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OIL SHALE'S
PROMISE
EOR Performance
and Modeling
Mature Fields and
Well Revitalization
Well Control
FEATURES
Effectively Using
Real-Time Data
Cutting Subsea Well
Completions Costs
CONTENTS
18 GUEST EDITORIAL
Building a New Normal on the Bedrock of
Risk Management
Baker Hughes new CEO Martin Craighead writes about how the oilfield
service industry of the future must be built on the bedrock of effective
risk management.
Performance Indices
10
Regional Update
12
Company News
14
Presidents Column
16
Comments
22
Technology Applications
26
Technology Update
98
People
100
SPE News
102
Professional Services
107
Advertisers Index
108
SPE Events
48 MANAGEMENT
Trends in Monitoring: How to Use Real-Time
Data Effectively
Real-time data is not about well control, it is about well control avoidance.
Recent catastrophic blowouts have underscored the value of real-time
data and have also underscored the value of having the right kind of
experience to understand well data interpretation in real time.
TECHNOLOGY
FOCUS
60 EOR PERFORMANCE AND MODELING
Baojun Bai, SPE, Associate Professor of Petroleum Engineering,
Missouri University of Science and Technology
The full-length SPE technical papers featured in this issue are available
free to SPE members for two months at www.jptonline.org.
ONLINE
JPT ONLINE EXCLUSIVES!
Nanoglass Cleans Flowback/Produced Water
Paul Edmiston of the College of Wooster in Ohio won the 2011 Popular
Mechanics Breakthrough Award for his discovery of a reactive nanoglass.
Thisis of significant interest to oil and gas companies because of its potential
uses with produced water.
Offshore Disconnection Technology
Innovative offshore engineering that takes into account potential operational
risk helps mitigate incident impact. The ability to successfully, quickly, and
smoothly disconnect production when in the face of a threatening situation
iskey.
Workshop Scrutinizes Upstream Water Management
An SPE Applied Technology Workshop in Barcelona, titled Water
ManagementIntegration of Wells, Reservoir, Facilities, and Environment,
focused on the critical relevance of upstream water management.
JPT
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JPT STAFF
PERFORMANCE INDICES
2011 MAR
APR
MAY
JUN
JUL
AUG
Algeria
1731
1731
1731
1731
1731
1731
Angola
1790
1740
1790
1740
1740
1790
501
504
497
495
492
495
Iran
4092
4100
4100
4100
4050
4050
Iraq
2525
2525
2575
2575
2625
2625
Kuwait*
2450
2550
2550
2550
2550
2600
300
200
200
100
100
Nigeria
2377
2421
2491
2491
2491
2521
Qatar
1290
1300
1300
1300
1300
1300
Saudi Arabia*
8940
8940
8940
9640
9840
9940
UAE
2620
2720
2720
2720
2720
2720
Venezuela
2240
2240
2240
2240
2240
2240
30856
30971
30984
31632
31879
32012
2011 MAR
APR
MAY
JUN
JUL
AUG
Argentina
611
517
540
548
574
604
Australia
359
354
347
340
330
388
Ecuador
Libya
TOTAL
THOUSAND BOPD
NON-OPEC
992
991
1001
991
995
982
Brazil
2082
2052
2072
2137
2077
2052
Canada
2854
2843
2547
2652
2890
3010
China
Azerbaijan
4139
4127
4104
4172
4073
4030
Colombia
886
906
927
939
929
952
Denmark
226
236
247
226
213
213
Egypt
517
515
515
515
510
510
Eq. Guinea
285
283
281
280
278
276
Gabon
220
155
220
230
230
235
India
799
794
778
788
789
782
Indonesia
Kazakhstan
917
896
899
887
909
892
1583
1571
1550
1550
1554
1546
542
517
435
479
492
517
Mexico
2620
2621
2603
2592
2580
2598
Norway
1714
Malaysia
1808
1874
1607
1660
1737
Oman
885
871
866
876
882
908
Russia
9753
9795
9818
9770
9837
9832
Sudan
480
470
460
450
450
445
Syria
346
346
346
341
331
336
UK
1077
1159
1008
1020
923
751
USA
5633
5594
5612
5624
5610
5754
312
302
292
287
297
300
Vietnam
Yemen
215
125
95
75
110
160
Other
2416
2399
2366
2384
2380
2408
Total
40141
42313
41536
41813
41980
42195
Total World
73413
73284
72520
73445
73859
74207
PERFORMANCE INDICES
US NATURAL GAS WELLHEAD PRICES
5
4
3
2
USD/Mcf
SEPT
AUG
JUL
JUN
MAY
APRIL
MAR
FEB
2011
JAN
DEC
NOV
2010
OCT
85.05
97.34
2010 DEC
121.87
101.8
2011 JAN
112.76
114.99
APR
110.22
88.06
100.9
112.83
AUG
113.77
FEB
114.99
MAY
86.33
91.9
MAR
96.26
116.97
JUN
85.52
109.55
SEPT
104.37
97.3
JUL
86.32
110.77
OCT
97.12
NOV
WTI
Brent
2011
MAY
JUN
JUL
AUG
SEPT
OCT
NOV
US
1836
1863
1900
1957
1978
2017
2011
Canada
143
236
347
473
510
508
487
Latin America
410
438
438
441
432
438
422
Europe
110
113
120
128
120
122
122
Middle East
294
290
287
287
292
297
308
82
73
61
75
78
81
86
255
244
244
252
252
259
247
3130
3257
3397
3257
3662
3722
3683
Africa
Asia Pacific
TOTAL
2010
2011
4 th
1 st
2 nd
3 rd
SUPPLY
87.72
87.41
86.05
88.25
DEMAND
88.53
87.32
87.29
88.86
Quarter
INDICES KEY
REGIONAL UPDATE
AFRICA
Totals subsidiary, Total E&P Nigeria
(TEPNG), discovered oil in the Etisong
North-1 well in 262 ft of water in the
southeastern corner of Oil Mining Lease
102 offshore Nigeria. The well reached
a total depth (TD) of 7,831 ft. One of
the three reservoirs encountered tested
at 8,500 B/D of 40 API oil. This is the
second discovery in the lease, following
the Etisong Main find in 2008. TEPNG
(40%) is operator, with Nigerian National
Petroleum Corporation (60%).
PetroSA was granted environmental
authorization to produce gas from
an offshore gas field by South Africa
Department of Environmental Affairs,
following a two-year environmental impact
assessment process. The project, also
known as Project Ikhwezi, is important in
PetroSAs drive to sustain its gas-to-liquids
refinery in Mossel Bay in the Western
Cape. Drilling is expected to begin in
July and production from the first well is
expected in first-quarter 2013.
EUROPE
Endeavour expects to commence
production drilling in the Greater Rochelle
development in spring 2012. The company
will drill two production wells. Endeavour
(44%) is operator in the Greater Rochelle
development that includes blocks 15/26b,
15/26c, and 15/27. The field lies about
115miles northeast of Aberdeen, Scotland,
in 459 ft of water.
AUSTRALIA
Chevron reported further drilling
success in the Carnarvon Basin offshore
Western Australia. The Acme West-1 well,
drilled to a TD of 15,558 ft, encountered
approximately 377 ft of net gas pay;
the Acme West-2 well, drilled to a TD of
14,590ft, encountered 184 ft of net gas
10
NORTH AMERICA
W&T Offshore has completed the
Main Pass 108 No. 8 well in the US Gulf of
Mexico (GOM). The well reached a total
measured depth of 12,878 ft and found
seven pay sands. W&T is currently in the
process of completing the development
well. W&T Offshore wholly owns and
operates the project.
MIDDLE EAST
SOUTH AMERICA
ASIA
Lundin Petroleum discovered oil in the
COMPANY NEWS
MERGERS AND ACQUISITIONS
KKR agreed to acquire most of
Samson Investment, a family-owned oil
and natural gas producer, for USD 7.2
billion. A KKR-led investor group will buy
all Samsons assets except its onshore
US Gulf Coast and deepwater US Gulf of
Mexico (GOM) assets. The company will be
renamed Samson Resources.
12
COMPANY MOVES
Raytheon Technical Services, NASAs
contractor for operations at the Sonny
Carter Training Facility Neutral Buoyancy
Laboratory (NBL) near the Johnson
Space Center, signed an agreement to
partner with Petrofac Training Services
in Houston whereby Petrofac will use
the NBL to provide survival training for
offshore oil and gas workers.
SPECTRUM
100,000-Member Milestone:
Its All About Service
Ganesh Thakur, 2012 SPE President
2012 President
Ganesh Thakur
Chevron Energy Technology Company
2011 President
Alain Labastie, Total
2013 President
Egbert Imomoh, Afren
Vice President Finance
Kenneth E. Arnold
WorleyParsons
REGION DIRECTORS
AFRICA
Alek Musa, Total E&P Nigeria
CANADA
Keith MacLeod, Sproule Associates
EASTERN NORTH AMERICA
John Cramer, Superior Well Services
GULF COAST NORTH AMERICA
Sid Smith Jr., PolyFlow
MID-CONTINENT NORTH AMERICA
Mohan Kelkar, University of Tulsa
MIDDLE EAST
Hosnia Hashim, Kuwait Oil Company
NORTH SEA
Lon Beugelsdijk, Shell International E&P
NORTHERN ASIA PACIFIC
Yiaw Hin Wee, PETRONAS
ROCKY MOUNTAIN NORTH AMERICA
Arnis Judzis, Schlumberger
RUSSIA AND THE CASPIAN
Andrey Gladkov, Modeltech
SOUTH AMERICA AND CARIBBEAN
Nestor Saavedra, Ecopetrol ICP
SOUTH, CENTRAL, AND EAST EUROPE
Maurizio Rampoldi, Eni E&P
SOUTHERN ASIA PACIFIC
John Boardman, RISC
SOUTHWESTERN NORTH AMERICA
Peter Schrenkel, Vision Natural Resources
WESTERN NORTH AMERICA
Sam Sarem, Improved Petroleum
Recovery Consultants
TECHNICAL DIRECTORS
DRILLING AND COMPLETIONS
Joseph Ayoub, Schlumberger
HEALTH, SAFETY, SECURITY, ENVIRONMENT,
AND SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY
Roland Moreau, ExxonMobil Upstream
Research Company
MANAGEMENT AND INFORMATION
Cindy Reece, ExxonMobil
PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS
Ahmed Abou-Sayed, Advantek International
PROJECTS, FACILITIES, AND CONSTRUCTION
John Walsh, Shell Exploration & Production
RESERVOIR DESCRIPTION AND DYNAMICS
Gene Narahara, Chevron Energy
Technology Company
AT-LARGE DIRECTORS
Sudhir Vasudeva, Oil & Natural Gas Corporation
Mohammed Y. Al-Qahtani, Saudi Aramco
14
COMMENTS
EDITORIAL COMMITTEE
J.C. Cunha, Drilling Manager,
Ecopetrol America, Chairperson
Francisco J. Alhanati, Director E&P,
C-FER Technologies
Optimism Reigns
John Donnelly, JPT Editor
16
GUEST EDITORIAL
Martin Craighead
became president
and chief executive
officer of Baker
Hughes on 1
January 2012. He
joined the company
in 1986 and has served in various
engineering, operations, managerial,
and executive positions throughout
North America, Latin America, and
Asia Pacific. Craighead was named
chief operating officer of Baker Hughes
in 2009 and was appointed president
in July 2010. He earned a BS degree in
petroleum and natural gas engineering
from Pennsylvania State University and
an MBA from Vanderbilt University.
