UNIT I

DC POWER TRANSMISSION TECHNOLOGY

Introduction - Comparison of AC and DC transmission Application
of DC transmission Description of DC transmission system Planning for HVDC transmission Modern trends in DC transmission
DC breakers Cables, VSC based HVDC.
1.1 Introduction
First commercial application of HVDC between Swedish
mainland and the island of Gotland in 1954.
Underwater link of 90 km and 20 MW.
After the advent of thyristor convertor,
New Brunswick and Quebec 320 MW back-to-back DC
interconnection commissioned in 1972.
With reduced size, cost and improved reliability of power
electronic converters, has made HVDC transmission more
widespread.
In North America, total HVDC transmission capacity in
1987 was 14,000 MW.
1.1.1

Advantages
In a number of applications HVDC is more effective
than AC transmission. Examples includeUndersea
cables, where high capacitance causes additional AC
losses. (e.g. 250 km Baltic Cable between Sweden and
Germany)
Long power transmission without intermediate taps.

Example, in remote
areas

Power transmission and stabilization between

unsynchronized
AC
distribution
systems

Connecting a remote generating plant to the

distribution grid

Reducing line cost: 1) fewer conductors 2) thinner

conductors since HVDC does not suffer from the
skin effect

Facilitate power transmission between different

countries that use AC at differing voltages and
frequencies

1.1.2

Synchronize AC produced by renewable energy sources

Disadvantages

The disadvantages of HVDC are in conversion, switching and

control.

Expensive inverters with limited overload capacity

Higher losses in static inverters at smaller transmission

distances

The cost of the inverters may not be offset by reductions

in line construction cost and lower line loss.

High voltage DC circuit breakers are

because some mechanism must be
circuit breaker to force current to zero,
and contact wear would be too great
switching.

difficult to build
included in the
otherwise arcing
to allow reliable

Modern DC power transmission is relatively a new technology

which made a modest beginning in the year 1954.

The advent of thyristor valve is the improvements over

last 18 years has been responsible for the acceleration
of the growth of HVDC

technology.

Improving reliability and reducing cost of converter stations.

The latest development of multi-terminal system

operation has increased the scope of application of
HVDC systems

While it is true that the HVDC systems are quite reliable

and converter control allows flexibility in the system
operation.

1.2 COMPARISON OF AC AND DC TRANSMISSION

The relative merits of two modes of transmission (ac &
dc) which need to be considered by a system planner
are based on the following factors:
Economics of transmission
Technical performance
Reliability
1.2.1

ECONOMICS OF POWER TRANSMISSION

Cost of transmission

Insulators

Line compensation

Cost of Compensation

Converters and Filters.

The cost of transmission line includes the investment and

operational costs.

The investment includes costs of Right of Way (ROW),

transmission towers,

conductors, insulators and terminal equipment. The

operational costs include mainly the cost of losses.

The characteristics of the insulators vary the type of voltage

applied.

For simplicity, if it is assumed that the insulator characteristics

are similar for ac & dc and depend on the peak level of the
voltage applied with the respect to the ground.

Then it can be shown that for lines designed with the same
insulation level, a dc line carry as much power with two
conductors (with positive and negative polarities with respect
to ground) as an ac line with three conductors for the same
size.

This implies that for a given power level dc line requires less
ROW, simpler and cheaper towers and reduced conductor and
insulation costs.

The power losses are also reduced with dc as there are only
two conductors.

The absence of skin effect with dc is also beneficial in

reducing power losses marginally.

The dielectric losses in case of power cables is also

very less for dc transmission.

The corona effects tend to be less significant on dc

conductors than for ac and this also leads to the choice
of economic size of the conductors with dc transmission.

The other factors that influence the line cost are the cost
of compensation and terminal equipment.

Dc lines do not require compensation but the terminal

equipment costs are increased due to the presence of
the converter and filters

fig 1.1 Variation of costs with line diagram

Ac tends to be more economical than dc for distance less than
break even distance and costlier for longer distances.

The break even distance can vary from 500 to 800 km in

overhead lines depending on the per unit line costs.

1.2.2 TECHNICAL PERFORMANCE

The DC transmission has some positive feature which

are lacking in AC transmission. These are mainly due to
the fast controllability of power in DC lines through
converter control.

The following are the advantages:

Full control over power transmitted.

