APPENDICES

GAUGE FIELD THEORIES

MIKE GUIDRY

0 2004 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co.

APPENDIX A

Natural Units

The use of h = c = 1 units (natural units) can simplify particle physics notation
considerably. Since one typically deals with particles that are both relativistic and quantum mechanical, a multitude of hs and CIS will encumber the
equations if natural units are not adopted.
Let us consider a few examples of how this works. Set h = c = 1; since

I.[

(LI[TI-I

(where the symbol [ ] means the dimension of), we have [L]= [TI,and since
E2 = p2 + M2c4 we find

[El = [MI = [PI = [kl,

(A.1)

where p = hk. Because [h] = [ M ] [ L I 2 [ T ] -setting

,
ti= c= 1 yields

[MI = [LJ- = [TI-.

(A4

Hence [MI can be chosen as the single independent dimension of our set of
natural units.
For electromagnetic interactions it is convenient to introduce a set of units
in which the MKS constants 0 and po are set to unity, and factors of 47r
are expunged from the fields, appearing in the forces instead. This is done in
the rationalized Heaviside-Lorentz system of units, which is common in high
energy physics. Further, with natural units c = 1, so the cs would not appear
in the equations of electrodynamics. The Maxwell equations in these units
are given by eqns. (2.112).
The fine structure constant is a dimensionless ratio of the electrostatic repulsion between two electrons separated by one Compton wavelength and the
electron rest mass:

e2
47rhc

1
137

(1/137 corresponds to the asymptotic value of the running coupling constant;

see 56.4.4). Therefore, e = ( 4 7 r ~ ) ~
in natural
~
units.

511

512

Appendix A

Example: The pion Compton wavelength in natural units is

n
1
A, = --t - 21 (140 MeV)-'
Mxc
Mx

(-4.3)

We may convert this to conventional units by multiplying with a combination

of Ti and c to give a distance unit. Since iic = 197.3 MeV- fm (with 1 frn e
cm), in natural units we have
1x
1fm=-

197.3

MeV-' = 5.068 GeV-'

1 GeV

1 fm-' = 197.3 MeV

= 5.068

fm-'.

Hence

(197.3 MeV.fm) = 1.41 fm.

For cross sections we have the dimensions

[u]= [LI2 = [ M y ,
and from (A.4), 1 fm2 = 25.7 GeV-2 in natural units. But 1 b =
100 fm2 and 1 mb = 0.1 fm2, so

1 GeV-2 = 0.3894 mb

1 mb = 2.568 G e T 2

cm2 =

1 fm2 = 10 mb.

Example: A typical hadronic cross section is of order

u _N AT2

T __
1

M:

--

(140)2

MeV-'

If u is to be in fm2, we must multiply by a combination of ti and c with units

MeV2. fm2. This is just h2c2 = ( 197.3)2 MeV2. fm2 and
ii2C2

= (140)2 MeV2

2 fm2 N 20 mb.

Example: In natural units the mean lifetime for the decay Co

(Sakurai, 1967, 84.1)
MA + M c ) ~
T N

+ y is

e2E,"

Since [MI = [El, this has dimension [MI-' and we must multiply the right
side by ti = 6.58 x
MeV. sec to make it dimensionally correct. Using

513

Natural Units

experimental values (MA M E ) = 2307 MeV,

1/40 = 137/4,
7-=-

137 (2307 MeV)2 (6.58 x

4 (74.5 MeV)3

E7 = 74.5 MeV, and n/e2 =

MeVasec)

21 2.9

x 1O-l sec.

It is important t o know the dimensions of various field operators in these

natural units. Assume d = 4 spacetime dimensions; the Lagrangian has the
dimension of mass
[Lagrangian] = [MI,
(A.5)
and the Lagrangian density then has units

The Hamiltonian and Hamiltonian density have the same dimensions as the
Lagrangian and Lagrangian density, respectively, and the action is dimensionless in natural units. From the free field equations (see $2.3), we can then infer
the dimensions of various fields. For a spinor field

for scalar fields

141 = [MI,
and for the photon and massive vector fields

Likewise, for derivative or covariant derivative operators

[a]= [D]= [MI.

(A.lO)

Using these dimensions and (A.6), we can find the dimension of any coupling
constant appearing in the interaction Lagrangian density (see Exercise 6.4).

Example: Consider the Skyrme Lagrangian density (13.94), for which

dimensionless and [fr]= [MI. From the above considerations,
[o]= [MI

(scalar field)

[%I

E~

is

= [MI.

Therefore U and U t are dimensionless, [L,] = [MI, and

a Lagrangian density.

[k]= [MI4, as befits

The preceding equations assume spacetime has d = 4 dimensions. Examples

where d # 4 (see 96.4.5) are considered in Exercises 6.3-6.4.

514

Appendix A

In cosmology one often sets fi = c = kg = 1, where

constant. Then,
1 GeV = 1.2 x 1013 K,

kg

is the Boltzmann

(A.11)

and the gravitational constant G is

(A.12)
where the Planck mass is

M p = 1.2 x lo1 GeV

(A.13)

From (A.4) the corresponding Planck length is

Cp

1
MP

= - = 1.6 x

cm.

(A.14)

Multiplying by 1/c gives the corresponding Planck time

tp = 5.4 x

sec,

(A.15)

and using ( A . l l ) in (A.13) gives the Planck temperature

Tp = 1.4 x

K.

(A.16)