18
GUEST EDITORIAL
and competency problems are almost
as prevalent as technical issues in nonproductive-time statistics. Armed with
a better understanding of the factors
relating to reliability, we are building
more comprehensive reliability assurance programs targeting both human
and technical components in our
improvement processes.
Designing for reliability is only part
of our technology initiative. Technology
innovations designed to advance the science of safety and lower the risk factor
are now a major focus for oilfield service companies. Remote surveillance,
real-time data management, and realtime monitoring systems that incorporate materials such as fiber optics are a
few of the areas being researched today.
Researchers are not working on the next
generation technologythey are working on the next step change in technology to provide orders of magnitude more
20
TECHNOLOGY APPLICATIONS
Dennis Denney, JPT Senior Technology Editor
Multipoint Monitoring
Weatherford has introduced its LxData fiber-optic thermal-monitoring system to address challenges of extracting
heavy oil. In-situ thermal processes with
ultrahigh temperatures and highly corrosive environments require reliable monitoring solutions. Specialized techniques
are needed when dealing with difficult
conditions such as the bitumen reserves
in Alberta. Thermal monitoring along
the entire heated wellbore is required
to enhance efficiencies and reduce environmental effects of these operations.
The monitoring system uses a proprietary optical-sensor-array technology
that addresses challenges of these complex reservoirs and offers a full representation of the wellbore with high data
quality and extended service life. The
design provides flexibility in placing sensors to achieve real-time data management of the well, pad, and field levels.
Thermal monitoring over time allows
a step change in visualization simulation and in modeling tools to augment
steam-assisted gravity drainage or any
in-situ operation, leading to significant
improvement in production efficiencies
and economics while providing an additional check of environmental factors.
The fiber-optic sensors (Fig. 1) can be
used in multiple applications and in conjunction with other components of the
companys WellScan reservoir-monitor-
Monitoring Technology
Multisleeve Fracturing System
i-TEC has developed and field proved
its i-FRAC CEM system (Fig. 2), a multistage fracturing system for cementedlong-string and -liner applications. The
system is ball-drop activated, and multiple sleeves can be installed as clusters
in each stage to maximize reservoir contact. A single ball shifts open all sleeves
in a stage, and then pressure is applied
to break the cement sheet and initiate
fractures. Each sleeve has ports sized for
optimized fracture initiation. Up to 22
stages can be installed per well, and each
stage can contain from 1 to 20 sleeves.
Installation of the system is performed
in a single trip, and the system is cemented in as a normal long string or liner. A
special wiper dart was designed to pass
through all ball seats and wipe the casing and sleeves clean of cement before
the dart is bumped into the float collar
and the cement is given time to set. The
fracturing treatment is carried out in a
continuous pumping operation, as for an
openhole sliding-sleeve system. No wireline, cranes, or coiled-tubing units are
required on location. The frac balls are
designed to be produced back to surface
22
Omega Well Monitoring, part of Reservoir Group, has launched its latest Leakator (Fig. 3). The tool is optimized to
locate leaks and monitor downhole
flow. It was developed in response to
the increasing requirements to improve
efficiency and reduce operating costs by
monitoring well integrity. The tools runit-yourself capability means an existing
on-site crew can operate the tool without the need for further staff. It has no
moving parts, so only the O-rings and
detachable batteries need to be replaced
during servicing. Because it uses small
AA batteries, operators do not need to
comply with dangerous-goods legislation during transportation. The modular
memory instrument uses multiple sensor arrays, with synchronized data from
the sensors merged and plotted against
depth to highlight local variations in the
well. These data provide an indication of
leaks. Optional sensor modules enable
additional data to be monitored, including differential temperature, flow, and
flow direction. The sensors are distributed physically and have a balanced output,
allowing extreme sensitivity to very small
local anomalies of temperature and flow.
TECHNOLOGY APPLICATIONS
A surface readout capability is also possible. With the modular assembly, operators can customize the setup to fit the
specific requirements of individual jobs
as determined by well conditions. The
tools 25-mm diameter enables access to
all zones.
For additional information, visit
www.omegawell.com.
24
Multistage-Stimulation
Technology
Baker Hughes FracPoint multistagecompletion system uses openhole packers to isolate multiple stages and uses
ball-activated sleeves to divert the
fracture treatment. The systems EX-C
sleeves extend the capability of ball-activated systems, enabling more contact
with the reservoir while maintaining
fracturing efficiency. The mechanical
support in the ball seats allows 1/16-in.increment ball sizes and ball seats.
When the ball makes initial contact with
the ball seat, pressure is applied to shear
a set of shear screws, which releases
a collapsible ring under the ball and
increases the amount of surface-contact area between the ball and the seat
to provide support to achieve fracturing pressures. A significant addition to
the system is the IN-Tallic disintegrating
frac balls that are made of a new nano-
material. The material has the compressive strength of steel, but is lighter than
aluminum. The balls were developed to
disintegrate in most common wellbore
and fracturing fluids, so no special fluid
mixture is required, enabling operators
to remove the frac balls from the well
without having to mill them out.
For additional information, visit
www.bakerhughes.com/fracpoint.
High-Temperature
Sealed Stator
R&M Energy Systems Moyno HTD350
downhole pump is designed for hightemperature applications that previously prevented operators from using
downhole progressing-cavity pumps
(PCPs). This downhole pump uses an
elastomeric stator that is mechanically secured to the stator tube for greater temperature and chemical resistance
(Fig. 4). This patented design uses no
bonding agent between the elastomer
and the stator tube. The downhole pump
has the capability of handling downhole temperatures up to 350F and is
compatible with steam-injection applications without removing the stator
from the well. Models are available for
95 BFPD/(100-rev/min) up to 6,000-ft
lift, 275 BFPD/(100-rev/min) up to
5,400-ft lift, and 500 BFPD/(100-rev/
min) up to 4,000-ft lift. JPT
For additional information, email
fmg.marketing@robn.com.
TECHNOLOGY UPDATE
that are common through sharp transitions and contrasts in the underground.
Because of its relatively simple functional principle, the method has proved
highly versatile. It is capable of reducing
vibrations in a wide range of applications
that, in addition to regular rotary drilling, includes reaming and through-tubing milling (Dagestad et al. 2006).
Continuous Prevention
of Bit Stalling
Because it is part of the lower bottomhole assembly (BHA), the antistall tool
can quickly and continuously prevent the
bit from stalling and thereby limit the
development of severe stick-slip vibrations. The mechanical function of the
downhole tool is based on converting the
rise in the drilling torque that precedes
a stall into an axial contraction that will
immediately cut back the WOB. The fast
26
From third-party testing and field qualification, the effect on stick-slip and the
capability to provide a more stable torsion load on the bit has been documented
(Selnes et al. 2008). However, a surpris-
TECHNOLOGY UPDATE
ROP5 (DRILLING_) (RT)
SSLIP %
300
30
250
AST in
25
200
20
15
150
10
100
5
0
35
50
2542
2550
2558
2565
2573
2581
2588
2596
2603
Measured Depth, m
Fig. 2The effect of the antistall tool on downhole stick-slip, ROP, and
rotary speed, plotted with an overlay showing the tool run in from a
depth of 2567 m.
new method. One set of statistics (Performance Analysis 2011) was obtained
from 78 jobs by the same service contractor through 2010. The results showed
that the downhole tool failures caused
by vibration were cut in half with antistall technology. Newer numbers including a portion of 2011 showed a further
decline. The same statistics also reported
improved average ROP results from the
use of the antistall tool, with no negative
influence observed on any parameter.
The analysis concluded with a practical
applications table shown in Table 2.
From 2010, it was possible to
equip the antistall tool with downhole
recorders to measure the actual workload and axial displacements. This helps
design engineers to better understand
the closed-loop process and improve
the method. The functional principle
and the operational improvement that
result from the dynamic DOC control
can have significant impact where drilling challenges are a barrier to predictable timing and cost. Below are more
case studies.
StatoilSmrbukk South Field
(sgard), Norwegian Sea. Smrbukk
South is known as the most challenging part of the sgard field for drilling.
Field Results
The technology has been used in a growing number of fields to reduce failures
(Reckmann et al. 2010) and improve
drilling performance in advanced operations. Both service and operating companies have driven its implementation.
Table 1 shows the distribution of antistall
tool experience between the lead rotary
steerable systems, including their combination with simultaneous underreaming systems. Comprehensive field studies and more statistical information have
provided nominal figures for the vibration mitigation and other effects of the
28
Manufacturer
Schlumberger
Rotary Steerable
System (RSS)
PowerDrive
PowerDrive Exceed
PowerDrive Vortex
Baker Hughes
AutoTrak
AutoTrak X-treme
35
18
Halliburton
GeoPilot
Geopilot GTX
141
2
34
Weatherford
Revolution
Hard
Formation
High Shock/
Stick-Slip
Expected
Medium
Hard
Formation
Normal/Soft
Formation
Highly
recommended
Highly
recommended
Recommended
Not
required
Conditions
Use of
Antistall
Tool
Conclusion
Field experience gained with the antistall technology suggests that the method can make a significant contribution
to improving the cost-effectiveness of
References
Austbo, J. 2011. From Oseberg to Baku. New
Drilling Technology From Local Research
to the Global Oilfield. Oral presentation
given at the SPE Bergen One-day Seminar,
Bergen, Norway, 6 April.
Dagestad, V., Mykkletvedt, M., Eide, K., and
Reimers, N. 2006. First Field Results for
Extended-Reach C-Drilling Technology. Paper SPE 100108-MS presented at
the SPE/ICoTA Coiled Tubing and Well
Intervention Conference and Exhibition,
The Woodlands, Texas, 45 April. http://
dx.doi.org/10.2118/100108-MS.
Forsyth, G. 2010. Milling of HTHP FIV
Valve. Hunting Welltonic Test Report
TRP-724-01.
Kjoglum, S. 2007. Analysis of Downhole Tools
for Drilling Optimization. Norwegian University of Science and Technology diploma
thesis, Trondheim, Norway.
Performance Analysis of Antistall Technology. 2011. Schlumberger document InTouch
5288091.
Reckmann, H., Jogi, P., Kpetehoto, F.,
Chandrasekaran, S., and McPherson, J.
2010. MWD Failure Rates Due to Drilling Dynamics. Paper SPE 127413-MS presented at the IADC/SPE Drilling Conference and Exhibition, New Orleans,
Louisiana, 24 February. http://dx.doi.
org/10.2118/127413-MS.
Selnes, K., Clemmensen, C., and Reimers, N.
