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INTRODUCTION TO
S TAT I S T I C S

WHAT IS STATISTICS?
Statistics is a way to get information from data
Statistics

Data
Data: Facts, especially
numerical facts, collected
together for reference or
information.

Information

Information: Knowledge
communicated concerning
some particular fact.

Statistics is a tool for creating new understanding from a set of numbers.

1.2

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EXPERIMENTAL
RESEARCH

TRUE
EXPERIMENTAL
RESEARCH

SURVEYS
RESEARCH TYPES
DEVELOPMENTAL
DESIGN
NON
EXPERIMENTAL
RESEARCH

CORRELATION
STUDY

QUASI
EXPERIMENT

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DESCRIPTIVE VS. INFERENTIAL

Population inferences can be made...

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...by selecting a representative sample from

the population

What are variables you would consider in buying a book?

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DEFINITION
A variable is some characteristic of a population or sample.
E.g. student grades.
Typically denoted with a capital letter: X, Y, Z
The values of the variable are the range of possible values for a variable.
E.g. student marks (0..100)
Data are the observed values of a variable.
E.g. student marks: {67, 74, 71, 83, 93, 55, 48}

Variable Type Key characteristic

Example

Independent
variable (IV)

A variable that is presumed to cause

changes to occur in another variable; a
causal variable

Amount of studying (IV) affects

test grades (DV)

Dependent
variable (DV)

A variable that changes because of

another variable; the effect or outcome
variable

Amount of studying (IV) affects

test grades (DV)

Independent variable
Dependent variable
Extraneous
A variable that
may compete with the
Moderating
variable
variable
independent variable in explaining an
outcome
Extraneous
variable

Moderator variable A variable that delineates how a

relationship of interest changes under
different conditions or circumstances

Perhaps the relationship between

studying (IV) and test grades (DV)
changes according to the different
levels of use of a drug such as
Ritalin (moderator)
Pre-knowledege of topic that was
tested in the test (confounding
variable)

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Senario
Satu kajian menggunakan pensampelan rawak dijalankan
terhadap penduduk di Kuala Lumpur dan penduduk di Kuala
Krai, Kelantan. Pengkaji telah merekodkan berat sekumpulan
penduduk wanita di kedua-dua lokasi berikut. Nyatakan
pemboleh ubah bersandar dan pemboleh ubah bebas
(pembolehubah tak bersandar) kajian ini. Nyatakan jenis data
bagi setiap pembolehubah. Bina persoalan kajian yang
bersesuaian.

OPERATIONAL DEFINITION
A precise definition of the way a variable will be measured
and/or manipulated in the research
Variable

Operational definition

Value

Intelligence

Score on a Statistics test

90

75th

Anxiety

Score at or above
percentile on measure of
anxiety

GAD-7

Memory

Recall the number of

books read last month

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MEASUREMENT SCALES

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Latihan
Bagi setiap persoalan kajian yang dinyatakan, sila kenalpasti
a) Pembolehubah bersandar dan pembolehubah tak bersandar
b) Jenis data untuk pembolehubah bersandar
c) Jenis data untuk pembolehubah tak bersandar
Soalan 1
Apakah terdapat perbezaan skor self-esteem antara ketiga-tiga kumpulan pelajar yang di ajar kaedah
pengajaran berbeza?
Soalan 2
Sejauh manakah terdapat perbezaan antara min skor ujian pra dan ujian pasca dalam kalangan pelajar lelaki?

Soalan 3
Apakah terdapat perbezaan tahap motivasi pelajar sekolah rendah berdasarkan jantina?