The ability to enhance transient and dynamic stability in

association AC networks.

Fast control to limit fault currents in DC lines.

These make it feasible to avoid DC breakers in two
terminal DC links.

In addition, the DC transmission overcomes some of

the problems of AC transmission. These are described
further:
1. Stability Limits
2. Voltage Control
1.2.3 STABILITY LIMITS
The power transfer in AC lines is dependent on the angle
difference between the voltage phasors at the two ends.

For a given power level, these angle increases with distance.

The maximum power transfer is limited by the considerations

of steady state and transient stability..

The Figure shows the power capability of the DC lines which is

unaffected by the distance of transmission, and only its limited
by the current carrying capacity of the conductors

(Thermal Limit )

fig 1.2 Power Transfer capacility Vs

Distance

1.2.4 VOLTAGE CONTROL

The voltage control in AC lines is complicated by the

line charging and inductive voltage drops.

The voltage profile in an AC line is relatively flat only for

the fixed level of power transfer corresponding to surge
impedance loading (SIL).

The voltage profile varies with the line loading.

For the constant voltage at the line terminals, the mid

point voltages reduced for the line loading higher then
SIL and increase for loading less than SIL.

This is shown in figure 1.3 followed:

fig 1.3 Voltage Control Profile

The maintenance of constant voltages at the two ends requires
reactive power control from inductive to capacitive as the line
loading is increased.
The reactive power requirements increase with the increase in
the line lengths.

Although dc converter stations require reactive power related

to the line loadings, the line itself does not require reactive
power.

The steady state charging currents in ac lines pose serious

problems in cables this puts the break even distance for the
cable transmission around 40 km.

1.2.5 RELIABILITY

The reliability of dc transmission systems is quite good

and comparable to that of Ac systems.

An exhaustive record of existing HVDC links in the

world is available from which the reliability statistics
can be computed.

It must be remembered that the performance of the

thyristor valves is much more reliable than mercury arc
valves and further development in devices control and
protection is likely to improve the reliability level
For example the development of direct light triggered
(LTT) is expected to improve reliability because of the
elimination of the high voltage pulse transformers and
auxiliary supplies for turning on the device.

Both energy availability and transient reliability of

existing dc systems with thyristor valves is 95% or
more.

1.3 APPLICATIONS OF DC TRANSMISSION

The detailed comparison of ac & dc transmission in terms of
economics and technical performance leads to the following
areas of application for dc transmission.
Long distance bulk power transmission. Underground or underwater
cables.

Asynchronous interconnections of ac systems operating at

different frequencies or where independent control of systems
is desired.
Control and stabilization of power flows in ac ties in an integrated
power system.
1.4 DISADVANTAGES OF DC TRANSMISSION
The scope of application of DC transmission is limited by the following factors:

The difficulty of breaking dc currents which results in high

cost of dc breakers.

Inability to use transformers to change the voltage levels.

High cost of conversion equipment.

Generation of harmonics which require ac & dc

filters, adding to the cost of converter stations.

Complexity of control.

1.5 DESCRIPTION OF DC TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

Types of DC Links

Converter Station

Converter Unit

Converter Transformer
Filters
Reactive Power Source

Smoothing Reactor

 DC Switchgear
1.5.1Types of DC link
HVDC links can be broadly classified into:

Monopolar links

Bipolar links

Homopolar links

Back-to-back links

Multiterminal links

1.5.1.1

MONOPOLAR LINKS

It uses one conductor

The return path is provided by ground or water

Use of this system is mainly due to cost

considerations

A metallic return may be used where earth

resistivity is too high

fig 1.4 Monopolar HVDC

Link

1.5.1.2 BIPOLAR LINKS

It uses two conductors, one positive and the other negative

Each terminal has two converters of equal rated

voltage, connected in series on the DC side

The junctions between the converters is grounded

Currents in the two poles are equal and there is no ground

current

If one pole is isolated due to fault, the other pole can operate
with ground and carry half the rated load (or more using
overload capabilities of its converter line)

fig 1.5 Bipolar HVDC Link

1.5.1.3 HOMOPOLAR LINKS

It has two or more conductors all having the

same polarity, usually negative

Since the corona effect in DC transmission lines is

less for negative polarity, homopolar link is
usually operated with negative polarity