2008. Drilling Difficult Formations Efficiently With the Use of an Antistall Tool.
Paper SPE 111874-MS presented at the
IADC/SPE Drilling Conference and Exhibition, Orlando, Florida, 46 March. http://
dx.doi.org/10.2118/111874-MS.
Skjelvik, H. 2011. Antistall Technology
A Tool Designed To Mitigate Stick-Slip.
Oral presentation given at the Oil Online
Drilling & Completing Trouble Zones
Conference, Galveston, Texas, 2627
October. JPT
29
OIL SHALE
The Tantalizing
Promise of Oil Shale
Story and photos by Robin Beckwith, Staff Writer JPT/JPT Online
A vast energy treasure lies within an
18,963-sq-mile area of Colorado, Utah,
and Wyoming: an estimated 4.28 trillion
BOE of in-place resources of oil shale,
according to US Geological Survey (USGS)
research geologist Ronald Johnson. He
presented the new assessment at the 31st
Oil Shale Symposium, held mid-October
2011 at the Colorado School of Mines.
30
lia, 32 billion BOE; and Estonia, 16 billion BOE. Israel indicated at the 30th Oil
Shale Symposium that its resources may
be as much as 250billion BOE.
The CIA World Factbook estimates
2011 world proved reserves of crude oil at
1.47 trillion bbl. Total annual production
of oil shale in the only three countries
today where it is exploited for commer-
extent the pyrolysis of oil shale in surface retorts, the primary historic method for oil recovery from oil shale.
According to Robert N. Heistand, in The Fischer Assay:
A Standard Method?, The Fischer assay is not a standard
analytical procedure. It does not produce quantitative values
such as the weight percent nickel in a stainless steel or a ppm
mercury in water. Rather, the Fischer assay is a performance
test such as the octane number of motor fuels or the tensile
strength of fibers. COSTAR director Jeremy Boak points
out, however, that it does produce some quantitative values:
weight percent oil, weight percent water, weight percent residue, and weight percent gas plus loss (by difference), as well
as the specific gravity of the recovered oil.
Oil shale quality is typically expressed as a weight percentage of the rock determined by Fischer assay value. For
example, Jordanian oil shale quality is stated as 9% by Fischer assay; and various oil shales mined in China have Fischer
assay values ranging from a low of 5.5% to a high of 15%.
When assessing oil shale resourcesreached through subjecting an areas respresentative samples to Fischer assay
testingtheir yield is expressed in gal/ton, with a yield of
25 gal/ton to 50 gal/ton the richest and considered commercially prospective. The USGS has used a lower limit of
about 15 gal/ton, with others suggesting a limit as low as
6gal/ton.
31
OIL SHALE
32
in Israel). When considered on a dryweight basis, as coal is, the gross heating value of oil shales varies widely
ranging from about 500 to 4,000 kilocalories per kilogram (kcal/kg) of rock.
The high-grade kukersite oil shale of
Estonia has a heating value of about
2,000 to 2,200 kcal/kg (when this kukersite is considered on a dry, mineral-free basis, its heating value would
be higher but not as high as coal). By
comparison, the heating value of lignitic coal has a much higher range
from 3,500 to 4,600 kcal/kg on a dry,
mineral-freebasis.
pyrolysiswhich is a capital- and timeintensive step not required when extracting crude oil. Pyrolysis is a more complex process than methods used to extract
crude oil from tar sands, for example.
With steam-assisted gravity drainage (SAGD), heavy crude flows when hot
steam is injected into a pair of parallel wellsvertically apart about 5 m
drilled horizontally at least 1 km. Tar
sands (bitumen) are softened to lower
their viscosity enough to produce heavy
crude that will flow.
Oil shale, in contrast, is not a form of
highly viscous crude oil. A chemical and
physical process called pyrolysis must
occur for liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons to be released from the solid hydrocarbons of the oil shale kerogen. Pyrolysis is a thermochemical decomposition
of organic material at elevated temperatures in the absence of oxygen. It involves
the simultaneous change of chemical
The Colony Bench from below, looking toward the ExxonMobil Colony Mine site near Parachute, Colorado,
where the company is researching its Electrofrac in-situ pyrolysis method.
33
OIL SHALE
34
Oil sand containing oil generated from the Green River formation, Asphalt Ridge Tar Sand Quarry, Utah.
to more than 460,000 B/D in September 2011more than four and one-half
times its September 2005 level.
However, for widespread commercial oil shale resource development to
35
OIL SHALE
Outcrop of the Birds Nest aquifer unit (named after cavities left behind after dissolution of large nahcolite
nodules) of the Green River Formation in Evacuation Creek, Utah.
but the presence of a host of other ingredients. These include transportation and
processing infrastructure; readily available water resources; byproduct and
36
38
39
40
The 157-m-long Skandi Aker is the largest boat of its kind. Owned by Aker
Solutions, it was built to do subsea well testing, construction, and repairs,
including jobs requiring coiled tubing, in water up to 3000 m deep.
41
Coiled Tubing
Blowout Preventer
Intervention Vessel
Riser Extension,
located from 100
to 1,000 ft below
surface
Buoyancy Module
Pipe with
Standard Joints
Keith Millheim,
managing director
Nautilus
International
Stress Joint
Further Reading
Connector for
Shutoff Device
Shutoff With 2
Shear Rams
Tree/Wellhead
Mudline
42
Industry Forums
SubWIN Subsea Well Intervention
Network
SubWIN Subsea Well Intervention
Network
Taking Advantage of
Vessels of Opportunity
Colin Buchans job at Shell is to find ways to find other vessels of
opportunityoffshore construction vessels adapted to do what
drilling rigs are not so well equipped to do faster and for less.
think it was one size fits all before. A drilling rig is what
you used, Buchan said. Now there are more options
there to pick from. His job title, well delivery manager
for floating hoist at Shell, is an indication of what the options
look like. Hoisting is a reference to many devices lowered to
the bottom using a wireline, rather than sending them down
to the well through a riser.
Were not seeing drilling rigs going out of business,
he said. But the high cost of repairing wells using drilling
rigs and their limited number compared with the number
of subsea well completions both argue for new approaches.
The goal is to do as much as possible to improve
production from subsea wells by expanding the roles
of vessels now doing deepwater construction work,
such as installing manifolds or anchors on the seafloor.
Construction vessels would play a growing role,
from wellsite preparation through completions and
maintenance, to plugging and abandonment.
Wireline well interventions have become common in
the North Sea and will be moving to deep water. Offshore
Brazil construction boats are coming in behind drilling rigs
to complete wells by installing production hardware, such
as subsea trees to control the flow and connecting them
into the production system.
The high cost of drilling, completions, and repairs has
a direct bearing on the ultimate output of reservoirs. To
ensure the ultimate return exceeds the ultimate cost over
the life of the well, operators will only develop discoveries
with 150 million bbl of recoverable reserves or more into
production, said Keith Millheim, managing director of
Nautilus International. He, along with others, has started
a pair of companies to commercialize a self-standing riser
technology that he says will reduce costs sufficiently to
change how deepwater fields are managed.
One of the companies, MEPS First Oil, is focused on
reducing the cost of extended well tests and reducing
the time it takes to begin production. More testing could
43
MANAGEMENT
Trends in Monitoring:
How to Use Real-Time Data Effectively
David Pritchard, Successful Energy Practices International, Jesse Roye, Digital Oilfield Solutions,
and J.C. Cunha, Ecopetrol America
48
So What?
Capability
Interpret well
data in real
me
Weight on Bit
Rate of Penetraon
Hookload variaons
(buoyancy)
Torque/Drag
Mechanical Specic Energy
Motor and Boom Hole
Assembly dynamics
Drilling trends; Gamma ray,
D exponents, etc.
Pressure while drilling and
Equivalent Circulang
Density trends
d
Pressures and volumes
Mud log data, gas or
hydrocarbon levels,
mud weight
and lithological trends
Pit Trends and Pump
Proles
Real-me
Alerts
Monitor in
RT what
the well is
telling you
Ensure
wellbore
stability
Business Impact
Provide well
containment
(well control)
Ensure and
Improve safe
operaon
Proacvely
Idenfy, conrm
and migate
hazards
Improve Success
of Well
Evaluate and
migate/
resolve
uncertaines
Perform
muldisciplinary,
rigorous, total
well control
analysis in risks
Develop and
Operate
Simulators
Safer
Operaons
Idenfy and
Implement
improvements
(Opmizaon)
Improve
Eciency of
Operaons
I
Improve
Knowledge and
Experience
Provide RT
training for
personnel
Fig. 1Real-time data and operational impact. (Courtesy of Successful Drilling Practices and Digital Oilfield
Solutions.)
Wellbore Stability
and Process Safety
Ensuring a stable wellbore is the precursor of process safety. To its credit, the
industry has made enormous improvements and technology advancements
in areas such as rig floor management,
equipment, and automation. Real-time
data reflects every drilling parameter
related to these technologies. The following are examples of some key parameters:
Weight on bit
Rate of penetration
Hookload variations (buoyancy)
Torque/drag
Mechanical specific energy
Motor and bottomhole assembly
dynamics
49
MANAGEMENT
General Populations:
263 Wellbores < 600 ft
of Water
2.20
0.70
2.30
1.20
6.40
2.240
2.90
2.90
2.40
1.90
10.10
9.797
99 Non-Sub-Salt
Wells: WD >
3,000 ft
0.70
0.90
2.00
0.80
4.40
2.376
4
56.00
29
33.78
9
26.40
35
0.420
97
1.843
54
0.432
Drilling Management
Is Risk Management
Risk management is beginning to be
recognized as fundamental to drilling
management.5 No matter how robust
the planning processes and procedures,
wellbore stability models are, at best,
predictions that are constantly changing because of the uncertainties inherent in the drilling process. Too often, it
50
65 Sub-Salt
Wells: WD >
3,000 ft
Information Technology
and Real-Time Data
In order to successfully apply and monitor real-time data, information technology (IT) systems must be in place for
users to access the data from around the
globe. Furthermore, there should be consistent monitoring criteria, beginning
with the wellsite and then the office and
other offsite designations. Alerts must
be consistent and the IT system and software should recognize changing drilling trends, no matter which tracks are
onscreen at the time, and bring forward
abnormalities not in the line-of-sight of
a particular screen. Establishing bandwidths for alerts is critical to ensure that
alarms are synchronized, and all viewers
are simultaneously and correctly alerted
in a timely manner. Unilateral disablement of an alarm is unacceptable, as is
the establishment of alerts bandwidths
Firewall and/or
external)
Sensor / Data
Measurement
Real-Time
Data
WITSML
Central
S
Server
S
/D
Sensor
Data
Measurement
Sensor / Data
Measurement
WITSML
Viewer
Integrated
views
WITSML
Aggregator/
Servers
G&G
Data base
WITSML
pp
Data pipe
WITSML
Viewer
Integrated
views
Engineering
Data base
Real-me WITSML
or other RT data format
File
Transfers
Full Access
Available
Operator,
Partners, etc.
