressure steam from the boiler expands in a
set of stationary blades or vanes (or nozzles). The high-velocity steam from the nozzles strikes the
set of moving blades (or buckets). Here the kinetic energy of the steam is utilized to produce work on
the turbine rotor. Low pressure steam then exhausts to the condenser and the total pressure drop
occurs across the stationary blades (or nozzles). The expansion process is considered adiabatic and a
steady sate of operation is assumed.
Condenser
Water-cooling unit adopts water as cooling medium for exhaust steam condensation, which is
composed of condenser, condensate pump, cooling tower and water basin. Water from basin is
pressurized and sent to condenser for heat absorption, and exhaust steam from turbine is condensed.
The water absorbed heat and turned back to the cooling tower for cooling with the help of
mechanical draft fans.

23

Pump
This is used to deliver cooling water from condenser to heat exchanger by application of pressure
difference.
Expansion chamber
An expansion chamber is an apparatus for the removal of solid particles from a stream of gas, in
particular (but not limited to) gas used as a heat source in a power system. An example of this
situation can be found in power systems based on the use of waste heat from cement plants, where
the hot gas is heavily laden with abrasive cement dust. Removal of these particles by various sorts of
filters cause substantial difficulties; such a filter would have to operate at very high temperature and
in the case that a large amount of solid particles is high, the filter becomes clogged in a short time,
causing substantial maintenance problems. The use of cyclone separation apparatus is problematic in
that it causes substantial losses of pressure in the stream of gas. Moreover, abrasive solid particles
can cause substantial erosion in the cyclone apparatus itself.
A stream of gas, laden with solid particles and moving at high speed enters into the inlet duct of the
apparatus. Due to the high velocity of the gas the kinetic energy of the stream is high, which enables
the stream to carry solid particles. This stream then enters into an expanding duct. As the crosssection of the expanding duct increases, the velocity of the stream decreases and according to
Bernoulli's Principle, the pressure of the stream increases. The decrease in the velocity of the stream
corresponds to a reduction of its kinetic energy (in proportion to the second power of velocity).
Therefore the ability of the stream to carry solid particles is drastically decreased. Thereafter, the low
velocity stream enters into a separation chamber where, due to the low velocity of the gas, the solid
particles fall down into dust collector, located at the bottom of the separation chamber.
Due to the fact that the pressure in the collection chamber is elevated, the solid particles in the dust
collector is easily removed through openings the bottom of the dust collector. Thereafter, the gas
from the separation chamber enters into a converging duct, where it's velocity increases and pressure
decreases. Thereafter, the stream of gas enters into an outlet duct and can be directed as needed. An
expansion chamber used for dust removal has the following advantages compared to conventional
filters:
It can separate a substantial quantity of solid particles without causing blockage of a
filter.

24

 It can easily work with high temperature or low temperature gas without need for
special high temperature filters.
It has no moving parts and as a result is reliable.

Figure 7: expansion chamber for dust removal subsystem

source: online from dedusting equipment

25

2.6. Process description of power generation from waste heat of cement kiln
AQC boiler which is installed next to the kiln head of the cement line produces superheated steam by
using water as a working fluid and then dedusting chamber is installed to alleviate the boiler
abrasion. For AQC boiler, the heat receiving surface of the boiler is divided into three stages: The
first stages main superheated steam stage, and the second stage is low pressure superheated steam
stage, and the third stage is hot water stage.
By the same method PH boiler which is installed next to the pre-heater exit produces a superheated
steam. For PH boiler, the heat-receiving surface of the boiler is divided into three stages: The first
stage is main superheated steam stage; second stage is low pressure superheated steam stage and the
water after being deaerated is pumped to AQC boiler second and third stage. Then, the outgoing hot
water from AQC third stage is used as feed water of AQC boiler second stage and PH boiler first
stage. The superheated steam produced in AQC boiler first stage and PH boiler second stage merge
together and then is introduced to the turbine main stream inlet. At the same time, the low pressure
superheated steam produced in AQC boiler second stage and SP boiler second stage merge together,
and then is introduced to the turbine supplement inlet. The main stream and low pressure steam is
used to promote the turbine for power generation which drives the shaft of the generator to electric
city. Exhaust steam of turbine after work is condensed to water, and then pumped to a deaerator, thus
a complete thermodynamic circulation system forms. The process flow diagram is shown in the
figure below.

26

Figure 8: process flow of power generation from waste heat

Source: Adapted from Holcim 2012, 2013

27

CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
In this case study the main task was to collect real data which are necessary for designing of waste
heat recovery system. The methods employed to achieve the objectives of the project are:
1) Literature survey and previous relevant studies: a systematic review of available documents
and studies related to the subject is made. A review of literature was conducted on the area of
industrial energy use and efficiency in relation to cement factory. Available books, case studies,
previous project work and guidelines are surveyed in order to have a clear understanding of the
subject matter.
2) Data collection
The primary approach to this case study involved walk-through surveys of the whole plant and in
depth interviews with the shift engineers to collect the necessary data for the project. Some particular
data are collected from CCR. The necessary data are: Clinker Production Capacity of the plant and
number of Preheater stages, quantity of exhaust gas at the exit of preheater and at the exit of cooler,
exhaust gas temperature at the preheater outlet and cooler outlet and the current energy requirement
to produce a unit product (specific electrical and fuel consumptions).
The case study has also assessed the existing heat released condition from the gas analyzer. This is
used to know the flue gas components and their concentration as well as the flue gas temperature
from which one can calculate the amount of different losses. The detailed collected data from the
company are listed in appendix A.
Table 3 : the necessary quantity and temperature of the heat stream in kiln system
Sr.no

Unit

Amount

Exhaust gas quantity at preheater outlet

Kg/hr

440,673

Exhaust gas temperature at preheater

320-335

outlet

Hot air quantity at the cooler outlet

Kg/hr

298,667

Hot air temperature at the cooler outlet

300-310

28

CHAPTER FOUR
ENERGY BALANCE
4.1 Quantifying amount heat loss from kiln
The data obtained can be analyzed quantitatively. The average temperature of exhaust gas from
preheater is 335 0C and the temperature of hot air from grate cooler is 305 0C. Therefore, the
temperature obtained is classified at medium temperature range qualitatively and at this temperature,
the amount of energy that can be rejected to atmosphere is quantitatively calculated as follows:
The amount of energy lost in the cement from preheater is:
Q = *Cp*T = 440,673 Kg/hr*1.068kJ/kg0C* (335-25) = 40,527kJ/sec
The amount of energy lost in the cement from grate cooler is:
Q=*Cp*T=298,667kg/hr*1.0615*(305 -25) = 24,658kJ/sec
As mentioned above, there is a huge energy loss at the Mugher Cement factory.
Assumptions:
o No heat loss occur along the connecting pipelines
o Steady state heat flow
o Boilers are completely insulated(no heat loss from the shell)
o Kinetic and potential energies are neglected

