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INTRODUCTION
Thermal engineering is a field of engineering which is deal with the heat transfer; heating and
cooling process. Its become the important field of engineering that give a lot of benefit to
mankind. The basic three laws of thermodynamics is a based foundation in thermal
engineering. Every calculation and solution must obey to these laws.
Heat conduction, heat convection, heat exchanger, and refrigeration cycle are topics
which are discuss in thermal engineering. Heat conduction is heat transfer between the more
energetic particles to the less energetic particle in contact. There are three ways to solve the
problem in heat conduction. There are thermal circuit which is used to solve one dimensional
problem, differential equations and numerical equations.
Next, heat convection is heat transfer between fluids in motion with a surface. Heat
convection is divided into two types which are force convection and natural convection. Force
convection can be divided into two situations; flat surface and pipe. Nusselts Number,
Reynolds Number, Pranatls Number, Grashofs Number, and Reyleigh Number are widely
used in this chapter.
Heat exchanger is a device that facilitates the exchange of heat between two fluids that
are at different temperatures while keeping them from mixing with each other. In other word,
fluid is used to heating or cooling the other fluid. Log mean temperature difference (LMTD)
and effectiveness- NTU method are used in heat exchanger.
Refrigeration cycle is the gas refrigeration cycle in which the refrigerant remains in the
gaseous phase throughout. The main purpose is to drop the temperature from high to low
temperature. This situation will not obey the Zeroth Law of thermodynamics which is heat
will transfer from high temperature to low temperature. Thus, Reverse Carnot Cycle by totally
reversible from Carnot Cycle which consist isothermal and isentropic process invented to
archive this purpose.
Air conditioning system is another chapter in thermal engineering. Air conditioning
process is a series of processes of treating air to simultaneously control the air temperature,
humidity, cleanliness, and distribution to meet the comfort requirement of the occupants in a
space. Generally, the comfort temperature range is 22C to 27C while the comfort humidity
range is 40%RH to 60%RH.
2.0
Refrigeration and air conditioning is used to cool products or a building environment. The
refrigeration or air conditioning system (R) transfers heat from a cooler low-energy reservoir
to a warmer high-energy reservoir.
There are several heat transfer loops in a refrigeration system as shown in Figure 2. Thermal
energy moves from left to right as it is extracted from the space and expelled into the outdoors
through five loops of heat transfer:
i
Indoor air loop. In the left loop, indoor air is driven by the supply air fan through a
cooling coil, where it transfers its heat to chilled water. The cool air then cools the
building space.
ii
Chilled water loop. Driven by the chilled water pump, water returns from the cooling
coil to the chillers evaporator to be re-cooled.
iii
iv
Condenser water loop. Water absorbs heat from the chillers condenser, and
thecondenser water pump sends it to the cooling tower.
Cooling tower loop. The cooling towers fan drives air across an open flow of the hot
condenser water, transferring the heat to the outdoors.
Air-Conditioning Systems
Depending on applications, there are several options / combinations of air conditioning, which
are available for use:
a
b
c
d
Small capacity modular units of the direct expansion type similar to domestic
ii
refrigerators.
Centralized chilled water plants with chilled water as a secondary coolant for a
iii
temperature range over typically 5 oC. They can also be used for ice bank formation.
Brine plants, which use brines as a lower temperature, secondary coolant for typically
sub- zero temperature applications, which come as modular unit capacities as well as
iv
A large company may have a bank of units, often with common chilled water pumps,
condenser water pumps, cooling towers, as an off-site utility. The same company may also
have two or three levels of refrigeration and air conditioning such as a combination of:
i
ii
iii
ii
iii
condenser
Generator: Distillation of the vapour from the rich solution leaving the poor solution
for Recycling
The absorption chiller is a machine, which produces chilled water by using heat such as
steam, hot water, gas, oil etc. Chilled water is produced based on the principle that liquid (i.e.
refrigerant, which evaporates at a low temperature) absorbs heat from its surroundings when it
evaporates. Pure water is used as refrigerant and lithium bromide solution is used asabsorbent.
Heat for the vapour absorption refrigeration system can be provided by waste heat extracted
from the process, diesel generator sets etc. In that case absorption systems require electricity
for running pumps only. Depending on the temperature required and the power cost, it may
even be economical to generate heat / steam to operate the absorption system.