Fig. 2Real-time data flow for monitoring real-time operations. (Courtesy of Successful Drilling Practices
and Digital Oilfield Solutions.)
that are so broad as to render the existence of alarms meaningless. Default and
exceptions to defaults must be established by consensus involving the operator and critical contractors. Common situational awareness should be the determiner in establishing effective bandwidths of monitoring. This also requires
a multidisciplinary alignment as a geoscientist might interpret real-time data
differently from a driller, whose metrics
are based on different criteria. Drilling
performance and reliability are a multidisciplinary responsibility. Bandwidths
for alerts will also be dependent on the
category of the well being drilled and the
maturation of the subsurface and drilling
knowledge of the area.
E&P service providers give reliable, multiyear proven capability for both onshore
and offshore real-time data collection
and transmission. The addition of a realtime operations center to deliver interpretation and analysis of the real-time
data stream and relay proactive recommendations provide the following:
Leverage of experienced resources
across multiple operations
Access to deep subject matter experts regardless of location
Capability to perform trend and
model analysis not available at the rig
Proactive ability to identify issues
before they become problems
Effective integrated operations
Enhanced process safety
More cost-effective operations
The design for such an integrated
system is understood and documented.
It should come as no surprise that many
companies across the world have successfully adopted this model. Many operating companies, including supermajors,
national oil companies, and independents, have been using this model for
51
MANAGEMENT
52
monitoring flat time operations, well control avoidance simulators can be natural
extensions of control rooms and excellent
training venues not only for drilling, but
also for multidisciplinary personnel.
Conclusions
The industry as a whole must cast off vestiges of outmoded thinking that drilling
is all about cost per foot and embrace the
fact that process safety is paramount.
Senior management must warrant
that there are processes in place and
adhered to that consider process safety management as the precursor to reliability. For example, in deepwater operations in the GOM, wellbore instability
represents from 26% to 56% of total
nonproductive time, and real-time data
provides an opportunity to predict and
avoid these instability events. Removing hazards and reducing their daunting
number will significantly lower organizational and industry drilling costs.
One breach of process safety eliminates all efficiencies gained from technologies both on a company and industry basis. Therefore, the industry must
undertake a step change in how it per-
References
1. Brett, J. Ford. 2010. Forum on Offshore
Drilling, Panel Session, Pensacola, Florida. 11 August 2010.
2. SINTEF Offshore Blowout Database. 2009.
Scandpower Blowout and Well Release
Frequencies.
3. Pritchard, David M. and Lacy, Kevin D.
2011. Deepwater Well ComplexityThe
New Domain, Prepared for the Presidents
Commission for the Deepwater Horizon
Study Group (1 March 2011).
4. STOP is a registered trademark of DuPont.
5. Cunha, J.C. 2010. Drilling Management,
JPT, September 2010, Vol. 62, No. 9, 72.
6. The James K. Dodson Company. https://
www.dodsondatasystems.com/Default.
aspx JPT
54
Risky deviations from safe practices that people come to accept because
they had gotten away with it many times
before.
All of the speakers came back to the
critical role played by top management.
Leaders create a safety culture by supporting a systematic approach to workplace safety, Formigli said.
One aspect is creating a path for
warnings from staffers. Past failures
at NASA led to the creation of procedures to ensure that dissenting voices
on safety get an audience with decision
makers. The goal is to protect that single
voice in the wilderness who says I am not
comfortable with this, said McArthur.
Keynote Address
The first day of the conference also
featured the keynote address from US
55
tax code that allows businesses to compete fairly, and come up with an energy
policy that takes into account price, reliability, and the energy industrys ability
to be globally competitive.
McCarthy encouraged members of
the oil and gas industry to be vocal. My
advice to you is to not stay quiet. You
In a special panel session, digital energy experts said that the first 10 years
of digital oilfield technology has proved
the value of the approach. But the lesson learned by all is that an electronic
nerve system connecting sensors in wells
with the central office does not add value
unless people in the business change how
they work together.
The first decade of digital oilfield
development has delivered more production, lower costs, and safer operations,
but the trend is far from reaching its
potential. This is really effective when
you can design it into the way you operate, said Peter Kapteijn, a smart field
coordinator at Maersk Oil.
He and the other panelists emphasized the need to link the dataflow and
analysis capabilities of the computers
and the Internet with a corporate culture
that is constantly seeking opportunities
56
A Journey to Automation
In another panel session, oilfield automation experts discussed and debated
the question: Is automation coming to
well completions? The conclusion was an
emphatic eventually.
The group put together by SPEs
Drilling Systems Automation Technology
Section (DSATS) offered a series of presentations showing strong reasons for
automation including greater efficiency
and safety, and because there is no other
way to solve some of the problems.
But there are obstacles to overcome,
beginning with the dizzying range of processes used to complete wells and their
maintenance. Planners started with a
question: Is there enough work going
on in the area to sustain an afternoon
panelsession?
Some said ignore it, there is nothing there. Others said there must be
something going on there, said John
de Wardt, president of De Wardt, whose
58
emissions has been the increased use of coal for power generation in emerging markets. Over the past two decades, coal
has been growing in a very disruptive manner, Bennaceur
said. The best scenario for reaching the natural gas goals that
he outlined would involve reducing projected CO2 emission
levels in 2050 by 50%, he said.
Natural gas has by far much fewer emissions than coal
and significantly less than oil for the same output of energy,
Bennaceur said. What is even more remarkable, if we look
at NOx, SOx, and other particulates, natural gas is by farI
would say hundreds of times or even thousands of times
less than other types of fossil fuel.
In the wake of the Fukushima nuclear power plant disaster in Japan, Bennaceur said that the projected nuclear power
growth in China and elsewhere is not going to continue and
that there will be an accelerated retirement of nuclear plants
in Europe and North America. In addition, renewable energy
sources still have issues of deployment, intermittency, and
cost, he said.
At the same time, unconventional gas development is
creating tremendous growth in resource estimates for natural gas, he said.
TECHNOLOGY
FOCUS
Baojun Bai, SPE,
is an associate
professor of
petroleum
engineering
at Missouri
University of
Science and Technology. Previously,
he was a reservoir engineer and head
of a conformance-control team for
PetroChina. Bai holds PhD degrees
in petroleum engineering and in
petroleum geology. He serves on the
JPT Editorial Committee and as a
technical editor for SPE Journal and SPE
Reservoir Evaluation & Engineering.
Recommended additional reading
at OnePetro: www.onepetro.org.
SPE 142668 Enhanced Waterflood for
Middle East Carbonate CoresImpact of
Injection-Water Composition. By Robin
Gupta, ExxonMobil Upstream Research,
etal.
SPE 142105 A Simplified Model for
Simulations of Alkaline/Surfactant/
Polymer Floods. By Mojdeh Delshad, SPE,
University of Texas at Austin, et al.
SPE 144294 Large-Scale High-ViscousElastic-Fluid Flooding in the Field
Achieves High Recoveries. By Wang
Demin, SPE, Daqing Oil Company, et al.
SPE 144599 A Combined Experimental
and Simulation Workflow To Improve
Predictability of In-Situ Combustion.
By M. Bazargan, Stanford University, et al.
SPE 147858 In-situ Combustion Using
Sugar Dust, Sweet ReservoirsA Smart
and Better Alternative. By Panchamlal,
SPE, Maharashtra Institute of Technology,
et al.
SPE 147999 Lessons Learned From
Nine Years of Immiscible-Gas-Injection
Performance and Sector-Modeling
Study of Two Pilots in a Heterogeneous
Carbonate Reservoir by Lakshi Konwar,
SPE, Zakum Development Company, et al.
60
EOR PERFORMANCE
AND MODELING
In spite of continued investment and advances in exploiting alternativeenergy sources, oil and natural gas will continue to be a significant portion of US and
global energy portfolios for decades. Enhanced oil recovery (EOR) uses unconventional hydrocarbon-recovery methods that target the approximately two-thirds of the
oil volume remaining in reservoirs after conventional-recovery methods have been
exhausted. Though limited by high capital and operating costs, EOR techniques will
have a substantial effect on the future supply of oil.
In 2011, SPE hosted an EOR conference in Kuala Lumpur, and three workshops
to address EOR technologies in Malaysia, Kuwait, and the Syrian Arab Republic.
The Malaysia workshop focused on chemical-EOR methods, the Kuwait workshop
addressed opportunities and for challenges of EOR methods in the Middle East, and
the Syrian Arab Republic workshop discussed EOR in carbonate reservoirs. More than
300 EOR papers were published in SPE conferences, with many additional presentations in EOR workshops. These papers address important issues related to practical
application of conventional EOR methods and the development of novel EOR technologies. The topics cover experience with, opportunities for, and challenges of EOR
technologies; fundamental study of EOR mechanisms for different methods; feasibility study and improvement of an EOR method for a specific reservoir; EOR-screening
criteria; reservoir surveillance, monitoring, and evaluation technologies; reservoir
simulation and modeling; lessons learned from EOR pilot and field trials; and some
novel EOR methods.
Polymer flooding has been proved the most cost-effective chemical-EOR method
in the laboratory and in the field. A recent focus on polymer flooding evaluated associative polymers because of their advantage over traditional hydrolyzed polyacrylamide (HPAM) polymers; thus, one paper about comparing the flow behavior of associative polymer and HPAM in porous media was selected for this feature.
CO2 injection is a win/win strategy because it can enhance oil recovery and be
used for CO2 storage in reservoirs to reduce greenhouse-gas levels in the atmosphere.
However, CO2 EOR targets maximum oil recovery while CO2 sequestration targets
maximum storage capacity without leakage. One paper featured here provides some
guidance to balance the two technologies.
Steamflooding has been applied successfully in heavy-oil reservoirs. However,
one paper synopsized in this feature will describe successful steamflooding in a lightoil reservoir.
EOR opportunities in the Middle East are also highlighted. JPT
Introduction
A six-part method was used to assess
CO2 storage and the EOR potential of
domestic oil reservoirs. These steps were
assembling and updating the major-oilreservoirs database; calculating the minimum miscibility pressure for applying
CO2-EOR; screening reservoirs favorable
for CO2-EOR by use of the minimum
miscibility pressure and other criteria;
calculating oil recovery from applying
next-generation CO2-EOR technology;
applying updated costs in an economic
model; and performing economic and
sensitivity analyses to understand how
the combined effects of technology and
oil prices influence the results of applying next-generation CO2-EOR and CO2storage technology.
Domestic-Oil-Resource Base
The USA has a large oil-resource base,
on the order of 597 billion bbl of oil
originally in place (OOIP). Approximately one-third of this oil-resource base,
204 billion bbl, has been recovered or
placed into proved reserves with existing primary- and secondary-oil-recovery technologies. Therefore, 393 billion
bbl remains unrecovered as technically
stranded oil.
Much of this stranded oil is in
east and central Texas (74 billion bbl),
the midcontinent (66 billion bbl), and
the Permian Basin of west Texas and
New Mexico (62 billion bbl). California,
Alaska, the Gulf Coast, and the Rockies
also have significant volumes of stranded oil.
Not all of the remaining domestic
oil resource is technically amenable to
CO2-EOR. Favorable reservoir properties
for miscible CO2-EOR include sufficiently deep formations with lighter (higher-gravity) oil. Some of the shallower
oil reservoirs with heavier (lower-gravity) oil may be amenable to immiscible
CO2-EOR.