4.2 Energy balance on AQC boiler

Heat Stream data:
Clinker Cooler air available for Heat recovery for Power generation:
Mass flow rate of exhaust hot air (ha) = 298,667kg/hr
Exhaust hot gas temperature (Tex) = 3050C
Exhaust hot gas outlet temperature = 1100C
Working fluid (water) inlet condtions:
T= 700C and P= 1.5 Mpa
Mass flow rate of working fluid (wf-in) =?
Steam condtions:
T= 2850C and P= 1.5Mpa

Table 4: composition of hot air leaving air quenching cooler

29

Contents

Hot air composition @ AQC stack (%)

Cp(kJ/kg.0C)

O2

21

1.003

N2

79

1.077

Cp, hot air = 21%*Cp, O2 + 79%*Cp, N2 = 0.21*1.003 + 0.79*1.077 = 1.0615kJ/kg.0C

T = 3050C

Tsteam =2850 C

ha-in = 298,667kg/hr

P= 1.5MPa

Cp = 1.0615kJ/kg.0C

AQC BOILER
ha-out = 298,667.0kg/hr

wf-AQC=?

Tf = 1100C

P = 1.5MPa
Twf-in =700C

In the boiler, steam is produced using the waste heat from the gas. Energy balance is carried out to
determine the flow rate of steam produced in boiler.
ha-inCp ha T =wf-AQC *(hout-hin)
Where, ha-in and wf-AQC are the exhaust gas and steam flow rates in AQC boiler respectively
T =is the temperature difference between inlet and outlet exhaust gas temperature.
At pressure of 1.5 Mpa and 700C from steam table the enthalpy using interpolation is
hin=292.98KJ/Kg and at pressure of 1.5 Mpa and 2850C from superheated steam table the enthalpy
is hout =3003.9KJ/Kg.
Then,
298,667Kg/hr*1.0615KJ/Kg0C* (3050C-1100C) = wf (3,003.9-292.98)KJ/Kg
By rearranging;
wf= 298667Kg/hr1.0615KJ/Kg0C (3050C1100C)/(3003.9292.98)KJ/Kg = 6.3Kg/sec

30

4.3 Energy balance on PH-boiler

Heat stream data
Preheater exhaust gas
Mass flow rate of exhaust gas = 440,673 kg/hr
Exhaust gas temperature (Tex) = 3350C
Exhaust hot gas outlet temperature = 2150C
Working fluid (water) inlet condtions:
T= 700C and P= 1.5 Mpa
Mass flow rate of working fluid (wf-in) =?
Steam condtions:
T= 3000C and P= 1.5Mpa
Table 5: composition of exhaust gas leaving from pre-heater
Contents

Cp(KJ/Kg. 0C)

Exhaust gas composition

Average

@ preheater (%)

composition (%)

CO

0.02 0.03

0.025

1.0891

O2

3.54 3.62

3.58

0.9964

NO

695 716 ppm

705.5 ppm

0.9950

The specific heat of the exhaust gas:

Cp, ex gas = 0.025%*Cp, CO + 3.58% *Cp, O2 + 0.7055*10-3% *Cp, NO
= 1.068kJ/kg.0C.
Therefore, the required data which entered to the PH-boiler are:
ex, in= 440,673 Kg/hr

P=1.5MPa

Tex, in = 3350C

Tout=3000C

PH- BOILER
ex,out= 440,673.kg/hr

P = 1.5MPa

Tex= 2150C

Tin=700C

The amount of energy transferred in the PH-boiler is;

From steam table @Tin=700C and P=1.5MPa hin =292.98KJ/Kg and @Tout=3000Cand P=1.5Mpa
hout= 3037.3KJ/Kg

31

Qtrans = ex,in * Cp*T =wf*(hin-hout) , by rearranging

wf =

ex,in CpT
hinhout

4406731.068(335215)
3037.3292.98

= 5.7Kg/sec

The amount of energy and temperature that comes from the two boilers in the mixing line before
entering turbine is:
Average temperature =

285+300
2

=292.50C and enthalpy =3020.5KJ/Kg

The mass flow rate at the inlet of turbine = 6.3+5.7 = 12kg/sec

4.4 Energy balance on steam turbine

Input data
Turbine inlet conditions
Mass flow rate of steam entering in to the turbine=12kg/sec
Temperature= 292.5 C
Pressure =1.5Mpa
Turbine outlet conditions
Temperature = 95C
Assume efficiency of turbine to be: = 95%

T= 292.50C

Woutput

=?

wf = 12kg/sec
wf = 12kg/sec
T = 950C

Assuming the inlet conditions of the turbine equals to the average of the two boilers (i.e. 292.5C
and 1.5MPa, the wetness fraction (quality of the steam) of steam is calculated as follows:
From steam tables, inlet conditions at T1= 292.5 C and P1=1.5MPa are: then entropy is calculated by
interpolation:
@2800C =6.8381KJ/Kg.K,@297.50C=?and@3200C=6.9938KJ/Kg.K
280320
280297.5

6.83816.9938
6.83811

, then S1=6.91 KJ/Kg.K and h1= 3020.6 KJ/kg

At the out let of the turbine with a temperature 950C the pressure from steam table is equal to
0.0846MPa and for the isentropic expansion entropy is constant (i.e. S1=S2)
Where Sf and Sg are the saturated liquid and vapor entropies. Taking saturated liquid and Vapour
entropies from steam tables at 95 0C and 0.08464MPa, Sf=1.25KJ/Kg.K; Sg= 7.42KJ/Kg.K

32

The wetness fraction or quality(X) can be calculated

S1Sg

6.917.42

X = SfSg = 1.257.42 = 0.083

The turbine outlet enthalpy for an isentropic expansion can be calculated from
h2= Xhf+ (1-X) hg
hf and hg are the saturated liquid and vapor enthalpies. Taking saturated liquid and vapor enthalpies
from steam tables at 950 C and 0.846MPa, hf =397.96KJ/Kg. hg = 2770.9 KJ/Kg
h2= 0.083*397.96 + (1-0.083) *2770.9
h2= 2214.8 KJ/ kg
For a single stage expansion with isentropic efficiency of 95%
h2= h1 (h1 h2)
h2= 3020.6 0.95 (3020.6-2214.8) = 2255.1 KJ/ kg
Power generated (W) from the turbine is:
W = wf (h1 h2) = 12Kg/sec*(3020.6-2255.1) KJ/Kg = 9186KW
= 9.18 MW
Net power from generator
Pnet = Pturbine* elec * mech =9.18*0.95*0.95
= 8.3 MW

4.5 Energy balance on condenser

Steam conditions
Mass flow rate of steam entering in to condenser =12kg/sec
Inlet temperature = 950C
required Outlet temperature=250C
Cooling water conditions
Inlet temperature= 100C
Out let temperature = 350C
wf-in= 12Kg/sec
Twf-in= 950C

wf-out=12Kg/sec
Condenser

Twf-out = 250C

cw out =?

cw-in =?