3.0
A. Air-conditioning process
Evaporator
T3 = 20C
T2 = 10
2 = 100%
Condensate
1
Condensate Water
T1 = 35C
1 = 70%
P = 100 kPa
38,000 cfm
Provide a sketch of the air conditioning processes with the ambient pressure of 100kpa.
Determine the required heat extraction rate at the cooling rate and heating rate when the
ambient air enters at 35C and 70C of relative humidity and leave the system at 20C.
Assumptions:
a) This is a steady-flow process and thus the mass flow rate of dry air remains constant
during the entire process.
b) Dry air and the water vapor are ideal gases.
c) The kinetic and potential energy changes are negligible.
STATE 1:
From the Psychrometric chart and A-4 table,
h1 = 100.0 kJ / kg dry air
1 = 0.0253 kg H2O / kg dry air
v 1=
RT
P1 1 Pg1
v 1=
( 0.287103 ) ( 35+273 )
[ ( 100103 )( 0.7 ) ( 5.6291103 ) ]
STATE 2:
Psat = 1.2281 kPa
h2 = 29.6 kJ/kg dry air
2 = 0.0078 kg H2O/kg dry air.
STATE 3:
Since 3 = 2 = 0.0078 kg H2O/kg dry air
CALCULATION:
mw = ma (1-2)
ma = V1 / v1
m a=
18
09202
ma = 19.56 kg/s
mw=
19.56
0.02530.0078
mw = 0.3423 kg/s
( 0.3423 ) ( 42.022 )
Qdot.out = [( 19.56 )( 10029.6)]/ ]
Qdot.out = 1362.62 kW
Qdot.in = ma (h3-h2)
h3 = (1.005)(20) + (0.0078)(2537.4)
h3 = 39.892 kJ/kg
Qdot.in = 19.56 (39.892-29.6)
Qdot.in = 201.31 kW
The required heat extraction rate at the cooling coil is 1362.62 kW and the heating section is
201.31 kW.
Analyze the cooling rate and heating rate when the ambient temperature changes from
28C to 40C if the exit temperature will maintain at 20C
Since the value of T2 is greater than the T1, the cooling rate will become smaller than the value
from A(2). It can be proved when the value of h 2 > h1 on the psychrometric chart, the value of
Qdot.out is increase. Using the
Q=Ma ( h 1h 2 )
Since the Qdot.out = (-ve) (+ve) sign, the value of Qdot.out will be greater for the cooling rate.
So, the cooling cannot be operated.
For the heating rate, the value is good for heating purpose. Since the value of heat transfer is
bigger, the heating rate can be operated.
B. Refrigeration cycle
Select 2 refrigerants for the system and explain the reasons of selection based on safety and
thermal properties.
First and foremost, r134a do not contain chlorine atom so that it afford to undermine the role
of atmospheric ozone; besides, r134ahas a good safety performance (non-flammable, nonexplosive, non-toxic, non-irritating no rot resistance), in addition, r134ais easier to retrofit
refrigeration system so that the heat transfer performance is closer. Last but no least,
r134aheat transfer performance better than the R12 which can help the amount of refrigerant
greatly reduced.
As a refrigerant, ammonia offers three distinct advantages over other commonly used
industrial refrigerants. First, ammonia is environmentally compatible. It does not deplete the
ozone layer and does not contribute to global warming. Second, ammonia has superior
thermodynamic qualities, as result ammonia refrigeration systems use less electricity. Third,
ammonia's recognizable odor is it's greatest safety asset. Unlike most other industrial
refrigerants that have no odor, ammonia refrigeration has a proven safety record in part
because leaks are not likely to escape detection.
Choose operating conditions for the refrigeration cycle such as the evaporator and
condenser pressure if the surrounding temperature is 35C.
Analysis:
The T-s diagram of the refrigeration cycle is drawn below.
This an ideal vapor compression refrigerant cycle, and thus the compressor is isentropic and
the refrigerant leaves the condenser as a saturated liquid and enter the compressor at saturated
vapor.