Impediments to Current
CO2-EOR Performance
Large volumes of oil are left stranded
after primary- and secondary-oil-recovery methods are completed. This includes
oil that is bypassed because of poor waterflood sweep efficiency; oil that is physically unconnected to a wellbore; and, most
importantly, oil that is trapped as residual
oil by viscous, capillary, and interfacialtension forces in the pore space.
The main mechanism by which CO2EOR can recover this trapped oil is by
creating, with the assistance of pressure,
miscibility between the residual oil and
the injected CO2. Additional mechanisms
This article, written by Senior Technology Editor Dennis Denney, contains highlights
of paper SPE 139717, Storing CO2 With Next-Generation CO2-EOR Technology, by
R.C. Ferguson, SPE, V.A. Kuuskraa, SPE, and T.S. Van Leeuwen, SPE, Advanced
Resources International, and D. Remson, US Department of Energy, National Energy
Technology Laboratory, prepared for the 2010 SPE International Conference on CO2
Capture, Storage, and Utilization, New Orleans, 1012 November. The paper has not
been peer reviewed.
Next-Generation CO2-EOR
Technology
Four individual technologies were examined that aim at improving oil recovery
and CO2-storage potential.
For a limited time, the complete paper is free to SPE members at www.jptonline.org.
JPT JANUARY 2012
61
ciated costs, but when applied correctly, each can improve the performance
of CO2-EOR floods beyond current best
practices. Nationwide, next-generation technologies increase technically
recoverable oil from 83 to 128 billion
bbl. These technologies also improve
Summary
To take advantage of the theoretical
potential that CO2-EOR has in unlocking
the large stranded domestic resource
base, each of the individual technologies must be applied on a customized
basis, specific to the reservoirs. Each of
the technologies has incremental asso-
63
Introduction
Steamflooding in heavy-oil sands is well
documented as a mature technology, and
while steam has been injected into lightoil low-permeability sands for almost as
long, the mechanisms and effectiveness
of this process are much less understood
because of flow complexities in these
sands and complexities of high-pressure
steam injection. The full-length paper
details the examination of thermal recovery in such a reservoir by use of physical
and numerical simulations.
Wettability alteration, interfacial
tension, and threshold-pressure-gradient
decline contribute to higher oil displacement and sweep efficiency. Vaporization,
viscosity reduction, thermal expansion, and relative permeability variation
account for more than three-fourths of
the incremental recovery in steamflooding. The Cy reservoir is a low-permeabil-
Waterflooding History
Steamflooding Project
Geological Characteristics
This article, written by Senior Technology Editor Dennis Denney, contains highlights
of paper SPE 145005, A Case Study: A Successful Steamflooding Project To Enhance
Oil Recovery of a Low-Permeability Light-Oil Waterflood Reservoir, by Wu Shuhong,
SPE, PetroChina; Han Min, Greatwall Drilling Company; Ma Desheng and Wu
Yongbin, PetroChina; Qian Yu and Yao Chunli, Daqing Oil Company; and Shen
Dehuang, SPE, PetroChina, prepared for the 2011 SPE Enhanced Oil Recovery
Conference, Kuala Lumpur, 1921 July 2011. The paper has not been peer reviewed.
For a limited time, the complete paper is free to SPE members at www.jptonline.org.
64
Oil-Recovery Increment, %
10
7.6
7.6
6.2
6.2
3.2
3.2
1.3
1.3
1.5
1.5
0
Vaporization
Viscosity
Reduction
Thermal
Expansion
Gravity
Segregation
Others
66
Steamflooding Mechanisms
in a Low-Permeability
Light-Oil Reservoir
or hydrophobic associative
polymers (APs), incorporating
a small fraction of hydrophobic
monomer into a partially hydrolyzed
polyacrylamide (HPAM) polymer can
promote intermolecular associations
and, thereby, enhance viscosities and
resistance factors. The behavior of a new
AP in porous media was investigated.
Introduction
In polymer or chemical floods that use
polymer for mobility control, the cost
effectiveness of the polymer is a major
concern. Resistance factor is the effective
viscosity of the polymer solution in porous
media, relative to water (i.e., water mobility divided by polymer-solution mobility). HPAM and xanthan polysaccharides
have been the dominant polymers used for
enhanced oil recovery (EOR). If polymers
that are more cost effective than these traditional EOR polymers can be identified,
field applications of chemical floods could
become much more widespread.
For hydrophobic APs, incorporating
a small fraction of hydrophobic monomer
into an HPAM polymer is intended to
promote intermolecular associations to
enhance viscosities and resistance factors. At moderate concentrations (e.g.,
0.05 to 0.5%), these polymers (with 0.1
to 7% hydrophobic monomer) can provide substantially higher viscosities than
equivalent-molecular-weight polymers
without hydrophobic groups.
In some cases, the increase in viscosity with increasing polymer concen-
This article, written by Senior Technology Editor Dennis Denney, contains highlights
of paper SPE 141355, Rheology of a New Sulfonic Associative Polymer in Porous
Media, by R.S. Seright, SPE, Tianguang Fan, SPE, Kathryn Wavrik, SPE, and
Hao Wan, SPE, New Mexico Tech, and Nicolas Gaillard, SPE, and Cdrick Favro,
SPE, SNF Floerger, prepared for the 2011 SPE International Symposium on Oilfield
Chemistry, The Woodlands, Texas, 1113 April. The paper has been peer reviewed. See
SPE Reservoir Evaluation & Engineering December 2011.
Face Plugging
Filter Tests. Both polymers showed
excellent filterability at lower concentrations (1,000 ppm or lower), but plugged
within 70-cm3/cm2 throughput at higher
concentrations (1,500 ppm). Thus, the
higher turbidity observed with the AP did
not impair its filterability relative to that
of the HPAM. Plugging characteristics of
the AP appeared to be similar to those of
HPAM. The plugging behavior for both
polymers being severe at 1,500-ppm
polymer, but not at lower concentrations,
might be explained by use of bridgingadsorption concepts.
Core-Face Plugging. Several experiments examined the level of face plugging that occurred during injection of
large volumes of AP solutions through
a 363-md Berea sandstone core and
through a 12,313-md porous polyethylene core. These 13- to 14-cm-long cores
had two internal pressure taps dividing
the cores into three sections. By monitoring pressure drops and resistance factors in the various core sections, the level
of face plugging could be assessed as a
function of polymer-solution throughput. After injecting 97 pore volumes (PV)
(580 cm3/cm2) of the AP solutions having
concentrations up to 2,500 ppm through
the 12,313-md core, resistance factors in
the first core section were no higher than
in the second or third core sections. Similarly, after injecting 51 PV (248 cm3/cm2)
of AP solutions having concentrations up
to 2,500 ppm through the 363-md core,
resistance factors in the first core section were no higher than in the second
or third core sections. Thus, no significant face plugging was observed for the
AP solutions.
For a limited time, the complete paper is free to SPE members at www.jptonline.org.
JPT JANUARY 2012
67
Pore Plugging
Resistance Factor vs. Flux and Concentration. At a given flux, the resistance factors were reasonably consistent
in the three core sections. Resistance
factors were somewhat higher in the
third core section, which argues against
plugging of the inlet face. Consistent
with normal HPAM behavior, a strong
shear thickening was seen at moderateto-high flux values and Newtonian or a
slight shear-thinning behavior was seen
at low flux values.
For conventional HPAM and xanthan polymers, resistance factors at low
fluxes were reasonably consistent with
expectations based on viscosity measurements, unless a pore-plugging effect
occurred (e.g., if the permeability was
too low to accommodate the size of the
highest-molecular-weight species within
the polymer).
The lowest resistance factors for APs
were noticeably greater than (approximately double) the highest measured
viscosity (i.e., viscosity at 1.8 sec1). If
this result was caused by large polymer
adsorption or retention, different resistance factors might have been expected
in the hydrophilic 363-md Berea than in
the hydrophobic 12,313-md polyethylene.
If 363-md Berea has smaller pores
and pore throats than 12,313-md polyethylene, pore plugging might be more
severe in the less-permeable core
because particles of a given size should be
more likely to plug small pores than large
pores. Although the porosity and permeability for Berea sandstone and porous
polyethylene are quite different, poresize, pore-throat-size, and pore-aspectratio distributions are very similar.
Residual-Resistance Factors. At the end
of AP injection, many PV of brine were
injected to determine residual-resistance
factors. After injecting 109 PV of brine
through the polyethylene core, residualresistance factors were 1.9, 2.1, and 1.3
in the first, second, and third sections,
respectively. This result suggests little or
no significant pore plugging in the 12,313md polyethylene core. However, after
injecting 170 PV of brine through the Berea
core, residual-resistance factors were 13.0,
19.3, and 15.3 in the first, second, and
third sections, respectively. This result
68
Mechanical Degradation
In previous work, when xanthan or
HPAM resistance factors were higher than expected at moderate-to-low
flux values, the effect was shown to be
the result of a high-molecular-weight
polymer species. For both xanthan and
HPAM, this species was removed by flow
through a few feet of porous rock. For
HPAM, the species was readily destroyed
by mechanical degradation. Regardless,
the species was not expected to propagate deep into a reservoir to provide lowflux resistance factors that were substantially higher than expectations from viscosity measurements. Other studies of a
hydrophobic AP concluded that it contained a low-mobility (high resistance
factor), high-molecular-weight species
that propagated significantly slower
than other components of the polymer.
Introduction
The EOR process is a tertiary oil-recovery method representing the last stage in
a fields life. Fig. 1 shows the definition of
various oil-recovery terms. Primary and
secondary recovery (conventional recovery) target the mobile oil in the reservoir,
and tertiary recovery, or EOR, targets
the immobile oil (cannot be produced
naturally because of capillary and/or viscous forces).
Primary-, secondary-, and tertiary-recovery methods follow a natural
progression of oil production from the
start to a point at which it is no longer
economical to produce the hydrocarbons. EOR processes attempt to recover
oil beyond secondary methods. Recovery, especially EOR, depends on the oil
price and overall economics. On average, the worldwide recovery factor from
conventional (primary and secondary)
recovery methods is approximately
one-third of that originally present in
Oil Recovery
Primary Recovery
Natural Flow
Generally
less than 30%
Artificial Lift
Secondary Recovery
3050%
IOR
Waterflooding
Pressure Maintenance
Tertiary Recovery
EOR
Thermal
Steam
Hot Water
Combustion
Gas Injection
CO2
Hydrocarbon
Nitrogen/Flue
Chemical
Alkali
Surfactant
Polymer
>50% and
up to 80+%
Other
Microbial
Acoustic
Electromagnetic
This article, written by Senior Technology Editor Dennis Denney, contains highlights
of paper SPE 143287, EOR Potential in the Middle East: Current and Future Trends,
by Saad M. Al-Mutairi, SPE, and Sunil L. Kokal, SPE, Saudi Aramco, prepared for
the 2011 SPE Europec/EAGE Annual Conference and Exhibition, Vienna, Austria,
2326 May. The paper has not been peer reviewed.
Oman
As stated by officials of Petroleum Development Oman, the oil production contributed though EOR methods will represent one-third of the countrys total oil
production by 2016 to offset the steady
decline in oil production over the last 10
years. There are many EOR projects running in Oman, on either pilot or commercial scales.