Tcw-out = 350C

Tcw-in= 100C

The amount of heat transfer in to cooling water from the working fluid is:

33

Q trans =wf (h1-h2) =cw*CPT

Where, h1 is enthalpy of working fluid at 950C from saturation vapor steam table = 272.06KJ/Kg
h2 is enthalpy of working fluid at 250C from saturation liquid steam table = 104.89KJ/Kg
CP =specific capacity of water at the average temperature

cw =

wf(h1h2)
CPT

12(272.06104.89

4.18325

35+10
2

= 22.5 0C = 4.183KJ/Kg.0C

=1.9Kg/sec

Amount of cooling water required = 1.9kg/s

34

CHAPTER FIVE
EQUIPMENT DESIGN
5.1 AQC Boiler Design
Design data
Exhaust hot air
Inlet temperature (Texin) = 3050 c
Outlet temperature (Texout) = 1100c
Mass flow rate of the hot air (ex) =298,667Kg/hr =83Kg/sec
Specific heat capacity of hot air =1.0618KJ/Kg.K
Working fluid (water)
Inlet temperature (Twf in) = 700c
Outlet temperature (Twfout) = 2850c
Mass flow rate of water (w) = 19,080Kg/hr=6.3kg/sec
Specific heat capacity (CPw) =4.13KJ/Kg.K
During design of boiler the following points are considered:
1. Fluid allocation
Allocating the fluids with the lowest flow rate to the shell side will normally give the most
economical design and also the higher pressure stream should be allocated to the tube side. High
pressure tubes will be cheaper than a high pressure shell. By economical consideration here, hot air
is on shell side and working fluid on tube side.
2. Heat transfer area
The designing overall heat transfer coefficient for hot air-water system is in the range of 2271.32
5678.3 W/(m2oK) and it includes total dirt factor Df= 8.81 10-5(m2oK)/W.
Assume Ud= 4300 W/m2K
3. Exchanger type and dimensions
An even number of tube passes arrangement and counter-current flow is usually the preferred.
Start with one shell pass and 2 tube passes.
Table 6: operating temperature condition of fluids in AQC Boiler

Temperature(0C)

Hot air

Working fluid

305

285

110

70

35

T1 = 305 - 285 = 200C

T2 = 110 - 70 = 400C
So the mean temperature (TLMTD) =
R=

12
21

(21)

(305110)
(28570)

12
(

1
)
2

= 28.85oc

= 2.91

(28570)

S= (11) = (30570)=0.915
From Ft versus S at various R, Ft = 0.95 Then,
True mean temperature TLMTD* Ft = 0.95*28.85 = 27.5c
Assume Uo = 4300w/m2K,
Amount of heat transferred into working fluid (Qtrans) = ha-in*Cp*T=298,667kg/hr*1.062(305-110)
= 17172.7KJ/sec.

Then the area can be calculated as:

A= =

17,1731000
430027.85

=145.72m2

Let us choose tube characteristics as follows:

Outer diameter of tube (do) = 30 mm
Heat transfer length of tube (L) = 6.8m
Inner diameter of tube (di) = 28mm
4. Physical properties
Physical properties of water at average temperature of 178C;
Specific heat = Cp= 4.399 kJ/kg. K
Viscosity = = 5.073 *10-5N.sec/m2
Thermal conductivity = k = 0.674 W/m. K
Density = = 888.95kg/m3
5. Tube-side heat transfer coefficient
Area of tube neglecting thickness of tube sheet:
Area of one tube (At) = *Do *L = 3.14x.03x6.8 = 0.641m2

Number of tube (Nt) = =

145.72
0.641

=228

So, for two passes, tubes per pass = 228/2 = 114

Tube cross sectional area (Ats) = x di = 3.14 x 0.0282 /4 = 0.000615 m2
So area per pass = 114 x 0.000615 = 0.0706 m2

36

Volumetric flow rate (Vt) =

Tube side velocity ( ut) =

6.3

= 888.95 =0.0061m3/sec

0.0061

= 0.07068 =0.087m/sec

Bundle and shell diameter:

For square pinch and 2 tube passes arrangement, K1=0.156, n1=2.207,pt=1.25do

228

Db = di(1) *1/n1 = 28(0.156)*1/2.207 = 760.6mm

For a pull-through floating head the typical shell clearance is 100mm,so the shell inside diameter:
ds=760.6+100=860 mm= 0.86m
Nre =

Npr =

For, =

6800
28

888.950.0870.028
5.07310^5

= 42,686

4.3810000.0000507
0.674

= 0.33

= 243 and Nre =42,686 and from graph jh = 6.1*10-2

Therefore, Nu = jhNreNpr0.33 =6.1*10-2*42,686*(0.33)0.33 =1,806.03

Tube side heat transfer coefficient (hi)
hi = Nu

1,806.030.674
0.028

= 43,474 w/m2K

6. Shell side heat transfer coefficient

Physical properties of exhaust gas average temperature of 207.5C:
Specific heat = Cp= 1.128 kJ/kg. K
Viscosity = = 4.2 *10-5N.sec/m2
Thermal conductivity = k = 0.065W/m. K
Density = = 1.254kg/m3
Shell diameter (ds) = 1160.6mm
As first trial take baffle spacing (lbaff) =ds/5=232mm
Pt =1.25do = 1.25*30= 37.5mm
Area of shell (As) =

()

(37.530)1160.6232
37.5

= 0.53m2

For square pinch arrangement the shell side equivalent diameter (hydraulic diameter),de
de =

1.27

(Pt2 0.78d02) =

1.27
30

(37.52-0.78*302) = 29.82mm

Volumetric flow rate of shell side,Vs

82.96/

Vs = = 1.254/3 = 66.2m3/sec
Shell side velocity
37

us = =
Nre =

66.23/
0.532

Npr =

= 12.23m/sec

1.2512.230.02982
4.1510^5

1.1284.1510^5
0.06

= 59,579

= 7.802*10^-4

Using the segmental baffles with a 25%

jh = 8.6*10-2
Therefore, shell side heat transfer coefficient is:
Nu = jhNreNpr0.33 =8.6*10-2*59,579*(0.721)0.33 = 4,599.5
Shell side heat transfer coefficient (hs)
hs =Nu

4,599.50.06501
0.02982

= 43,474 w/m2K =10,027

7. Overall heat transfer coefficient

1/Uo= (1/ho) + (1/hi ) *(do/di) + Df
1
1
1
=
+
+

1

30

= 10,027 + 43,474 28 +8.81*10^-5

U0 = 5016w/m2.K

Required heat transfer area (Atrans) = =

.
.