A refrigerator used refrigerant-134a as the working fluid and the assuming design pressures
for the condenser are 0.887MPa while the evaporator is at 1.2MPa. Pressure of evaporator is
Q
assumed below from pressure of condenser to allow heat transfer, L from surrounding
QH
Assumptions:
1
2
From the refrigerant -134a tables, the enthalpies of the refrigerant at all four states are
determined as below:
State 1: Saturated vapor refrigerant-134a
Assumptions: Pressure
= 0.887 Mpa
Temperature = 35 C
Heat transfer efficiently (100%)
By referring to the Refrigerant-134a tables:
To find
hg
and
sg @T
(35-34) / (36-34) = (
h=hg =269.03
hg
kJ
kg
(35-34) / (36-34) = ( s
T 1 =35 C
s=s g @ T =0.91709
1
kJ
.K
kg
P2=1.20 MPa(assumption)
s 2=s1=s g@P =0.91709
1
kJ
.K
kg
P=1.2 MPa
nc=
h 2 sh 1
h 2h1
h 2 s269.03
0.8=
kJ
kg
275.18 kJ /kg296.03
h2s = 273.95 kJ/kg
P3=1.2 MPa
kJ
kg
kJ
kg
kJ
kg
Calculate the required refrigerant mass flow rate to obtain the desired cooling effect.
QL =m(h 1h4 )
QL
QL
to surrounding.
1362.62=m(229.03117.77)
kg
m=9.01
Calculate the maximum COP and actual COP of the cycle if the compressor efficiency is
assumed at 80%.
COP defines the performance of the refrigeration cycle. To calculate COP, we use this formula
COP=
QL
W
Maximum COP
2h1 )
w = m(h
w =9.01 ( 275.18269.03 )
w =55.44 k w
COPmax =
1362.62
=24.58
55.44
Actual COP
2 sh 1)
w = m(h
w =9.01 ( 273.95269.03 )
w =44.36 kw
COPact =
1362.62
=30.72
44.36
Suggest an innovative system that can improve the current COP i.e multistages or cascade
refrigeration cycle. Prove your suggestion using analytical analysis.
It is obvious that the lower-temperature unit of the cascade system absorbs less power than the
single stage system. This originates from the fact that the pressure ratio across the compressor
in the lower unit of the cascade system is less than that in the single-stage system for the same
refrigeration capacity. COPs for the lower unit of the cascade system are higher than those for
the single-stage system.
Estimate the cost of running the system (single cycle and multistage or cascade) for a 12
hour operation (based only on the compressor work input) under steady conditions and
actual Malaysian daylight electrical tariff.
Tariff D - Low Voltage Industrial Tariff
For Overall Monthly Consumption Between 0-200 kWh/month
For all kWh
34.50 sen/kWh
cost=usage 34.5
m
hotgas=m
air + m
fuel
To heater tubes
0.75 + 0.05 = X
X= 0.8
N2 :
H:
O2:
Y= 1.53
ath = 1.445
hfo, kJ/kmol
-74850
0
0
-393520
0
-241820
h320K, kJ/kmol
9306
9325
-
h298K, kJ/kmol
8669
8682
9364
8468
9904
Q out = N r ( h f + hh ) N p ( h f + hh )
fuel = Qout
N
Qout
fuel = 201.31 =4.161103 kmol fuel
N
48385.1
s
W fuel =19.302 kg
M
kmol
h2273K, kJ/kmol
74693.2
78279.74
117847.46
70889.14
96775.02
fuel M
W fuel
fuel = N
m
AF=
W air
air M
m
=
W fuel
m
fue l M
AF=
199.4678
=10.33
19.302
m
air =m
fuel AF=( 0.0803 )( 10.33 )
m
air =0.8298
m
hotgas=m
air + m
fuel
m
hotgas=0.8298+0.0803=0.9101
kg
s
The operating cost for 12 hours if the Natural Gas cost is RM18.22/mmbtu
cost=usage ( hours )+therms + price per therm
cost=12 43.385 18.22=RM 9485.67
Determine the heat convection coefficient in the heater tube and at the outer flow of the
tube.
25 mm
15 mm
T2, 2
0.5 m
Heater Tube
0.5 m
Air Conditioning Conduit
Heater Tubes
Exhaust
Combustor
T3, 3
Example of Heater Tubes Layout
c ,=10
T
T c, out =20
h ,=25
T
T h, out =2000
m
cold=19.56 kg /s
m
hot =0.9101 kg /s
Assuming n = 8
C pc =1.005 kJ /kg
C p =2.226 kJ /kg
c ,
T c ,out T
c =m
Q
C pc
=1.778 10 kg /m. s
=1.426 105 m2 /s
Pr 0.7336
V 1=
19.56
=
A ( 1.246 ) ( 0.5 0.5 )
V 1=62.79 m/s
VD (62.79)(0.025)
=
1.426 105
Nu=
hD
=0.664 2 Pr 3
k
[ [ ]]]
1
Nu cylinder =0.3+
0.62 2 Pr 3
1+
0.4
Pr
( )
2 1
3 4
[ (
1+
282000
5 4
8 5
)]
Nu cylinder =0.3+
[[ (
0.4
0.7336
2 1
3 4
)] ]
[ (
110.08 103
1+
282000
4
5
8 5
)]
Nu=249.0
249.0=
h0 (0.025)
0.02439
h0=242.92W /m. k
h0 ( 0.0250.015 )
0.1158
h1=2883.42 W /m. k
Calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient, U (neglect the conduction effect in the
heater tube)
1
U=
1 1
+
h 1 h0
U=
1
1
+
2883.42 242.92
U=265.27 W /m. k
Analyze the required number of heater tubes for heat exchanging process using LMTD or
-NTU method.