Harweel Field (Miscible Gas). The Harweel field is a carbonate cluster and consists of eight fields and 11 high-pressure/
high-temperature reservoirs. The cluster
is in the south of Oman and produces light
38API crude oil. Because of the high reservoir pressure and light-oil conditions,
miscible-gas injection was selected, with
the potential to increase the recovery factor from 10 to 50%. The availability of
large quantities of sour gas was capitalized by reinjecting the produced sour gas
into the reservoir as an EOR method. The
project was fully commissioned in late
2010. Harweel oil production is expected
to increase by 40,000 B/D.
For a limited time, the complete paper is free to SPE members at www.jptonline.org.
70
tion mode in the Amal West and cyclicsteam-injection mode in the Amal East.
The development plan calls for drilling
300 new wells over a 14-year period.
The steam-injection project will increase
production from the two Amal fields by
three times the current oil production of
20,000 B/D.
Kuwait
Egypt
UAE
Amal Field (Thermal). Amal field is a
sandstone reservoir in south Oman. The
low-pressure field produces heavy crude.
To enhance recovery and reduce oil viscosity, a thermal pilot project was started in 2007 on continuous-steam-injec-
Syria
Injection of low-salinity water is an
emerging EOR technology. The Omar
field is a sandstone reservoir containing light oil with viscosity of 0.3 cp.
Low-salinity-water injection in the field
showed that wettability can be changed
from oil-wet to a water-wet system. Formation water in the field has a salinity
of 90,000 mg/L. The current average
recovery factor is approximately 47%.
On the basis of pilot results, it was found
that the change in wettability from the
low-salinity-water injection led to an
associated incremental recovery of 10
to 15%.
Turkey
Immiscible-CO2 injection was tested in
1980 in two demonstration areas of the
Bati Raman field, the largest oil field in
Turkey. This field is a limestone reservoir on an elongated east/west anticline,
approximately 17 km long by 4 km wide.
The reservoir rock is a fractured vuggy
limestone in the western and central
parts of the field, but is chalky and tighter to the east. Porosity and permeability values range from 14 to 20% and 10
to 100 md, respectively. The reservoir
contains 12API heavy oil at an average
depth of 4,300 ft. The reservoir temper-
71
72
a world leader in optimizing the recovery from its reservoirs through prudent
reservoir-management practices. These
practices include deployment of maximum-reservoir-contact wells, intelligent autonomous fields, gigacell simulation, deep diagnostics (i.e., ability to
see inside the reservoir with clarity),
and advanced monitoring and surveillance (M/S) technologies. These are just
a few of the available technologies that
may help improve oil recovery and that
should be considered before full-scale
deployment ofEOR.
EOR Challenges
EOR, in general, faces significant challenges worldwide. Some of these challenges include the close association with
the price of oil, generally complex projects, being technology heavy, and requiring considerable capital investment and
financial risks. The risks are aggravated
by fluctuations in the oil price. The unit
costs of EOR oil are substantially higher
than those of secondary or conventional oil. The availability of injectant can be
an issue, especially if it involves CO2 or
a hydrocarbon gas. High initial capital
investments are required to move from
a secondary process to an EOR process.
Also, personnel must be highly educated
and be equipped with necessary competencies to run EOR projects efficiently.
TECHNOLOGY
FOCUS
Syed A. Ali, SPE, is
a research advisor
with Schlumberger.
Previously he was
a Chevron Fellow
with Chevron
Energy Technology
Company. Ali received the 2006 SPE
Production and Operations Award. He
earned BS, MS, and PhD degrees. He
served as the Executive Editor of SPE
Production & Operations and currently
serves on several SPE committees,
including the JPT Editorial Committee
and Well Completions Subcommittee.
74
Introduction
The Seria oil field is a complexly faulted anticlinal structure with hydrocarbons trapped behind fault/dip structures in stacked deltaic sediments. The
field straddles the coastline, with the
northern half of the field offshore under
shallow water. Early oil production was
dominated by wells drilled on land.
Production peaked at approximately
120,000 BOPD in 1956. The field production declined throughout the 1960s
and much of the 1970s. Since 1990, the
field has been producing approximately
20,000 BOPD.
The northern flank of the Seria anticline was known to hold hydrocarbons,
but the shallow surf zone made drilling rig access problematic. Poor-quality
seismic data had limited development
activity. Several penetrations had been
Fig. 1SNF development showing the fishhook well and reservoir targets.
This article, written by Senior Technology Editor Dennis Denney, contains highlights
of paper IPTC 15199, The Seria Field, Brunei: 80 Years on, Near-Field Exploration
Going Strong, by John Church, SPE, and Bong Poh Yuk, Brunei Shell Petroleum,
prepared for the 2011 International Petroleum Technology Conference, Bangkok,
Thailand, 1517 November. The paper has not been peer reviewed. [Note: Conference
rescheduled to 79 February 2012.] Copyright 2011 International Petroleum
Technology Conference. Reproduced by permission.
Because the conference was rescheduled, the complete paper will be free
to SPE members at www.jptonline.org during March and April 2012.
JPT JANUARY 2012
75
Alternative Path
115130 angle
Shunt tube
Shunt tubes
Darat Early-Production
Opportunities (DEPO)
Project (2010 on)
With successful delivery of the SNF project and the continued need to deliver
new production, a project was initiated
to identify, high grade, plan, and execute wells for a large number of identified prospects along the coastal strip of
the shallow marine surf zone. The SNF
project had demonstrated an excellent
approach of inexpensive exploratory and
development wells with potential for fast
hookup, which allows targeting relatively small fault blocks, and a recoverable
oil volume of only 250,000 bbl is sufficient to justify both the drilling and the
completion of an exploratory fishhook
well. Additionally, the very low cost of
failure (most of the well cost is in the
completions) removes the need for substantive derisking.
76
Future
Building on the successes of early wells
in SNF and DEPO, the 2011 business plan
contained more than 5 years of string
activity, targeting continued exploration and development of blocks on the
northern flank of the Seria field. Early
production data from the first-phase
DEPO wells will be critical in determining follow-up development activities,
which will involve additional wells that
could include water injection. Also, new
areas along the flank need to be analyzed, ranked, and targeted by onshore
fishhook wells. Achieving continual cost
reductions and developing and implementing novel technologies successfully will be critical for success as targets
become either smaller or farther away.
With the ability to exploit these now
proven accumulations economically,
a high-resolution ocean-bottom-cable
seismic survey has been undertaken to
image the shallow objectives better in
preparation for the next tranches of
fishhook wells. There are many years of
NFE activity to be planned on the Seria
field, discovering new hydrocarbons
and continuing to sustain, and even
increase, field production rates. JPT
Introduction
The SA LB reservoir is a prolific reservoir with natural-aquifer support. The
crude is light, at 33API, and has less
than 2.8% sulfur. Cumulative production is approximately 40% of reserves.
The reservoir has produced only by natural flow at a daily rate for the last 3 to
4 years of approximately 50,000 BOPD,
with average water cut of 29%.
The team works daily to review and
identify perforation intervals that could
improve well performance. Also, the well
reviews aim at identifying and implementing suitable water-shutoff jobs for
improving the production performance.
Therefore, close production monitoring,
tracking of water movement, and use
of surveillance techniques (e.g., production-logging tools) are key to the success of these production-management
efforts. Geologically, water movement
Drilling and
Workover
Well Surveillance
(Activations and
rigless
interventions)
Artificial Lift
(ESP equipment
delivery)
SALB Production
buildup Task Team
Service Providers
working with the
company
Project
Management
(Flowline
connections)
Reservoir
Studies Team
(Simulation and
development
plan)
This article, written by Senior Technology Editor Dennis Denney, contains highlights
of paper IPTC 15334, Doubling the Production From a Mature Reservoir in North
KuwaitChallenges, Achievements, and Lessons Learned, by H.B. Chetri, SPE,
M. Raju, SPE, Harry Alam, SPE, and Hussain Al-Ajmi, SPE, KOC, prepared for
the 2011 International Petroleum Technology Conference, Bangkok, Thailand, 1517
November. The paper has not been peer reviewed. [Note: Conference rescheduled to
79 February 2012.] Copyright 2011 International Petroleum Technology Conference.
Reproduced by permission.
Because the conference was rescheduled, the complete paper will be free
to SPE members at www.jptonline.org during March and April 2012.
78
Production Buildup
Creating Transparency With the Reservoir Model. Comprehensive in-depth discussions on various assumptions for the
SA LB reservoir-simulation model were
conducted to obtain complete transparency regarding subsurface potential, saturation maps, layering schemes, various
kinds of bubble maps [e.g., rate, water cut,
and gas/oil ratios (GORs)], reservoir-pressure trends (i.e., areal and vertical), and
fluid characterization. This step enabled a
better understanding of the reservoir for
operational activities and directed actions
toward focused segments/layers with better reservoir quality, high productivity
index, and minimum water cut.
Water-Movement Mapping. All available data from openhole conventional
Results
Bean Up. Well evaluations led to identifying seven wells for bean up. These
wells were located in segments where
water cut was expected to be near zero.
The wellhead flowing pressures were in
excess of 600 psia, and short-term bean
ups were expected to have incremental
oil gain of approximately 4,000 BOPD.
Rigless Intervention. PASSs helped the
team identify wells for which interventions resulted in a production gain of
approximately 5,200 BOPD.
ESP Installation. On the basis of PASS
reviews, 13 wells were identified as ESP
candidates. ESP designs and equipment
were procured, and installation plans
were made. As a part of the ESP strategy, water-shutoff jobs were performed
for high-water-cut candidates before ESP
installation and function tests. Three
naturally flowing wells also were considered for ESP conversion because the
Conclusions
Production from the SA LB could be
doubled within 6 months by means of a
focused work plan; dedicated implementation coupled with prompt follow-ups;
instant communication with the facility
staff; drilling; rigless workover interventions; and use of all resources associated
with networking and databases within the
company. The challenge, subsequent to
production buildup, is sustaining the levels
already achieved and minimizing and controlling the rising trend of watercut. JPT
Introduction
The Marlim field, discovered in 1985, is
in the northeastern part of the Campos
basin in water depths between 600 and
1200 m. Reservoir depths are 2500 to
2750 m, with temperatures between 65
and 72C. Marlim is part of a large complex of reservoirs including the Marlim
Sul and Marlim Leste fields. The original
oil in place is 1.012109 std m3, and the
maximum permeable thickness is 125m.
The reservoir is unconsolidated sandstone with an average net-/gross-thickness ratio of 86%, average porosity of
30%, and permeability of 1 to 10 darcies. The petrophysical analysis indicated
original water saturation of 15%, saturation pressure of 265 kgf/cm2, and residual-oil saturation of 23%. The oil at reservoir conditions has a viscosity of 48 cp
and gravity of 1825API. The reservoir
is divided into five stratigraphic zones.