= 124.5m2125m2

Here is less than the corrected (available) heat transfer area. Therefore, this value of Uo is good
enough.

5.2. PH-Boiler Design

From the energy balance, the energy transfer is:

Qhot, = ha-in*Cp ha* T = 440,673*1.068*(335-215) = 56,476,651.7kJ/hr = 15,687.96 kJ/sec

Design Input data

Preheater exhaust gas
Exhaust gas temperature (Tex) = 3350C
Exhaust hot gas outlet temperature = 2150C
Mass flow rate of exhaust gas = 440,673 kg/hr
Working fluid (water)
Inlet temperature = 700C
Outlet temperature= 3000C

38

Table 7: operating temperature condition of fluids

Temperature

Hot air

Working fluid

335

300

215

70

Now lets determine log mean temperature difference (TLMTD):

T1 = 335 - 300 = 350C
T2 = 215 - 70= 1450C
Then, TLMTD =

R=

12
21

12
(

1
)
2

(335215)

(21)

(30070)

= 77.40C
= 0.522

(30070)

S= (11) = (33570) = 0.8679

From Ft versus S at various R, Ft = 0.77 Then,
TLMTD = 0.77 x 77.4 = 59.6C
Assume Uo = 2250w/m2K, Then the area can be calculated as:

A= =

,.
.

= 117 m2

5.3 Turbine Design

Power output from the turbine is:
P = wf (h1 h2) = 12Kg/sec*(3020.6-2255.1) KJ/Kg = 9186KW = 9.2 MW

In a steam turbine, high-pressure steam from the boiler expands in a set of stationary blades or vanes
(or nozzles). The high-velocity steam from the nozzles strikes the set of moving blades (or buckets).
Here the kinetic energy of the steam is utilized to produce work on the turbine rotor. Low pressure
steam then exhausts to the condenser and the total pressure drop occurs across the stationary blades
(or nozzles). This pressure drop increases the velocity of the steam.
Isentropic heat drop (hisen) is obtained as follows:
hisen= (h1 h2) = (3020.6- 2255.1) KJ/kg
= 765.5 KJ/kg

39

Velocity at the exit of nozzle (C1)

C1= 44.7hisen = 44.72765.5 = 1237.3 m/s
Assuming the blade or diagram efficiency (b) and blade coefficient (k) are 0.7 and 0.6 and from the
relationship between blade velocity and diagram efficiency (b) the blade velocity become (U):
b = 4U/C1(Cos U/C1)
0.7 = 4*U/1237.3(cos200 U/1237.3) ,
U= 230.62m/sec
The nozzle angle (1) is assumed to be 20.
Nozzle exit diameter
Assume the pressure drop at nozzle is equal to the turbine. From steam table at 0.0846Mpa the
specific volume the steam at saturated vapor Vg=1.982m3/Kg
Then, A (area) =v*steam/C1 =1.982m3/Kg*12Kg/sec/1237.3 m/s =0.0363m2
And, A= D2/4, D=0.142m

5.4. Condenser Design

A. Thermal design of condenser
The condenser is a horizontal condenser designed to condense 12 kg/s of water vapor coming from
the regenerator of 95C and at a pressure of 84.6kpa. But the degree of superheat is very less; hence
assuming water vapor is at saturated temperature only. The coolant used is water, which is supplied
at an inlet temperature of 10C and leaves at an outlet temperature of 35C.
1. Heat balance
Amount of heat removed from the working fluid (Q) = wf (h1-h2) = 1,660.33kW
Amount of water to be circulated (cw) = 1.9Kg/sec
2. Logarithmic mean temperature difference (LMTD)
The log means temperature of the condenser, TLMTD:
Table 8: operating temperature condition of fluids in condenser

Temperature(0C)

Cooling water

Working fluid(steam)

10

25

35

95

T1 = 95-35 = 600C
T2 = 25-10 = 150C
Then, TLMTD =

12
(

1
)
2

6015
60
15

( )

= 320c

Since condensation is phase change, correction factor is not needed.

40

3. Fluid allocation
Allocating the fluids with the lowest flow rate to the shell side will normally give the most
economical design and also the higher pressure stream should be allocated to the tube side. High
pressure tubes will be cheaper than a high pressure shell. Here water is available at atmospheric
pressure and steam is available at vacuum. Hence take steam on shell side and cooling water on tube
side.
4. Heat transfer area
The designing overall heat transfer coefficient for steam-water system is in the range of 2271.32
5678.3 W/(m2.K) and it includes total dirt factor Df= 8.81 *10-5(m2oK)/W. Assume Ud = 2,500
W/m2K

Total heat transfer area = A = =

= 30.2 m2

Let us choose tubing characteristics as follows:

Outer diameter of tube (do) = 1= 25.4 mm
Inner diameter of tube (di) = 0.9= 22.86 mm
Allowing 50 mm thickness for tube sheets: Now length of tube is 20ft i.e. 6.096 m
Thus length available for heat transfer = L =6.096 0.050 = 6.05 m
Area per tube = *d0*L = 0.483 m2/tube
Therefore, number of tubes, Nt = 30.2/0.483 = 62.663
Tube count table,
For tube O.D. of 1 inch for square pitch
No. of shell passes = 1
No. of tube passes, (Np) = 4
Nearest tube count, (Nt) = 68
I.D. of shell (ds) = 2250 mm
Corrected heat transfer area, A = 68*0.483 = 32.84m2

Corrected U = =

1660.31000
32.8422

= 2,298 W/m2K

5. Film heat transfer coefficients

a. Shell side
Temperature of vapor coming in (Ts) = 95C
Average temperature of cooling water = (35 + 10)/2 = 22.5C
Wall temperature, Tw =
Film temperature, Tf =

95+22.5
2

+
2

= 58.80c
95+58.8
2

= 770c

41

So the property of water are taken at film temperature i.e. 77C

Viscosity = = 0.586 10-3N.sec/m2
Thermal conductivity = k = 0.647 W/mK
Density, = 985.7 kg/m3
Specific heat, Cp = 4.184 kJ/kgK
Mass flow rate per unit length, () =
Renolds number, (Nre) =

2
^
3

12
2
68^3 6.05

= 0.0982Kg/m.sec

40.0982

= 0.586103 = 670.5

1.15(3 2 )

^( 1

Outer film coefficient(h0),

/3) ^(1/3)

1.15(0.6473 985.72 9.81) /3880.551 /3

h0 =

0.58610^3

= 1.51 *2043.8

= 5357.3W/m2K
b. Tube side
Average temperature of water = 22.5C
Physical properties of water at 22.5C
Specific heat = Cp= 4.183 kJ/kg. K
Viscosity = = 0.854 *10-3 N. sec/m2
Thermal conductivity = k = 0.6017 W/m. K
Density = = 997.8kg/m3
Prandtl number (Npr) =