The return path for such a system is through ground

fig 1.6 Homoploar HVDC Link

1.6 Components of HVDC Transmission Systems

fig 1.7 - A schematic of a bipolar HVDC system identifying

main components
Converters

Smoothing reactors

Filters

Reactive power supplies

 Electrodes
DC lines
AC

circuit

breakers Converters

They perform AC/DC and DC/AC conversion

They consist of valve bridges and transformers

Valve bridge consists of high voltage valves connected in a 6pulse or 12-pulse arrangement

The transformers are ungrounded such that the DC

system will be able to establish its own reference to
ground

Smoothing reactors

They are high reactors with inductance as high as 1 H in

series with each pole

They serve the following:

They decrease harmonics in voltages and currents in DC

lines They prevent commutation failures in inverters

Prevent current from being discontinuous for light loads

Harmonic filters

Converters generate harmonics in voltages and currents.

These harmonics may cause overheating of capacitors
and
nearby
generators
and
interference
with
telecommunication systems

 Harmonic filters are used to mitigate these harmonics

Reactive power supplies

Under steady state condition conditions, the

reactive power consumed by the converter is
about 50% of the active power transferred

Under transient conditions it could be much higher Reactive

power is, therefore, provided near the converters

For a strong AC power system, this reactive power is provided

by a shunt capacitor

Electrodes
Electrodes are conductors that provide connection to the earth
for neutral.
They have large surface to minimize current densities
and surface voltage gradients
DC lines
They may be overhead lines or cables

DC lines are very similar to AC lines

AC circuit breakers

They used to clear faults in the transformer and for taking the
DC link out of service

They are not used for clearing DC faults

DC faults are cleared by converter control more rapidly

1.7 PLANNING FOR HVDC TRANSMISSION

The system
transmission

Some of the factors should be consider:

planner

should

Cost

Technical Performance

Reliability

consider

for

perfect

HVDC

Consideration in the planning for DC depends on the

applications

Long Distance Bulk Power Transmission

Interconnection between two adjacent systems

1 Application
st

DC and AC Alternatives for the same level of system

security and reliability are likely to have the same
power carrying capability.

2nd Applications

DC and AC Alternatives for the same level of system

security and AC interconnection will be more than
that for DC.

The choice for DC interconnection will be based on the

following consideration.

Small fluctuation in the voltage and frequency do

not affect the power flow which can be set at any
desired value.

 The system security can be enhanced by fast control of DC

power.

fig 1.8 Planning of HVDC system

DC link interconnection ,there are three possible
configuration for interconnection. These are:

A two terminal transmission where each terminal is located at

suitable place somewhere within the network and connected
by a DC overhead line or cable.

A back to back HVDC station located somewhere within one of

the network

and an AC line from the other network to the common station.

A back to back station located close to the border between the
two systems.
1.7.1 CHOICE OF VOLTAGE LEVEL

For a long distance bulk power transmission, the voltage level

is chosen to minimize the total costs for a given power level
(P).

The total costs include investment (C1) and cost of losses (C2).

The investment cost per unit length are modeled as:

fig 1.9 Choice of HVDC Voltage level

1.8 MODERN TRENDS IN DC TRANSMISSION
The continuing technological developments in the areas of
power semiconductor devices, digital electronics, adaptive
control, DC protection equipment have increased the pace of
application of DC transmission.

The major contribution of these developments is to reduce

the cost of converter stations while improving the reliability
and performance.

Power Semiconductor and valves

Converter Control
DC Breakers
Conversion of existing AC lines
Operation with weak AC system
Active DC filter
Capacitor Commutated Converter (CCC)
UHV DC Transmission

POWER SEMICONDUCTORS AND VALVES

The cost of the converters can come down if the number of
devices to be connected in series and parallel can be brought
down.
The size of the devices has gone up to 100 mm (in diameters)
and there is no need for parallel connection.
The development of light triggered thyristors should also
improve the reliability of converter operation.
The cost of the valves is also reduced by the application of
zinc oxide gapless arresters and protective firing methods.
The power rating of thyristors is increased by better cooling
methods. Deionized water cooling has now become a standard
and results in reduced losses in cooling.

1.8.2 CONVERTER CONTROL

The development of micro-computer based converter control

equipment has now made it possible to design systems with
completely redundant converter control with automatic
transfer between systems in the case of a malfunction.