Every zone is in hydraulic communication, although, in some areas, the communication is somewhat constrained.
The reservoir has small aquifers under-
This article, written by Senior Technology Editor Dennis Denney, contains highlights
of paper SPE 139376, Marlim Field: An Optimization Study on a Mature Field, by
Dirceu Bampi, Petrobras, and Odair Jos Costa, Halliburton, prepared for the 2010
SPE Latin American & Caribbean Petroleum Engineering Conference, Lima, Peru,
13December. The paper has not been peer reviewed.
For a limited time, the complete paper is free to SPE members at www.jptonline.org.
82
Method
Results
Phase 1: Well-Placement Optimization. The work began with an analysis
of mobile-hydrocarbon thickness maps.
The residual-oil saturation is subtracted to avoid misinterpretation because
the reservoir thickness varies significantly away from the pinchout region, even
in areas with a thickness greater than
130m.
The best sequence showed a gain of
5.5106 std m3 of oil over the base case.
Considering that the base case was generated by a technical team with extensive knowledge and experience, the use
of more-systematic techniques and an
optimizer can outperform trial-and-error
methods greatly. Considering the number of wells that must be allocated and
the number of combinations that can
be developed for each well, it becomes
impossible to investigate all alternatives.
Then, after conducting a reasonable number of simulations, use of the experience
and knowledge of the technical team was
still possible to improve the result of the
best sequence provided by the optimizer.
By repositioning some wells, an
incremental volume of 5105 std m3 was
obtained on the basis of incremental NPV,
equivalent to 1.9106 std m3 in nominal
Conclusions
The assisted optimization performed on
this field showed surprising results, significantly increasing oil production by
use of the same number of wells. With the
new-well positions obtained in Phase 1,
the gain over the base case was 5.2103
discounted std m3, or approximately 2106 std m3 in actual production
increase. The combinations for Phase
2 that presented the best results were
those in which the original wells were
abandoned prematurely.
The Phase-2 optimization indicated
that it might be technically more realistic to replace an aging well (more than
30 years of life) with a new sidetrack well
to prevent an excessive number of workovers or even to prevent well failure followed by a mandatory well replacement.
Finally, the importance of a critical review of the optimization results
should not be overlooked. The experience and knowledge acquired during the
early field-development stages will likely
provide insights on how to improve the
results further. JPT
83
TECHNOLOGY
FOCUS
Jerome Schubert,
SPE, is an assistant
professor in the
Harold Vance
Department
of Petroleum
Engineering at Texas
A&M University. He has more than 30
years experience with Pennzoil, Enron
Oil and Gas, the University of Houston
Victoria Petroleum Training Institute,
and Texas A&M University. Schubert
earned BS, ME, and PhD degrees in
petroleum engineering from Texas A&M
University. He is a coauthor of Managed
Pressure Drilling and the author of
more than 35 technical papers. Schubert
serves on the JPT Editorial Committee
and has served on several SPE
committees and as a Technical Editor
for SPE Drilling & Completion. He serves
as Faculty Advisor for Pi Epsilon Tau.
Schubert is a registered professional
engineer in Texas.
WELL CONTROL
Procrastination: Is it too many things going on at once that causes us to rush
to meet deadlines, or makes us forget to complete important tasks in a timely manner,
or even try to do too many things at once, resulting in nothing getting done correctly?
You probably are wondering how this relates to well control. In our work schedules,
we all are faced with situations in which we are required to complete multiple concurrent tasks. This often is the case when we rush to finish drilling a problem well so that
we can get the drilling rig moved to the next location and turn this well over to the
completions team. Multiple activities must be completed concurrently that, individually, are relatively simple, but each activity requires the attention of the driller, tool
pusher, company man, and others on the crew. When one of these tasks begins to go
awry, our attention may be on something else, and we can miss important warnings
until it is too late to avoid a disaster.
What is the point? Once again, I will use the Macondo blowout as an example. To
leave the well in a position to be completed by another crew, mud had to be removed
from the riser and top of the well and be replaced with seawater. A spacer was pumped
between the mud and seawater to prevent mixing of the seawater and mud. This is a
simple enough operation, it seems, but when seawater is being pumped into the well,
mud has to be pumped onto a workboat to prevent the pits from running over, and the
spacer is being dumped overboard; keeping track of how much of each fluid is going
where becomes a daunting task. Could this have been a contributing factor in not recognizing the beginning of the kick? JPT
84
Introduction
Even though kick tolerance is a critical and fundamental concept for the
drilling industry, there is no standard
used by operators, drilling contractors,
or training institutions. Hence, there
are several definitions of kick tolerance
and different ways of calculating it. This
lack of consistency may be why the subject is not well understood and, therefore, is sometimes used dangerously.
Definitions of kick tolerance may be in
terms of pit gain, mud-weight increase,
or underbalance pressure.
Another point of disagreement is
on how the predicted pore pressure
should be used in calculations. Some
companies use a value greater than the
mud weight, while others use a value
greater than the predicted pore pressure. Despite the variations, the goal
is consistent: to use a procedure that
ensures safe drilling of a well. Often,
Kick-Tolerance Calculation
Current Approach
The first step of a simplified kick-tolerance calculation (i.e., constant temperature, constant density, and no compressibility) is to define the maximum
vertical height of a gas influx Hmax at the
casing shoe (assumed to be the weakest
point in the open hole). Hmax is determined on the basis of fracture gradient;
mud weight; kick-fluid density; predicted pore pressure; and adjusted maximum allowable annular surface pressure
(MAASP), which is reduced by a safety
margin. What is conceptually wrong is
that if the bottomhole-assembly (BHA)
length is greater than Hmax, the kick
cannot be circulated out of the wellbore because it will reach the top of the
drill collars with a kick height greater
than Hmax, which would induce losses
at theshoe.
Misconception 1:
Kick Volume Around the BHA
To address this point properly, an
extra calculation must be performed if
This article, written by Senior Technology Editor Dennis Denney, contains highlights
of paper SPE 140113, Kick-Tolerance Misconceptions and Consequences for Well
Design, by Helio Santos, SPE, Erdem Catak, SPE, and Sandeep Valluri, Safekick,
prepared for the 2011 SPE/IADC Drilling Conference and Exhibition, Amsterdam, 13
March. The paper has not been peer reviewed.
Misconception 2:
Safety Margin
The safety margin can lead to an overly conservative solution. This conservative approach can lead to the use of
unnecessary casings and liners in the
well design, especially in deep water.
It has been widely accepted that when
calculating kick tolerance, a safety margin should be applied to the MAASP to
reduce the chance of inducing fractures
during a well-control event. MAASP is
calculated on the basis of fracture pressure at the casing shoe (assumed to be
the weakest point in the open hole) and
current mud weight above the casing
shoe. In most cases, the safety margin
comprises three components: chokeoperator error, annular frictional pressure loss, and chokeline frictional pressure loss. Some companies and publications call for the use of only the first
two terms as safety margin. Although
each well section is different, many procedures establish a fixed value for the
safety margin to be used when calculating kick tolerance. Typical values are
150 or 200 psi. A value of 100 psi is
assumed for the choke-operator error
and the remaining for the frictionalpressure-loss component. Because the
physical principle and rationale behind
the annular frictional pressure loss and
For a limited time, the complete paper is free to SPE members at www.jptonline.org.
JPT JANUARY 2012
85
Misconception 3:
Simplification
Current kick-tolerance calculations are
based on many assumptions and simplifications. The belief is that these simplifications represent the worst-case scenario, thus leading to a safe well design.
Afterflow Effect. Usually, for the sake of
simplicity, the afterflow effect is ignored.
Therefore, kick tolerance is considered
equal to the maximum allowable pit gain.
In reality, the formation continues to
flow until the casing pressure increases
enough to equilibrate the bottomhole
pressure to the sandface pressure at the
point of influx. Accordingly, when determining maximum allowable pit gain,
the additional flow into the well after
shut-in must be considered. This afterflow volume may be significant, especially for deep wells with large bores.
Some companies use a fixed value (e.g.,
10 bbl). This simplification can lead to
a conservative result. However, companies not taking this effect into account
may encounter dangerous situations. In
Combined Correction
Effects on Kick Tolerance
Because some effects increase the kick
tolerance while others reduce it, it is
important to combine all the effects to
identify the overall effect on kick tolerance. The consequences are not consistent, illustrating why it is important to
take all effects into account. It has been
argued that the overall conservative
nature of the single-bubble model will
eliminate any detrimental effect produced by simplifications. Because the
magnitude of each simplification and
conceptual error is different, the change
of the final result cannot be predicted. If
it is clear that a conservative approach
is being used, the consequences might
be only economical, with the end result
being an overengineered well. However, when the scenario leads to increased
risk, as is the case with calculating the
kick volume on bottom, this simplification should not be acceptable. JPT
Introduction
The detection of inflow from a formation is one of the primary safety aspects
of drilling operations. Even with a closed
wellbore and with the use of MPD technology, kick detection and the subsequent well-control procedures must
remain in place. The rig crew can get a
false sense of security that with MPD,
the well is controlled at all times and as
such there is no further need for well control. The causes of kicks are not removed
when MPD operations are being conducted. The procedures and risk assessments for MPD operations must include
kick-detection and well-control methods
andprocedures.
MPD Operations
Fig. 1 diagrams the MPD flow process.
The RCD is installed on top of the annular preventer and closes the wellbore
around the drillpipe. The outlet from
the RCD is split between the main return
flowline and the MPD choke manifold.
The MPD manifold is installed in parallel
with the rigs main flowline and in parallel with the rigs conventional rig choke
manifold. This setup allows conventional circulation and circulation through
the MPD manifold. Backpressure can be
applied to the well at any time by use of
the MPD manifold. Any gas being circulated out through the MPD manifold
can be vented safely through the mud/
gas separator. If the surface pressure
exceeds the RCD pressure ratings, the
entire well-control setup can be switched
quickly to standard drilling well-control
equipment. During tripping operations,
This article, written by Senior Technology Editor Dennis Denney, contains highlights
of paper SPE 143099, Kick Detection and Well Control in a Closed Wellbore, by Steve
Nas, SPE, Weatherford, prepared for the 2011 IADC/SPE Managed Pressure Drilling
and Underbalanced Operations Conference and Exhibition, Denver, 56 April. The
paper has not been peer reviewed.
circulation with the trip tank can be performed through the MPD manifold or
through the existing flowline.
When MPD equipment is used, it
is important that the secondary wellcontrol equipment, such as blowout preventer (BOP) and rig choke manifolds,
remain ready for operations. The secondary well-control equipment should
not be used for routine drilling operations during the MPD operations.
Causes of Kicks
A kick is defined as any influx that constitutes a well-control emergency. Normally, this means use of the BOP to shut
in the well and, subsequently, removing
the influx by use of a choke on the annulus to maintain sufficient backpressure
to prevent further entry. In MPD, the
well-control emergency may not apply
because the system is already set up for
this occurrence.
The pressure in the wellbore can be
controlled with surface pressure, but if
the formation pressure is greater than
the pressure in the wellbore and a formation is permeable, then the well will kick.