4.18310000.854103

0.6017

=5.94

Mass flow of cooling water = cw= 1.9kg/s

Flow area (at) =

^2
4

0.02286^2
4

68
4

= 0.00698m2/pass

1.6

Velocity of cooling water = = 997.80.00698 = 0.23m/sec

Renolds number, (Nre) =

0.02286997.80.23
0.85410^3

= 68,753>10000

DittusBoletere equation can be used:

Nu =0.023*Nre^0.8*Npr^0.3 = 0.023*68753^0.8 *5.94^0.3 = 290.87

hi =

290.8780.61017
0.02286

= 7764W/m2oK

6. Overall heat transfer coefficient

1
1
1
=
+
+

1

25.4

=5357.3 + (7764 22.86) + 8.81 10^ 5 = 4.18*10^-4m2K/W

42

Therefore, Uo= 2393W/m2K

Required area (A) = =

= 31.54 m2

Here is less than the corrected (available) heat transfer area. Therefore, this value of Uo is good
enough.
7. Pressure drop calculations
a. Tube side
The Renolds number as calculated before for tube side is = Nre = 59464.93
Now f =0.079(Nre)^-1/4 = 0.079 *(68,753)^-1/4= 0.00489
The pressure drop due to friction is given by
4 2

Pf =[ 2 2 ]**g
=[

40.00516.050.232
29.810.022862

]* 997.5 9.81

= 170.725N/m2
The pressure drop due to the velocity of fluid is given by
2.5

Pv= 2 **V^2 = 1.25[997.5*0.23^2] = 65.96N/m2

Therefore total pressure drop is given by
Pt = Np*(Pf + Pv) = 4 *(170.725N/m2+ 65.96N/m2) = 0.947kPa < 70kPa
This is within the permissible limit of a maximum pressure drop of 70 kPa in the tube side for no
phase change.
So this pressure drop is acceptable.
(b) Shell side
Saturation temperature of vapor = Tvap= 95C
Viscosity of water vapor () = 1.2*10 5 Ns/m2
Fluid flow-rate on the shell-side, kg/s, (v)= 12 kg/s
Density of vapor (vap) = 985.9 kg/m3
()

Flow area for shell side (shell) = {

Where Pt = square pitch = 1.25*do= 31.75 mm and baffle spacing (lB)= 0.2 ds to ds
Assume, lB =0.6ds
Shell diameter (ds)= 2250mm
Assume, lB= 0.6ds = 0.7*2250= 1350mm
()

Therefore for cross-flow (As) =[

]=[

(31.7524.5)22501350
31.75

] = 0.6075 m2

Equivalent diameter (de)fora square pitch arrangement:

43

de =[

1.27(0.78 2 )

1.27(0.031750.780.2542 )

0.254

]=[

]= 0.013 m

12/

Mass velocity(Gs)= = 0.60752 = 16.3 kg/sec .m2

(Nre)vap = =

16.30.013
1.2105

= 17,658.33

6.05

Number of baffles, now Nbaff = = 1.4938 = 4

To calculate pressure drop for shell side, we have to consider three zones.
End zones, pe(there are two end zones)
Cross flow zones, pc , (Nbaff 1) crosses
Window zones, pw(Nbaffzones)
Thus total pressure drop is:
(ps)t = 2 *pe+ (Nbaff1) pc+ Nbaff *pw
P in cross flow section
pc =

2
2

Cross-flow area at or near centerline for one cross-flow section, Sm =0.7969

friction factor, fk= 0.5, b = 0.002,
Number of tubes row crossed in one cross flow section, Nc ={

[12( )]

lc = baffle cut = 0.25 *ds = 0.25*2250mm= 0.563 m

3

Pp = pitch parallel to flow = 2 * Pt = 0.866*31.75 = 27.4963 mm

Therefore, Nc ={
Thus pc =(

0.563
)]
2.25

2.25[12(

0.0274963

0.0020.59.92 40
0.70.7969^2

}= 40

) = 8.82 kPa

P in end zones

Pe = Pc*[1+ ]
Where Ncw = number of effective cross flow rows in each window
=

0.8

0.80.63
0.0275

= 18.33

Thus, Pe = 8.82 (1+

18.33
40

) = 12.86 kPa

P in window zones
Pw =

[ 2 (2+0.6)]

Where, b = 6.22310-4
Sw= area of flow through windows = SwgSwt
44

Swg= gross window area

Swt= area occupied by tubes =[ 8 ] [1 ] 2

Fc= fraction of tubes in each cross flow

Here, = 0.25 and ds =2,250mm (87.3inch)

Swg = 1000 in2 = 0.6452 m2
Figure 1-6,[9]
Fc = 0.75
68

Therefore, Swt = 8 (1 0.75 0.02542 ) = 0.0043m2

Thus Sw= 0.6452 0.0043 = 0.641 m2
Hence, Pw =

6.223104 9.92 (2+0.618.33)

0.79690.6410.7

=2.2kPa

(ps)t = 2 *12.86 + (3*8.820)+ (4*2.2) = 56.82kPa

But actual pressure drop is 40% of this value.
Therefore (ps) t = 0.4 *56.82 = 22.73kPa.This is also within the permissible limit of a maximum
pressure drop of 14kPa. So this is acceptable.
B. Mechanical design of condenser
Problem specification:
Working pressure: P = 0.846bar
Working temperature = Maximum temperature of the fluids = 950C
Design pressure: by adding a minimum of 10% to the maximum working pressure.
Design temperature: 10oC higher than the maximum temperature that any part of the exchanger is
likely to attain in course of operation. .
1. Shell Side:
Material of construction: Carbon steel
Design pressure = 0.846 bar + 0.1*0846bar = 0.931bar 1 bar = 0.1N/mm2.
Design temperature = 95 + 10 = 1050C
Shell inside diameter, ds= 2250 mm = 2.250 m
No. of shell passes = 1
No. of tube passes = 4
Design stress for carbon steel @ 1050C= 130N/mm2
Fluid: water vapor
Inlet temperature = 95C
Outlet temperature = 250C

45

1.1. Shell thickness

Minimum thickness of shell plates excluding of corrosion allowance in mm, Where taking joint
efficiency to be J = 0.85

ts =2 =

0.1
2250
2
130
0.1
2
0.85
2
2

= 1.02mm

Taking corrosion allowance 4mm

ts = 1.03+4 =5mm
1.2. Nozzle diameter
Mass flow rate of vapor (v)= 12 kg/s
Density, = 997.8 kg/m3
Velocity =10m/s
2

v =

4
124

2 = 10997.8 = 1.263m2, dn = 35.5mm

Take it as 40 mm.
1.3. Nozzle thickness
The thickness of nozzle is given by:
tn =