Ch = m
h c ph
Ch =( 0.9101 )( 2.226 )=2.026 KW /k
C ch=m
c c pc
C c =( 19.56 )( 1.005 ) =19.66 KW /k
C c >C h hence C h=min
NTU =
A s U 8 ( DL)(U )
=
C min
C min
T
Q=
Rtotal
Rtotal=
200025
=0.01
196.578 103
ln
Rtotal =
r2
r1
( )
1
1
+
+
h0 A 0 2 kL h1 A 1
ln
0.01=
( 0.025
0.015 )
1
1
+
+
( 242.92 )( 8 0.025 ) L 2 (0.1158)L (2883.42)(8 ( 0.0250.015 )) L
NTU =
L=7.1893 m
8 ( 0.025 7.1893)(265.27)
2.026 103
NTU =0.53
Effectiveness,
Cross flow for both fluid unmixed
C=
Cmin
Cmax
C=
2.026
=0.115
19.66
=1exp
{
{
NTU
C
0.22
0.22
0.53
0.78
=1exp
exp (0.115 (0.53) ) 1 ]
[
0.115
=0.4
Mostly refrigerant has a dangerous particle that can affect environmental aspect. Refrigerant
systems are producing HCFC gases that are dangerous to ozone layer and may have other
negative factors. Basically the HCFC gases can reduce the thickness of ozone layer. Thus, the
depletion problem may introduce to other problem such as the radiation light from the sun that
may harmful.
Nowdays, for safety purposes and the awareness of environmental issues, government and
private sector have taken a serious matter. The uses of HCFC gases are recommended replace
by natural refrigerant. These natural refrigerants may help to reduce the affect of ozone layer
thickness. The uses of CO2 or R-744 have become an alternative way to replace the HCFC
gases. These gases may able to avoid the negative affect during production. Moreover,
blended HFC also has been introduced. These gases are not natural gases, but it also has quite
same purpose for reducing environmental issues. These are some example of blended HFC:
CFC 502 is usually used in low temperature commercial and small industrial cooling
installations (e.g. supermarket frozen food systems, small cold stores and small blast
freezers). In the UK CFC 502 became scarce quite quickly after the 1995 phase out of
CFC production, so it is believed that there are relatively few CFC 502 systems still in
use.
On-road and laboratory experiments with a 2009 Ford Explorer and a 2009
Toyota Corolla were conducted to assess the fuel consumption penalty
associated with air conditioner (A/C) use at idle and highway cruise
conditions. Vehicle data were acquired on-road and on a chassis
dynamometer. Data were gathered for various A/C settings and with the
A/C off and the windows open. At steady speeds between 64.4 and 113
kph (40 and 70 mph), both vehicles consumed more fuel with the A/C on
5.0
CONCLUSION
UTILIZATION OF RESOURCES
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
guide/buyingguide/ air-conditioner/environmental-impact/
8 http://www.alternet.org/story/37882/air-conditioning
%3A_our_cross_to_bear
9 http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/flow-velocity-water-pipes-d_385.html
FACULTY OF MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING
MEC551 THERMAL ENGINEERING
ASSIGNMENT
2012741441
2012510131
2012913331
: 1) _______________________________________________________
2) _______________________________________________________
3) _______________________________________________________
Scale
Level
1
Poor
3
Acceptable
Criteria
Factor
(A)
[CO1, PO1]
Problem Statement
[CO2, PO1]
Application of engineering
principles and concepts
[CO4, PO3]
[CO5, PO9]
[CO3, PO3]
Integration mathematical
Solutions
Environmental aspects and
financial impact
Interpretation of results and
discussion
5
Excellent
Given
Mark (B)
4
4
4
[CO4, PO3]
Conclusion
[CO1, PO1]
Utilization of resources
AxB