Loss of primary well control usually is
caused by the following.
Insufficient drilling-fluid density
(insufficient BHP)
Failure to keep the hole full while
tripping
Swabbing while tripping
Lost circulation
Kick Detection
Detecting a kick early and limiting its volume by shutting in the well are critical to
secondary well control, and they could
mean the difference between a manageable situation and one that leads to loss of
control. Immediately following an influx,
the BHP in the annulus is reduced to
some extent by the influx and by the
added lift energy given by the formationfluid flow. This effect leads to a decrease
For a limited time, the complete paper is free to SPE members at www.jptonline.org.
JPT JANUARY 2012
89
Main Flowline
Bleedoff
Valve
Shale
Shakers
Rig Choke
Manifold
Gas to vent
Mud/Gas
Separator
Trip-Tank Fillup
Trip
Tank
Trip-Tank
Pump
Kick Detection in
Closed Wellbores
Closing in the wellbore with an RCD,
in principle, does not change the physics of kick detection. Although the level
in the well is not visible, the increase in
return-flow rate and increases in pit levels remain the most-reliable indicators
of a kick. The use of mass-flow meters
in combination with accurate standpipepressure sensors enables use of an automated kick-detection system on some
MPD systems. This system works during
drilling conditions, but when tripping or
making connections, the flow out of the
well often is the only reliable indicator of
a well-control issue.
90
Ballooning
Borehole ballooning or breathing, or
loss/gain, is the result of slow mud losses while drilling ahead followed by mud
returns after the pumps have been turned
off, such as during a connection or flow
check. Usually, any flow during these
periods is cause for concern because it
may be caused by an influx of formation
water, liquid hydrocarbons, or gas. Any
influx from the formation can result in
a well-control problem, the magnitude
of which depends on the influx volume
and composition. However, if the flow is
the result of mud returns, well control is
not an issue.
To be safe, the suspected influx can
be circulated out using the choke, but this
method is time consuming and wasteful,
particularly if the influx is only returning mud. The normal cure is to increase
the mud weight and ensure an adequate
overbalance in the absence of circulation.
If the mud weight is increased and the
influx is only mud, the situation will get
progressively worse with a rise in mud
weight and, therefore, the equivalent circulating density (ECD). Mud losses will
continue, and, eventually, the fracturepropagation pressure will be exceeded,
resulting in total losses.
Handling a Kick
Well control can be described as maintaining BHP within a window having
upper and lower pressure limits. On the
low side, the margin normally is bounded by pore pressure and wellbore stability, whereas on the high side, it can be
bounded by differential sticking, lost circulation, and fracture pressure. A kick is
detected in a closed wellbore by use of
the mass-flow meter. With an MPD system installed, there are two choices to
circulate out the influx.
With MPD Equipment. The MPD choke
manifold makes it possible to continue circulating, increase the backpressure
on the well until the flow in and flow
out are balanced, and then circulate out
the influx using the drillers method.
This procedure will work if the forma-
With Rig Equipment. If a kick is detected, conventional well-control procedures can be used as follows.
1. Pull up and space out the drillstring.
2. Stop the pumps.
3. Close the BOP.
4. Record the shut-in drillpipe pressure and the shut-in casing pressure.
The shut-in drillpipe pressure will
provide the level of underbalance (formation pressure), while the shut-in casing pressure will give an indication of the
kick size and density. The pit levels can
be measured to confirm the influx.
Kick Volume and Intensity. The kick
volume is the volume of formation fluid
that entered the wellbore. The volume
gained at surface will provide an indication of this volume. The kick intensity is defined as the pressure difference
between the hydrostatic pressure in the
well and the formation pressure.
With these two parameters, the decision can be made whether to handle the
kick with the MPD system or to close the
tion rates, and pressures must be continued by the rig crew, as in all drilling operations. Although a well is drilled with
MPD techniques and can be controlled
with the MPD system, the driller must be
able to take over at any time in the wellcontrol process.
It has been seen in several MPD
operations that well-control preparations by the drill crew were not being
performed because the crew relied on the
MPD provider to conduct well-control
operations. Upon entering a well-control
circulation and the system needing to be
switched to lower pump rates and a different pressure, this lack of preparation
can cause significant issues during the
well-control operations.
MPD Operators
and Well Control
If the detected influx is small and has a
low kick intensity, it is possible to circulate the kick out using the MPD equipment. The drillers method normally is
used for this, and the MPD operator must
hold the drillpipe pressure constant while
the driller circulates the kick out. Once
the influx reaches the surface equipment,
the MPD operator must divert any gas
away from the main flowline to a suitable
mud/gas separator.
This process assumes that all MPD
operators have the experience and
understanding required for well-control
operations. Before any MPD operations
are conducted, it must be verified that
all MPD personnel operating the choke
understand the procedures and actions
required when a kick is detected. The
MPD operator must understand the wellcontrol situation fully. Both the MPD
operator and the driller must maintain
a close watch on the surface pressures to
ensure that these remain within the limits of the equipment being used.
Advantages of using the MPD equipment for well control include that the
pipe can be moved up and down and
can be rotated and that stuck-pipe incidents, often associated with well-control
operations, can be avoided. If something
goes wrong at any time during an MPD
well-control situation, the driller must
be able to stop the pumps and shut in
the well using the BOPs and then continue the well-kill operation using the rigs
chokemanifold. JPT
Well-control
equipment
Practices address
reduced reaction time
Introduction
Operators are aware of these behaviors, and the industry has developed
unique practices for drilling vugular carbonates safely. Rigs having surface BOPs
address the risks by use of a rotating
control device (RCD). RCDs have been
used in a similar fashion at the surface
on marine risers with subsea BOPs. The
RCD has been installed at the top of the
riser above the slip joint, and a tensionring system is under development that
will enable the RCD to be placed below
the slip joint. In subsea applications, the
pressure that can be applied below the
RCD is more limited than on land locations, usually to the rating of the slip
joint or marine riser. In some cases, the
rating is adequate for the given well. In
This article, written by Senior Technology Editor Dennis Denney, contains highlights
of paper IPTC 14423, Kick Mechanisms and Unique Well-Control Practices in
Vugular Deepwater Carbonates, by F.E. Dupriest, SPE, ExxonMobil, prepared for
the 2011 International Petroleum Technology Conference, Bangkok, Thailand, 1517
November. The paper has not been peer reviewed. [Note: Conference rescheduled to
79 February 2012.] Copyright 2011 International Petroleum Technology Conference.
Reproduced by permission.
other situations, the pressure limitations of the riser system or RCD may not
provide the robust capability needed.
Because the conference was rescheduled, the complete paper will be free to
SPE members at www.jptonline.org during March and April 2012.
94
Swap Management
The industry is trained to manage kicks
by circulating through a choke and
applying sufficient backpressure for
the pressure in the annulus to become
overbalanced to the flowing zone. This
method is ineffective with a vugular loss
because the BHP will remain equal to
the pore pressure in the vugs regardless
of the backpressure observed at surface. In addition, if losses are complete,
there is no flow and pressure cannot
be applied. The influx can be stopped
permanently only by plugging the loss
zone to stop the flow cell. The common
practice of filling the annulus continu-
ously, which has been learned empirically, is a correct one. But filling the
annulus does not stop the flow. Actually, continuous introduction of heavy
mud across the carbonate ensures that
the imbalance that drives the flow cell
is maintained and that the influx will
continue to occur. Because there is no
operational technique to allow the BHP
to be elevated above the pore pressure
in the exposed vugs, and the mud that
is pumped to fill the annulus drives even
more influx, the kick response should
be first to determine the fill rate that
exceeds the swap rate and then to maintain this fill rate until the vugular zone
can be plugged. This method is referred
to as swap management. It does not
stop the influx, but it does allow the
annulus pressure to be controlled at the
desired level during treatments or while
drilling ahead.
96
PEOPLE
FERNANDO L. BENALCAZAR, SPE, was
appointed general manager and vice president Latin America of Equitable Origin. He
will be located in Quito, Ecuador. Before
joining Equitable Origin, Benalcazar
worked for APDProyectos in Ecuador; Tanganyika Oil in Syria; Encana in France, Canada, and Ecuador; and Occidental in Oman, the US, Venezuela,
and Ecuador. Benalcazar has more than 20 years senior management experience in environmental, health, safety, community affairs, and corporate responsibility roles. He is a certified
safety professional in the US, and a member of the American
Society of Safety Engineers. Benalcazar earned an MS in civil
engineering from the Alberto Luiz Coimbra Institute for Graduate School of Research and EngineeringFederal University of
Rio de Janeiro.
JOHN BOOGAERDT, SPE, joined the
International Association of Oil and Gas
Producers (OGP) as manager of the wells
expert committee. With an emphasis on
exploration and production project management, and business development, Boogaerdts work has taken him to the UK,
Malaysia, Egypt, and Oman and included such projects as the
Member Deaths
Norman B. Adams, Wichita Falls, Texas
James W. Althouse III, Hudson, Ohio
John Andersen, Svendborg, Denmark
A.W. Augustson, Fort Worth, Texas
C.R. Blomberg, Beaverton, Oregon
Fred W. Burtch, Tulsa, Oklahoma
Robert L. Casey Jr., Spring, Texas
Kenneth R. Evans, Crosby, Texas
E.E. Finklea, Bethel, Connecticut
Kelli M. Flanagan, Kingwood, Texas
Charles B. Godfrey, Midland, Texas
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Robert G. Hindman, The Woodlands, Texas
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Curtis H. Lemons, Belle Chasse, Louisiana
I.W. Lovelady, Placitas, New Mexico
Rodney B. Muth, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
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Orland H. Reaugh, Breckenridge, Texas
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Ivo Steiner, Zagreb, Croatia
J.S. Stone, Hot Springs Village, Arkansas
Ray W. Wenzel, McMurray, Pennsylvania
John W. West, Hobbs, New Mexico
98
In Memoriam
ANN CAROLINE GIBSON, 81, passed
away on 6 December 2011 in Dallas, Texas.
She was born on 18 July 1930 in Oklahoma
City to Dow and Louise Gibson. She is survived by her sister, Charlotte Slemp; nieces and nephew, Nancy McKown and husband Ted, Buddy Slemp and wife Kathy,
Alison Kaye and husband Adam. She retired as production
manager in 1994 from the Society of Petroleum Engineers
after 39 years. Gibson was a long-time resident of Dallas and
lived inPlano, Texas, the past four years.
Journal of Canadian
Petroleum Technology
Raymond Ambrose, Reliance
Holding USA
Merrill Jamieson, Canyon
Technical Services
Mark Chan, Statoil
Cuong Dang, University of Calgary
Neil Edmunds, Laricina Energy
Marco Fiori, BP Canada Energy
SPE Journal
Henri Bertin, University of Bordeaux
Guohua Gao, Shell
Silviu Livescu, ExxonMobil
Mustafa Onur, Istanbul Technical
University
Randy Seright, New Mexico Institute
Mining and Technology
Burak Yeten, Chevron
Hong-Quan (Holden) Zhang,
University of Tulsa
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