(J = 1 for seamless pipes) =

0.1
40
2
130
0.1
2
1
2
2

= 0.0154mm

Nozzle thickness with corrosion allowance = 3 mm

1.4. Head thickness
Tori spherical head: The thickness of such heads is given by:
th =

Where, C = (1/4)*[3 + (Rc/RK)^1/2]

J = 1 for ends made from one plate and attached to shell with a straight flange.
Rc= crown radius (it is equal to or less than the diameter of shell)
Choose Rc= shell diameter = 2250 mm
RK= knuckle radius (at least 6% of shell I.D) = 0.060 *2250 = 135 mm
Thus, C = 1.77
Th =

0.1
22501.77
2
130
2
1
2

=1.532mm, Using same thickness as that of the shell = 5 mm

46

1.5. Transverse baffles

Baffle Spacing, lB = 0.6ds = 0.6*2250 = 1350mm

6050

Number of baffles, Nbaff = -1=1350 1= 3.48 4

Thickness of baffles = 6 mm
Height of baffle = 0.75*ds = 0.75*2250 = 1687.5 mm
1.6. Flange standard
Design pressure = 0.1 N/mm2
Design temperature = 105oC
Flange material =BS: 4504-class - 1
Bolting steel = 0.5% Carbon Molybdenum steel
Gasket material = asbestos composition
Shell inside diameter = 2250 mm
Shell thickness, ts = 5mm
Shell outside diameter = 2250 + 2*ts = 2250 + 2*5 = 2,266 mm
Allowable stress of flange material = 100kN/m2
Allowable stress of bolting material = 138kN/m2
1.6.1. Determination of gasket width
1

( )
do
=[
] /2

( ( + 1))
do and di are outer & inner diameters of the gasket.
Assume gasket thickness of 3.2 mm, from literature
M = gasket factor = 2
y = minimum design yield stress = 11 N/mm2

(110.12)

= [(110.1(2+1))] ^1/2 = 1.005

Let, di = Dos, (Dos = outside diameter of shell).

Therefore, di = 2,266 mm = 2.266 m and do= 1.005*2.266 = 2.277 m
2.2772.266

Gasket width, lR =

= 0.0135m = 13.5 mm

1.6.3. Calculation of flange thickness

0.3+1.5

tf = Gm(

0.1

) = 22661000403.32266(0.3*403.3*2266+1.5*408.92*13.5)

tf = 40mm

47

2. Tube Side:
Tube and tube sheet material: stainless steel
Number of tubes = 68
Outside diameter of tube = 25.4 mm
Length of tube = 6.05 m
Fluid: cooling water
Pitch (square) =1.25do = 31.75 mm
Allowable stress = 155N/mm2 @ T= 105oC, stainless steel.
Design pressure = 0.1N/mm2
Inlet temperature = 10C
Outlet temperature = 35C
2.1. Thickness of tube;

tt =(28+)
J =1 (for fully radiographed)
0.125.4

Therefore,tt =(21551+0.1)= 0.0082mm

No corrosion allowance since the tube is made of stainless steel.
Therefore, thickness of tube = 1mm
2.2.Tube sheet thickness
The effective tube sheet thickness is:
0.25

ts = F*G*[

]^1/2

F = the value of F varies according to type of heat exchanger, in most cases it is taken as one.
G = mean diameter of gasket = 2,266 mm
Therefore, ts= 1 2266 [

0.250.1 1
155

] /2 = 28.78mm

2.3. Nozzle thickness

Assume inlet and outlet diameter = 75 mm

0.175

Thickness of nozzle, tn= 2 = (293.21)1 = 0.04 mm

With corrosion allowance, thickness = 4 mm .Therefore, t=4.04mm

48

CHAPTER SIX
COST ESTIMATION AND PROFITABILITY ANALYSIS
6.1. Purchased equipment cost estimation
The following table summarizes the equipment and machineries costs
Table 9: cost of Equipments and machineries
Equipment

Size

name

parameter

PH-Boiler

117m2

AQC-Boiler

Quantity

Material

of Unit

Amount(birr)

construction

price(birr)

Stainless steel

10,300,000

10,300,000

125 m2

Stainless steel

10,400,000

10,400,000

Turbine

9.2MW

Carbon steel

5,460,000

5,460,000

Condenser

32 m2

Carbon steel

200,000

200,000

Stainless steel

380,000

760,000

Stainless steel

4,700,000

4,700,000

API-610 cast

140,000

140,000

80,000

80,000

Expansion
chamber
Generator
Feed

8.3MW

water 6.3kg/sec

pump
Cooling water 1.9kg/sec

steel casing
1

pump
Total

API-610 cast
steel casing

32,040,000

Source: matche.com

PEC = 32,040,000 birr

Assume delivery cost = 10% of PEC = 0.1*32,040,000 birr = 3,204,000Birr
Purchased-delivered equipment cost = PEC + Assumed delivery cost
=32,040,000 birr + 3,204,000 birr = 35,244,000 Birr

6.2. Fixed capital investment estimation (FCI)

For this case, capital investments items are calculated based on delivered equipment cost for fluid
processing plant.
= ( ) =(
)

The following table summarizes the fixed capital investment cost

49

Table 10: fixed capital cost estimation

Description

Reasonable Percentage (%)

Price (birr)

Direct costs (DC)

Purchased

and

Delivered 100

35,244,000

equipment 23.5

8282340

equipment cost
Purchased
installation
Instrumentation and controls

18

6343920

Piping installation

34

11630520

Electrical installation

5.5

1938420

Buildings

3171960

Yard improvement

1762200

Service facilities

35

12335400

Total direct cost(TDC)

60708760

Indirect cost(IC)
Engineering and supervision

16.5

5815260

Construction Expense

20.5

7225020

Total indirect cost(TIC)

13040280

Other costs(OC)
Contractors fee

11

3700620

Contingency Expense

22

7401240

Total other costs

11101860

FCI = TDC + TIC + OC

= 60708760+1304030+11101860 = 84,850,900 birr
(FCI) = 84,850,900 birr

6.3 Total capital investment cost estimation (TCI)

TCI = FCI + WC
Where WC =working capital
Taking WC = 15%TCI = 0.15TCI
TCI = 84,850,900+ 0.15TCI
TCI (1-0.15) =84,850,900
50

TCI = 84,850,900/0.85 = 99,824,588.42 Birr

WCI = 0.15*99,824,588.42 = 14,973,688.24Birr

6.4. Total Production cost estimation (TPC)

Total production cost (TPC) = Manufacturing cost (MC) + General Expense (GE)
MC = Direct production cost (DPC) + Fixed charge (FC) + Plant overhead (POH)
Labor cost
A Steam cycle waste heat power plant built within a cement facility will not require additional operating
personnel. The controls of the waste heat power plant will be integrated with the cement plant control
system to prevent any possible impact of an upset situation on cement production

Utilities
The required utilities are water and electricity. But for this case the cement plant has its own water source
and the cost for water is assumed to be zero.