Not only is the forced outage rate of control equipment

reduced but it is also possible to perform scheduled preventive
maintenance on the stand-by system when the converter is in
operation.

The use of a mini-simulator will make it feasible to check vital

control and protection functions.

The micro-computer based control also has the flexibility to try

adaptive control algorithms or even the use of expert systems
for fault diagnosis and protection.

1.8.3 DC BREAKERS

With the development and testing of prototype DC breakers, it

will be possible to going for tapping an existing DC link or the
development of new MTDC systems.

The DC breaker ratings are not likely to exceed the full load
ratings as the control intervention is expected to limit the fault
current.

The control and protection of MTDC systems is not a straight

forward extension of that used in the two-terminal DC
systems.

The possibility of decentralized control necessitated by

communication failure, the coordination of control and
protection are some of the issues currently being studied.

1.8.4 CONVERSION OF EXISTING AC

LINE

The constraints on Row are forcing some utilities to look into

the option of converting existing AC circuits to DC in order to
increase the power transfer limit.

There could be some operational problems due to

electromagnetic induction from AC circuits operating in the
same Row.

An experimental project of converting a single circuit of a

double circuit 220 KV line is currently under commissioning
stage in India.

With the development and testing of prototype DC breakers, it

will be possible to going for tapping an existing DC link or the
development of new MTDC systems.

The DC breaker ratings are not likely to exceed the full load
ratings as the control intervention is expected to limit the fault
current.

The control and protection of MTDC systems is not a straight

forward extension of that used in the two-terminal DC
systems.

The possibility of decentralized control necessitated by

communication failure, the coordination of control and
protection are some of the issues currently being studied.

1.8.5 CABLE
An important application for HVDC are transmission systems
crossing the sea. Here, HVDC is the preferred technology to
overcome distances > 70 km and transmission capacities from
several hundred to more than a thousand MW (for bipolar
systems). For the submarine transmission part, a special cable
suitable for DC current and voltage is required
1.8.5.1 Different Cable Types
For HVDC submarine cables there are different types available.
1) Mass-Impregnated Cable
This cable type is used in most of the HVDC applications. It consists
of different layers

as shown in Fig. The conductor is built of stranding copper layers of

segments around a central circular rod. The conductor is covered by
oil and resin-impregnated papers. The inner layers are of carbonloaded papers whereas the outer layer consists of copper-woven
fabrics. The fully impregnated cable is then lead- sheathed to keep
the outside environment away from the insulation. The next layer is
the anti-corrosion protection which consists of extruded
polyethylene. Around the polyethylene layer galvanized steel tapes
are applied to prevent the cable from permanent deformation
during cable loading. Over the steel tapes a polypropylene string is
applied followed by galvanized steel wire armour. The technology is
available for voltages up to 500 kV and a transmission capacity of
up to 800 MW in one cable with installation depths of up to 1000 m
under sea level and nearly unlimited transmission lengths. The
capacity of mass-impregnated cables is limited by the conductor
temperature which results in low overload capabilities
2) Oil-Filled Cable
In comparison to mass-impregnated cables, the conductor is
insulated by paper impregnated with a low-viscosity oil and
incorporates a longitudinal duct to permit oil flow along the cable.
Oil-filled cables are suitable for both AC and DC voltages with DC
voltages up to 600 kV DC and great sea depths. Due to the
required oil flow along the cable, the transmission line lengths are
however limited to <100 km .

fig 1.10 Oil filled HVDC Cable

VSC based HVDC.

VSC-HVDC is a new dc transmission system technology. It is based
on the voltage source converter, where the valves are built by IGBTs
and PWM is used to create the

desired voltage waveform. With PWM, it is possible to create any

waveform (up to a certain limit set by the switching frequency), any
phase angle and magnitude of the fundamental component.
Changes in waveform, phase angle and magnitude can be made by
changing the PWM pattern, which can be done almost
instantaneously. Thus, the voltage source converter can be
considered as a controllable voltage source. This high controllability
allows for a wide range of applications. From a system point of view
VSC-HVDC acts as a synchronous machine without mass that can
control active and reactive power almost instantaneously. In this
chapter, the topology of the investigated VSC-HVDC is discussed.
Design considerations and modeling aspects of the VSC-HVDC are
given. The topology selection for the VSC-HVDC is based on the
desired capabilities.

fig 1.11 VSC based HVDC system