Table 11: summary of utility cost

Electricity

Annual consumption

Unit price

Amount (birr)

31600000Kwh

0.35

1106000

Depreciation
Fixed capital investment =84850900birr
Salvage value = 10%
Service life = the life span of the cement plant = 20 years
Annual depreciation = 84850900*0.9 /20 = 3,818,290.5 birr

The following table shows the summary of Total Production Cost

51

Table 12: summary of total production cost

Description

Estimation method

Cost

per

year(birr)
I. Manufacturing cost
A. Direct production cost
1. Utilities

Direct calculation

1,106,000

2. Maintenance and repairs

3% *FCI=0.03*84,850,900

2,525,527

3. Operating supplies

0.5% *FCI=0.005*84,850,900

424,254.5

1. Depreciation

Direct calculation

3,818,290

2. local tax

3%TCI=0.03*99,824,588.42

2,525,527

3. Insurance

5%FCI=0.005*84,850,900

524,254.5

C. Plant overhead cost

Neglect

II. General Expenses

Neglect

B. Fixed charges

III. Total Production Cost

10,923,853

6.5. PROFITABILITY ANALYSIS

Unit Product Selling Price = 0.35/wh (based on the current price in Ethiopia i.e.
EEPCO)
Power generation capacity = 8.3MW
Annual power generation = 8300kw*360*24= 71,712,000kwh
Full capacity production
Service life = 20 year
6.5.1. GROSS PROFIT (profit before tax)
Gross profit = Total Income Total Production cost
Sales (total income) = 71,712,000kwh 0.35birr/kwh = 32,270,400
Gross profit =32,270,400 10,923,853 = 21,346,547 Birr per year
6.5.2. NET PROFIT (profit after tax)
Net profit = Gross profit Income tax
Take 34% income tax of Ethiopia
(Income tax) = 0.34* Gross profit
= 0.34*21,346,547 = 7,257,825.98birr

52

Net profit = Gross profit Income tax

= 21,346,547 - 7,257,825.98
= 14,088,7222birr
6.5.3. Rate of return (ROR)
ROR before income tax
Return =

Total Annual net Profit before tax

Total Capital Ivestment

100%

R= 21,346,547 /99,824,588.42100%
Return=27%
ROR after income tax
=

Total Annual net Profit after tax

Total Capital Ivestment

100%

R= 14, 088,722/99,824,588.42100%
Return=17.6%
6.5.4 Payback Period
=

depreciable Fixed Capital Investment (FCI)

net profit per year+ Depriciation Per year

d = 84,850,900/ (14, 088,722 +3,818,290)

= 4.7 year
6.5.5 NET PRESENT VALUE (NPV)
CASH FLOW
Cash inflow = net profit per year = 14, 088,722 birr
Cash outflow = total capital investment = 99,824,588.42 bir
14,088,722 .

10

20

99,824,588.42
Assuming an interest rate of 7% (r =7 / 100 = 0.07)
Taking 20 years services life
NPV = PV of cash inflows PV of cash outflows
PV of cash outflow

53

= 99,824,588.42 birr
PV of cash inflows
14,088,722

1 PV =

14,088,722

2 =

= 12305635.43

(1+.07)2

14,088,722

3 =

= 11500593.86

(1+.07)3

14,088,722

4 =

(1+.07)4

= 10748218

14,088,722

5 =

= 10045064

(1+.07)5

14,088,722

6 =

(1+.07)6

14,088,722

7 =

(1+.07)7

=9387910

=8773747.9

14,088,722

8 =

(1+.07)8

14,088,722

9 =

= 131670299.91

(1+.07)1

(1+.07)9

10 =
11 =
12 =
13 =
14 =
15 =
16 =
17 =
18 =
19 =
20 =

=8199764

= 7663331

14,088,722
(1+.07)10
14,088,722
(1+.07)11
14,088,722
(1+.07)12
14,088,722
(1+.07)13
14,088,722
(1+.07)14
14,088,722
(1+.07)15
14,088,722
(1+.07)16
14,088,722
(1+.07)17
14,088,722
(1+.07)18
14,088,722
(1+.07)19
14,088,722
(1+.07)20

= 7161991
= 6693450
= 6255561
= 5846318.7
= 5463849
= 5106401
= 4772337
= 4460128
= 4168344
= 3895649
= 3640793

NPV= PV of cash inflows PV of cash outflows

=131670299.91+12305635.43+11500593.86+10748218+10045064+9387910+8773747.9+8199764+

54

7663331+6693450+7161991+6255561+5846318.7+5463849+5106401+4772337+4460128+364079
3+3895649+4168344 = 267759385.8
= 99,824,588.42birr
=267759385.8 99,824,588.42 = 167,934,797
Since the NPV is positive (i.e. NPV > 0, Project is accepted
6.5.6 Profitability index (PI)
present value cash inflow

= present value cash out flow

=267759385.8birr
=99,824,588.42
267759385.8

Then = 99,824,588.42 = 2.68

Since the PI > 1, the project or option should be economically feasible

55

CHAPTER SEVEN
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
7.1. CONCLUSIONS
In this work, the use of medium-grade waste heat energy from a cement manufacturing plant (which
is currently being rejected into the environment, thus causing energy wastage and environment
pollution) to generate electricity using Steam Rankine Cycle system is proposed. Although, the use
of exhaust waste heat to generate power using the Steam Rankine Cycle has been in existence for a
long time throughout the world, but in Ethiopia, has never previously occurred. Therefore, this
project through its theoretical study has been able to establish that this same technology can be
adequately transferred to other processes where waste heat is in existence.
The waste heat rejected from the AQC stack and pre-heater exhaust stack can be used to drive a heat
source Steam Rankine Cycle system to generate about 8.3MW (net) which is about 18%of the
electricity needed in the Mugher cement manufacturing industry. The economic analysis shows that
at an average electricity of 0.35 birr/kWh the proposed project will give an NPV of about
167,934,797 rr , rate of return of investment 17.6% and payback period of 4.7 years making it an
economically feasible throughout the 20years service life of the plant. Cogeneration of power
besides mitigating the problem of power shortage also helps in energy conservation as well as
reducing greenhouse gas emissions. In existing plants cogeneration technologies based on bottoming
cycles have potential to generate up to 15-30 percent of the power requirement of a plant. Such a
development assumes considerable significance and potential in Ethiopian cement industry in order
to achieve economy and environmental compatibility.

56

7.2. RECOMMENDATIONS
Since cement plant is an energy intensive industry large amount of energy is lost in the pre-heater
stack and cooler stack. So it is recommended that any cement industry should install waste heat
recovery for power generation. The advantages and barriers in terms of installation of waste heat
recovery power generation system can be a role model for other industries in Ethiopia. This will not
only generate more insight into the operation of the system but will also reposition this university as
a center for the study of the waste heat to electricity process, since none is currently in existence in
Ethiopia.

One major challenge encountered during the work of this study was to obtain reliable cost and
performance data from Steam Rankine Cycle manufacturers. And also, another constraint that was
happen during preparing of this project was the chemical engineer alone could not perform the exact
power generated without other professions. This constraint can be overcome by developing
simulation and control in corporation with electrical and mechanical engineers in order to verify
some of the data obtained from the published literature. Therefore, further research should be carried
out to develop an experiment heat source Steam Rankine cycle system which could be used to
validate the theoretical design already proposed in this work.

57

References
[1]. Mark D. M.irolli, Chief Technology Officer, Recurrent Resources, LLC, 1079-9931/07 @ 2007
IEEE
[2]. Fuel Economy in furnaces and Waste heat recovery-PCRA
[3]. Rahbord Engineering Services Co,. Introduction of low-temperature Waste heat recovery
power generation (WHRPG) technology in Cement Kiln, 2010-11-19
[4]. The new Generation Kalina at ENGINE MWZ-Eng, 14.09.06 by Dr. Manfred Renz, Manfred
Engelhard.
[5]. Cement industry, A reference book for the industry
[6]. Engr. ZulfiqarKhattak, Engr. Jamil Ahmad Khan, Engr. Aasar Ahmad, Engr. Sifat Shah,
Engr.SheryarMasaud: Co-Generation of Power Through Waste Heat Recovery.
[7]. Waste Heat Recovery Power Generation Engineering Technical Guidance
[8]. DiPippo, R. 2008: Geothermal power plants: Principles, Applications, Case Studies and
Environmental Impact, Elsevier, Oxford.
[9]. Robert H. perry.Don W. Green. Perrys chemical engineers handbook
[10]. Coulson and Richardsons R.K. Sinott. Chemical engineering design, Volume 6
[11].John H. Lienhard. IV a, Heat Transfer Text Book Third Edition.
[12]. Rama S.R. Gorla, AijazA.Khan. Turbo-machinery, Design and Theory, Cleveland State
University, Cleveland, Ohio, U.S.A and N.E.D. University of Engineering and Technology.
[13].Khan, F. (2008) Waste Heat Recovery. Process Systems Engineering Department Cranfield
University, United Kingdom. http://www.jase-w.eccj.or.jp/technologies/index.html
[14]. Alsop, P. (2001). Cement plant operations handbook for dry process plants, Trade ship
Publications Ltd., Portsmouth, United Kingdom.
[15]. BCS, Engineering Scoping Study, pp. 1516,2006.
[16]. www.matche.com
[17]. http://www.mhhe.com/engcs/chemical/peters/data/
[18]. Mujumdar, K.S., & Ranade, V.V. (2006). Simulation of Rotary Cement Kilns Using a OneDimensional Model. Chemical Engineering Research and Design, 84(A3), 165-177.
[19].Heat Recovery Systems by D.A.Reay, E & F.N.Span, London, 1979.

58

Appendices
Appendix A: Actual data collected from MCF
Table.1A: Pre-heater exhaust gas outlet
Sr.no

Description

Unit

value

Type

Twin

Make

Stainless
steel

Number of pre-heater stages

5 double
string
Cyclone

Exhaust Gas Quantity at Preheater Kg/hr.

440,673

outlet
5

Exhaust

Gas

Temperature

at Deg. C

320-350

Preheater outlet
6

Dust load

gms /Nm3

19.6

Table.2A: Hot air at the cooler outlet

Sr.no
1

Description

Unit

Type

Value
Grate
cooler

Make

Stainless
steel

Exhaust gas quantity at the cooler Kg/hr.

298,667

outlet
4

Exhaust Gas Temperature at Cooler Deg.C

300-310

out
5

Dust load

Gms/Nm3

59.8

59

Table.3A: Exhaust Gas composition (% by volume):

Content

Pre Heater exhausts gas composition (%)

CO

0.02-0.04

O2

3.54-3.62

NO

695-716

60

Appendix B: Ratio factors for estimating capital investment items based on delivered equipment
Cost

61

Appendix C: data sheet specification of major equipment

Equipment No.- HX-1
AQC-BOILER HEAT EXCHANGER

Description.(function)-boiler

DATA SHEET
Sheet No-1
Operating data
Size =125m2

Type-shell and tube

No. of Uint-1

Shell side

Tube side

Fluid circulating

exhaust gas

Steam(working fluid)

Mass flow rate(Kg/s)

83

5.3

Performance of one Unit

Exhaust gas T(0C)

In

Out

305

110

Working fluid T(oC)

In

Out

70

285

Viscosity (N.sec/m2)

4.2*10-5

5.073*10-5

Specific heat

1.128

4.399

0.065

0.674

66.2

0.0061

Velocity(m/s)

12.23

0.087

No.of passes

(KJ/Kg.k
Thermal
conductivity(W/m2.K)
Volumetric flow
rate(m3/sec)

No. tube

114

Heat trans. coefficient 10,027

43,474

.(W/m2K)
Fouling resistance

8.81 *10-5

(m2oK)/W)

62

Equipment No.- HX-2

CONDENSER THERMAL DESIGN

Description.(function)-

DATA SHEET

condensing
Sheet No-2
Operating data

Size =32m2

Type-shell and tube

No. of Uint-1

Shell side

Tube side

Steam(saturated

Cooling water

Performance of one Unit

Fluid circulating

liquid)
Mass flow rate(Kg/s)
Vapour T(0C)

12

1.6

In

Out

95

25

Water T(oC)

In

Out

10

35

Viscosity (N.sec/m2)

0.586*10-3

0.854*10-3

Specific heat

4.184

4.183

0.647

0.601

(KJ/Kg.k
Thermal
conductivity(W/m2.K)
Velocity(m/s)
No.of passes

0.23
1

No. tube

68

Heat trans. coefficient 5357.3

7764

.(W/m2K)
Fouling resistance

8.81 *10-5

(m2oK)/W)

63

Equipment No.- HX-2

CONDENSER MECHANICAL
DESIGN DATA SHEET

Description(function)-condensing
Sheet No-3

Construction one Unit

Shell side
Size =125m2

Shell

head thickness = 8mm

diameter=2025m
Design pressure =1bar

Shell thickness=8mm

Design temperature

Design stress

=1050C

=130N/mm2

Material of construction =
carbon steel
Nozzle
Nozzle dia.= 40mm
Nozzle thickness =3mm
Tube side
Design pressure = 1bar

Tube diameter =
25.4mm

Design temperature =

Length of tube =

1050C

6.05m

Material of construction =

Allowable stress

stainless steel

=155N/mm2

64